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Set2 Transformer - Lecture notes 1,3-7,19

Circuit analysis (Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology)

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TRANSFORMERS

Dr. Abdul Khaliq

Chapter Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction
2. Types and Construction of Transformers.
3. The Ideal Transformer
4. Theory of Operation of Real Single Phase Transformer
5. The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
6. The Per Unit System of Measurements
7. Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
8. Transformer Taps and Voltage Regulation
9. The Autotransformer
10. Three Phase Transformers

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2.1: Why Transformers are Important

• The first power distribution system in U.S. was 120V dc
system invented by Thomas A. Edison to supply power for
incandescent light bulbs.
• Edison’s first central power station went into operation in New
York city in 1882.
• The power was transmitted at very low voltage level, thus
requiring a very large current to supply significant amount of
power resulting in high power losses.
• To avoid this problem central power stations were located
every few blocks of the city.
• The invention of transformer and concurrent development of
ac power sources eliminated these restrictions forever.

Introduction to Transformers

• A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power from

one voltage level to another voltage level through the action
of magnetic field. The transformer has two windings:
i. Primary winding: The winding connected to the power
source is called the primary winding.
ii. Secondary winding: The winding connected to the load is
called secondary winding.

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2.2: Types of Transformers w. r. t. Core Design

Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

2.2: Types of Transformers w.r.t. Core Design

• With respect to the core of the transformer there are two
types of the transformers:
i. Core type transformer: Winding wrapped around two
sides of the core.
ii. Shell type transformer: This is three legged laminated
core, with the winding wrapped around the center leg.
• Core is made up of laminations with the High voltage
winding outside & Low voltage winding inside.
• Advantages:
i. Easy to insulate H.V. winding from core
ii. Less leakage than if they are at distance from each other.

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Transformer Types w.r.t. its Applications

1. Unit transformer: To step up the voltage at generation.
2. Substation transformer: To step down voltage from
transmission to distribution level.
3. Distribution transformer: Takes distribution voltage and
steps it down to final voltage at which the power is used.
4. Potential transformer: Is used to change the high voltage to
low voltage, but can handle very small current.
5. Current transformer: Is used to change the primary current
to much smaller secondary current but the current is directly
proportional to the primary current.
Types 4 and 5 are used for instrumentation.

Ideal Transformer
Ideal transformer is a lossless
device
Np: no of turns on primary
side
Ns: no of turns on the
secondary side
Then Voltage eq. is:

Where a is the turn ratio, and

the Current eq. is:

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Ideal Transformer
Phasor

• Vp. & Vs have same phase angle

• Ip & Is have same phase angle
• Turn ratio just effects only the magnitude of voltage &
current.

1. If Vp is +ve @ dotted end w.r.t un-dotted end then Vs

will be also +ve @ dotted end.
2. If Ip flows into the dotted end of primary then Is it will
flow out of dotted end of secondary.

Power in Ideal Transformer

 Primary side:

Where θp is the angle between Vp and Ip

 Secondary side:

Where θs is angle between Vs and Is

 Since voltage and current angles are unaffected

for an ideal transformer

Power factor on primary and secondary side is

the same

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Power in Ideal Transformer

For an Ideal Transformer

Output power =Input power
Likewise

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Impedance Transformation Through a Transformer

• With a transformer it is possible to match the magnitude of
the load impedance to a source simply by picking the
proper turn ratio.
• To analyze the circuit replace the portion of circuit on one
side of the transformer by an equivalent circuit with the
same terminal characteristics. This process is known as
referring the first to the second side.

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Class Activity 1: Effect of Transformer on the losses

 Example 2-1: A single phase power system consists of a 480-
V 60 Hz generator supplying a load Zload=4+j3Ω through a
transmission line of impedance Zline=0.18+j0.24Ω. Answer
the following questions about this system.
a) If the power system is exactly as described above what
will the line losses be.
b) Suppose a 1:10 step up transformer is placed at the
generator end of transmission line and 10:1 step down
transformer is placed at the load end of the line, What will
the load voltage be now? what will the transmission line
losses be now?

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Class Activity 1: Effect of Transformer on the losses

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Class Activity 1: Effect of Transformer on the losses

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Real Single Phase Transformer

• Primary connected to an AC source and
secondary is open circuited
• λ is the flux linkage in the coil across which
voltage is being induced.
• Total flux linkage is the sum of the flux
passing through each turn in the coil added
over all turns of the coil.
• However, average flux can be given by:

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The Voltage Ratio Across a Real Transformer

• When the voltage is applied on the primary
side of the transformer then the flux produced
by this voltage is:

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The Voltage Ratio Across a Real Transformer

• Some of this flux produced
in the primary links with the
secondary winding and
some goes into the leakage.
• There is similar division of
flux in the secondary side:

• Thus the Faraday’s law for

the primary winding can be
written as:

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The Voltage Ratio Across a Real Transformer

Like wise for secondary side:

• From eqs. above the primary

and secondary voltages due to
mutual flux are given by:
• The ratio of the primary voltage
producing the mutual flux to the
secondary voltage induced by
the mutual flux is equal to the
turn ratio of the transformer. 19

The Voltage Ratio Across a Real Transformer

• In a good design ØM >> ØLP
and ØM >> ØLS. Therefore,
Ratio of the total voltage on
the primary of transformer to
the ratio of the total voltage
on the secondary of a
transformer is approximately.
Which was the case for the
ideal transformer.
• The smaller the leakage flux,
the closer the transformer will
be to the ideal one.

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The Magnetization Current in Real Transformer

• When AC power is
connected to the
transformer a current
flows even when
secondary is open
circuited.
• This is the current
required to produce the
flux in real ferromagnetic
material and it consists of
two components:
1. Magnetization current
iM, Current required to
produce the flux in the
core of transformer.
2. Core losses current ih+e,
current required for
hystersis and eddy
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current losses.

The Magnetization Current in Real Transformer

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The Magnetization Current in Real Transformer

• If the value of the current required to produce a given flux
is known then it is possible to construct the sketch of
magnetizing current in the winding of the core.
 Observations:
1) im is not sinusoidal
2) Øm reaches max; a small increase in Ø requires very
large increase in im.
3) im lags voltage applied by 90˚.

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The Hysteresis and Eddy Current in Real

Transformer
• This is the current required to supply power to make up the
hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core, known as core
loss current.
• since the eddy current are proportional to the rate of change
of flux. Therefore, the eddy current are largest when the flux
is passing through the 0 wb.

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The Total No Load (Excitation) Current in Real Transformer

• Total no load current is called excitation current which is
sum of magnetization and core loss current.

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The Current Ratio & Dot Convention

• Connect a load on the secondary side of the transformer.
• A current flowing into the dotted end of the transformer
produces a positive mmf.

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The Current Ratio & Dot Convention

• A current flowing into the dotted
end produces +ve mmf, while a
current flowing into the undotted
end produce a –ve mmf.
• If both currents are entering the
dotted end then the mmf will add
to each other.
• If one current enters and the
other one leaves then the mmf
will subtract from each other.
• For a good designed transform, R
should be very small nearly zero,
as long as the core is operating in
unsaturated region.
• In order for mmf to be zero,
current must flow in to the one
dotted end and out of the other
dotted end. 27

The Current Ratio & Dot Convention

 Assumptions to convert a
real transformer into an
ideal transformer.
1. The core must have no
hysteresis or eddy
current.
2. The Magnetization
curve must be an ideal
one.
3. The leakage flux in the
core must be zero,
implying that all the
flux in the core
couples both windings.
4. The resistance of the
transformer winding
must be zero.

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2.5: The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

 An accurate model of the transformer, have to account for
all the losses of the transformer.
1. Copper Losses( ): The resistive heating losses in the
primary and secondary winding of the transformer. They
are proportional to the square of the current in the
winding.
2. Leakage Flux( ): The flux which escapes the
core and pass only through one of the transformer
winding. These escaped fluxes produce a self inductance
in the primary and secondary coil.
3. Eddy Current Losses: These are resistive heating losses
in the core and are proportional to the square of the
voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Hysteresis loses: These are associated with the
rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core
during each half cycle and are nonlinear function of
applied voltage. 29

Driving The Equivalent Circuit Model

1. Copper Losses: The
resistive copper losses are
modeled by placing the a
resistance RP in the primary
and RS in the secondary
winding of the transformer.
2. Leakage Flux: which
escapes the core and pass
only through one of the
transformer winding.
• LP: self inductance of
primary coil
• LS: self inductance of
secondary coil
Therefore, Leakage flux will be
modeled by primary and 30
secondary inductances.

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Driving The Equivalent Circuit Model

3. (Eddy Current +Hysteresis Losses): The core loss current,
ih+e, is proportional to voltage applied to the core and is in
phase with voltage. Therefore, can be modeled by Rc
across primary.
4. The Magnetization Current: Is proportional to the voltage
applied to the core (in unsaturated region) and is lagging
the applied voltage by 90o. So it can be modeled by a
reactance connected across the winding, represented by
XM.
 The XM & RC represent the excitation effect which includes
the core loss current (eddy+hysteresis) and the
magnetization current.
 The XM & RC are placed inside, after LP and RP, because the
voltage applied to the core is input voltage.

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The Final Equivalent Circuit Model

• To analyze practical circuits containing transformers,
it is important to convert the entire circuit to a single
voltage level.
• Therefore the circuit must be referred either to
primary or to its secondary side.

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The Final Equivalent Circuit Model Referred to

One Side of Transformer

I. Referred to Primary II. Referred to Secondary

Side Side

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Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

• Excitation branch adds complexity. However, current through
this branch is very small, as compared to the load current.
• It causes negligible voltage drop in the Rp and Xp and hence
can be neglected.

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The Open Circuit Test

• Rp & Xp are too small as compared to Rc and Xm.
Therefore, significant voltage drops in Rc and Xm,
approximately all the voltage drop across the excitation
impedance
• Easy to look at the admittance and conductance to
calculate Rc and Xm. [Parallel equivalent of Gc and BM].

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The Open Circuit Test

• Magnitude of YE referred to
primary side.
• The P.F. for real
transformer is always
lagging. Therefore: I lags V
by θ
• Finally , compare (i) and
(ii) and you can obtain the
values of RC and XM
directly.

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Short Circuit Test

• In this test the secondary terminals of the transformer are
short circuited.
• Apply a fairly low voltage to primary side, till current in
short circuited winding is equal to rated current.
• Caution: Make sure to keep the primary voltage low,
otherwise you could burn the transformer’s winding.

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Short Circuit Test

• In this test the input
voltage is so low.
Therefore, no current
flows though the
excitation branch.=>
All the voltage drop is
in the series elements
in the circuit.
• The magnitude and
angle of the series
impedance referred to
primary side are given
by:

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Class Activity 2:
Determining Transformer Model’s Parameters
 Example 2-2: The equivalent circuit impedance of a 2-kVA,
8000/240 V. 60 HZ transformer are to be determined. The
open circuit test and short circuit test were performed on
the primary side of the transformer, and the following data
were taken. Find the impedance of the approximate
equivalent circuit referred to primary side, and sketch the
circuit.

Open-circuit test (on primary) Short-circuit test (on primary)

Voc=8000 V Vsc=489 V

Ioc=0.214 A Isc=2.5 A

Poc= 400 W Psc= 240 W

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2.7: Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency

• Due to series impedance in the transformer, the output
voltage of the transformer varies with the load even if
input voltage remains constant.
• The voltage regulation can be calculated at any load.
However, we define full load voltage regulation as a
quantity which compares the output voltage of transformer
at no load with the output voltage at full load to
conveniently compare various transformers.

Since at no load:

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Transformer Voltage Regulation

• Low voltage regulation means less impedance of
the winding. So is mostly desirable.
• However, some times high impedances are used
to reduce the short circuit current.
• Figure 2-18(b) and 2-18(d)

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VR with Lagging P.F.

The voltage regulation of a transformer with lagging loads

must be greater than zero.

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VR with Unity P.F.

The voltage regulation of a transformer with unity loads must be

greater than zero. However, it is a smaller number compared to
lagging P.F. load.
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VR with Leading P.F.

If the secondary current is leading , the secondary voltage can

be actually higher than the referred primary voltage. Which
means a -ve voltage regulation.
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Simplified Voltage Regulation

• Considering a lagging p.f. because this is the practical case

mostly, we will drive an approximate equation for
calculating the primary voltage.

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Transformer Efficiency
In general:

From equivalent circuit we can calculate  easily.

1. Copper losses -in series resistance, Rp and Rs
2. Hystersis losses -accounted for by Rc
3. Eddy current -accounted for by Rc

Therefore, at any given load efficiency can be calculated as:

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2.8: Transformer Taps

• So far we considered turn ratio to be fixed. Practically, almost
all the distribution transformers have taps in the winding
which allows small changes in transformer’s turns ratio in the
field.
• Typically 4 taps are designed, in addition to nominal setting
with spacing of ± 2.5 percent of full load voltage between
them.
• Taps accommodate the variations in local voltages. These taps
normally can not be changed while the power system is
operating and power is being supplied to the load.
• Tap Changing Transformer Under Load (TCUL): It is
transformer which has the ability to change taps while power
is connected to it.

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Class Activity 4: Transformer Taps

Example 2-6: A 500 KVA, 13,200/480 V distribution
transformer has four 2.5% taps on the primary winding.
What are the voltage ratios of transformer at each tap
setting.

+ 5.0% taps 13,860/480

+2.5% taps 13,530/480

Nominal rating 13,200/480

-2.5% taps 12,870/480

-5.0% taps 12,540/480

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Class Activity 3:

 Example 2-5: A 15 kVA, 2300/230-V transformer is to be

tested to determine its excitation branch components, its
series impedance and its voltage regulation. The following
test data have been taken from the primary side of the
transformer.
a) Eq ckt. Referred to HV.
b) Eq ckt. Referred to LV. Open-circuit Short-circuit
c) Full load VR at 0.8 pf test (on test (on
Lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 primary) primary)
leading. Voc=2300 V Vsc=47 V
d) Perform the above using
approximate Eq.
Ioc=0.21 A Isc=6.0 A
e) Plot VR versus load from no
load to full load at 0.8 pf
Lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 Poc= 50 W Psc= 160 W
leading.
f) Efficiency at full load and 49
0.8 pf.

2.9: The Auto Transformer

• Some times it is desirable to change voltage levels by only
small amount. For example from 110 V to 120 V or 13.2 kv to
13.8 kv.
• In this case it is wasteful and excessively expensive to wind a
transformer with two full windings each rated at about the
same voltage and a special purpose transformer called
Autotransformer is used.
• The voltage at the output of the whole transformer is the sum
of the voltage on the first winding and voltage on the second
winding.
• The winding across which both the primary and secondary
voltages appear is called Common Winding and the smaller
winding which is connected in series with the common winding
and across which only one voltage (primary/secondary)
appears is called Series Winding.
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The Auto Transformer

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A Step-down Auto Transformer

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The Auto Transformer

Voltage Relationship Current Relationship
between two sides of between two sides of
the transformer the transformer

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Application of Auto Transformers

• Autotransformer is used when the turn ratio is nearly equal to
1 and where there is no objection to electrical connection
between the primary and secondary winding. Hence such
transformers are used:
1) To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct the
voltage drop.
2) As autotransformer to give 50 to 60 % of full voltage to
an induction motor during starting.
3) As furnace transformers for giving convenient supply to
suit the furnace winding from a 230 V supply.

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Issues to Consider while using the Auto Transformer

 Since there is only one winding both for the primary and the
secondary side. Therefore, the winding has to be designed
based on the higher voltage and current ratings.
 The autotransformer can’t be used for the applications where
the electrical isolation is desired because there is a physical
connection between the primary and the secondary circuits,
so the electrical isolation of the two windings is lost.
 The common practice is to use autotransformer whenever the
two voltages are fairly close to each other.
 The autotransformer is also used as variable transformer,
where the low voltage taps move up and down the winding.

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Three Phase Transformers

 The major power generation, transmission, and distribution
systems are three phase systems. Therefore, a it is necessary
to understand the design and operation of a three phase
transformer. A three phase transformer can be constructed in
one of the two ways:
i. Simply take three single phase transformers and connect
them in three phase bank.
ii. Make a three phase transformer consisting of three sets of
windings wrapped around a common core.
 A single three phase transformer is the preferred practice
today because it is lighter, smaller, cheaper, and slightly
more efficient.

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Three Phase Transformer Bank

Three phase transformers Three phase transformers

bank with independent bank on a single three
transformers. legged core.

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Three Phase Transformer Connections

 The Primary and secondary winding of a three phase
transformer can be independently connected in either wye (Y)
or delta (). This gives a total of four possible connections for
a three phase transformer.
1. Y-Y
2. Y-
3. -Y
4. -
 Any single transformer in the bank behaves exactly like a
stand alone single phase transformer. Thus the impedance,
voltage regulation, efficiency, and similar calculations for
three phase transformer can be done on per phase basis
using the technique established for single phase transformer.

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Three Phase Transformer Y Connections

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Three Phase Transformer  Connections

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Three Phase Transformer Connections

1) Y-Y

2) Y-

3) -Y

4) -

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Instrument Transformers: CT & VT/PT

 Two special purpose transformers used in the power
system are Potential Transformer (PT) and Current
Transformer (CT).
I. A potential transformer is specially wound transformer with
the high voltage primary and low secondary winding. It has
very low power rating because its sole purpose is to provide
a sample of power system voltage to the instruments
monitoring it. It must be very accurate to get the true
value of primary voltage because based on that protection
and control decisions are taken.
II. A Current Transformer samples the current in the line and
reduces it to a safe and measurable level. The current
transformer consists of a secondary winding wrapped
around a ferromagnetic ring, with the single primary line
running through the center of the coil.

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Instrument Transformers: CT & VT/PT

I. Current Transformer (CT) II. Voltage /Potential

Transformer (VT/PT)

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Characteristics of a CT
• Thus the winding in a CT is loosely coupled and mutual
flux is smaller than the leakage flux.
• The conventional voltage and current equation does not
apply for a CT. However, the secondary current is
proportional to the much larger primary current and the
device can provide the sample of the line’s current for
measurement, monitoring, protection, and control
purposes.
• Typical CT ratio might be 600:5, 800:5, 1000:5. A 5
amps rating is standard on the secondary of the
transformer.
• It is important to keep the CT short-circuited all the
time. Because
• Extremely high voltage can appear across the open
terminals, mostly there is an interlock on the secondary
side.
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Questions to Ponder
 Why the discovery of the transformer accelerated the
development of the use of electricity ?
 Why the iron or magnetization losses are more important
than the losses caused by the winding resistance ?
 Why the transformer has to be cooled ? How it is done ?
 What is the connection of the transformer that supplies your
house and where is it ?
 What is an Isolation transformer?

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