’‘”–ƒ–Ž›ǡ –Š‡ ‹–‡–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‡ˆ‘”• ‹• ‘•–

Mathematical †‡ϐ‹‹–‡Ž› not –‘ ‡“—ƒ–‡ ͳ ™‹–Š Ǯ’”‘‘ˆǯ ‘” –‘ –”‡ƒ–
Ǯ’”‘‘ˆǯ ƒ• ƒ •‡’ƒ”ƒ–‡ –‡ƒ…Š‹‰ –‘’‹…Ǥ Š‡ ‡’Šƒ•‹• ‹•
argument, ‹–‡†‡†–‘„‡‘•–—†‡–•„‡‹‰ƒ„Ž‡–‘‘™ƒ†—•‡
…‘””‡…–ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ƒ†ƒ”‰—‡–ƒ…”‘••–Š‡
language and ™Š‘Ž‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘–‡–Ǥ ˆ …‘—”•‡ ‘‡ ™ƒ› –‘ ‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡
–Š‹• ‹• –Š”‘—‰Š ‡‰ƒ‰‡‡– ™‹–Š ˆ‘”ƒŽ ’”‘‘ˆǤ • •—…Šǡ
proof ‹– ‹• ‹’‘”–ƒ– –Šƒ– •–—†‡–• ƒ”‡ ‡š’‘•‡† –‘ ƒ ”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ
‡šƒ’Ž‡•ǡ ’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž› ‘‡• ”‡“—‹”‹‰ Ž‹––Ž‡ ‘”‡ –Šƒ
AS/A LEVEL 2017 Š‹‰Š‡” Ž‡˜‡Ž
ǡ –‘ Š‡Ž’ ™‹–Š –Š‡‹” †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ‘ˆ
‘™Ž‡†‰‡ǡ •‹ŽŽ• ƒ† —†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š
ͳǤ Š‹• ™‹ŽŽ ‡ƒ„Ž‡ •–—†‡–• –‘ ƒ‡ ’”‘‰”‡•• ‹
„›Elizabeth M. Glaister and Paul Glaister
†‡‘•–”ƒ–‹‰ –Š‡ ‘˜‡”ƒ”…Š‹‰ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ƒ† •‹ŽŽ•ǡ
™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡ –Š‡ –‘ „‡ ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ǡ ƒŽ‘‰ ™‹–Š ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†
The reformed Mathematics AS/A level Content (ref.1) for
ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ –Š‹‹‰ ƒ† —†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ǡ ƒ…”‘•• –Š‡
ϐ‹”•––‡ƒ…Š‹‰‹ʹͲͳ͹™ƒ•’—„Ž‹•Š‡†„›–Š‡‡’ƒ”–‡–
™Š‘Ž‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ †‡–ƒ‹Ž‡† ‘–‡– ƒ• •–ƒ–‡† ‹ ”‡ˆǤ ͳǡ ˆ‘”
ˆ‘”†—…ƒ–‹‘ȋ‰Žƒ†Ȍ‹’”‹ŽʹͲͳ͸ǤŠ‡‘–‡–•–ƒ–‡•
‡šƒ’Ž‡–‘…ƒŽ…—Ž—•ǡ–”‹‰‘‘‡–”›ǡƒ†•‘‘Ǥ
–Šƒ– ”‡ˆ‘”‡† Ȁ Ž‡˜‡Ž •’‡…‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘• ‹ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…•
—•– ”‡“—‹”‡ •–—†‡–• –‘ †‡‘•–”ƒ–‡ ƒ ™‹†‡ ”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ Š‹• ƒ”–‹…Ž‡ ’”‘˜‹†‡• ƒ ”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‹˜‘Ž˜‹‰
‘˜‡”ƒ”…Š‹‰ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ƒ† •‹ŽŽ•ǡ ƒ† –Šƒ– –Š‡•‡ —•– †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –›’‡• ‘ˆ ’”‘‘ˆ ƒ† ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ ƒ”‰—‡–ǡ
„‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†ǡƒŽ‘‰™‹–Šƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ–Š‹‹‰ ™‹–Š –Š‡ ƒ‹ ‘ˆ •—’’‘”–‹‰ •–—†‡–• –ƒ‹‰ –Š‡‹” ϐ‹”•–
ƒ† —†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ǡ ƒ…”‘•• –Š‡ ™Š‘Ž‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ †‡–ƒ‹Ž‡† •–‡’• ‹–‘ –Š‹• ˜‹–ƒŽ ‘˜‡”ƒ”…Š‹‰ –Š‡‡ ‹ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…•Ǥ
‘–‡–ǡƒ†–Šƒ––Š‡–Š”‡‡Overarching Themes: •‹†‡ˆ”‘Ž‡ƒ”‹‰ƒ„‘—–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–techniques ‘ˆ’”‘‘ˆǡ
• ͳƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽƒ”‰—‡–ǡŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ƒ†’”‘‘ˆ ƒ† †‡˜‡Ž‘’‹‰ problem solving ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š‡•ǡ –Š‡ ƒ‹
’—”’‘•‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‡ˆ‘”• ‹• –‘ ‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡ •–—†‡–• –‘
• ʹƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ’”‘„Ž‡•‘Ž˜‹‰ †‡˜‡Ž‘’Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š–ǡƒ†–‘„‡ƒ„Ž‡–‘’”‘˜‹†‡…Ž‡ƒ”
• ͵ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ ƒ”‰—‡–• ‹ •—’’‘”– ‘ˆ ƒ ”‡•—Ž–ǡ —•‹‰
…‘””‡…–ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ‘–ƒ–‹‘ƒ†Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡Ǥ‰ƒ‹ǡ–Š‹•
—•–’‡”‡ƒ–‡–Š‡‘–‡–Ǥ
‹•–Š‡’”‹ƒ”›’—”’‘•‡‘ˆͳǤ
 ”‡•’‡…– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ϐ‹”•– ˜‡”ƒ”…Š‹‰ Š‡‡ǡ –Š”‡‡
•’‡…‹ϐ‹… ƒ‹• ƒ† ‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡• ”‡“—‹”‡† ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‡ˆ‘”‡† ‡ˆ‘”‡ …‘•‹†‡”‹‰ •‘‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡•ǡ ™‡ ‘–‡ –Šƒ– –Š‡
“—ƒŽ‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ –Šƒ– Ȁ Ž‡˜‡Ž •’‡…‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘• ‹ relevant Detailed content statements ‹ ”‡ˆǤ ͳ ‹…Ž—†‡
ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…•—•–‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡•–—†‡–•–‘ǣ ”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡ –‘ ǯ’”‘‘ˆǯǡ ƒ• •Š‘™ „‡Ž‘™ǡ ‹ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡”‡ ‹•
‡š’Ž‹…‹–”‡ˆ‡”‡…‡–‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡––›’‡•‘ˆ’”‘‘ˆǤ
• ”‡ƒ•‘Ž‘‰‹…ƒŽŽ›ƒ†”‡…‘‰‹œ‡‹…‘””‡…–”‡ƒ•‘‹‰Ǣ
‡•‡‡–Š‡Ǯ…Žƒ••‹…ǯ‡šƒ’Ž‡•…‹–‡†‹–Š‡Detailed content:
• ‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹œ‡ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽŽ›Ǣ
’”‘‘ˆ‘ˆ–Š‡Ǯ‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‹–›‘ˆ ʹ ǯƒ†Ǯ‹ϐ‹‹–›‘ˆ’”‹‡•ǯǡ
• …‘•–”—…–ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ’”‘‘ˆ•Ǥ „—– –Š‡ Ǯƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘ –‘ —ˆƒ‹Ž‹ƒ” ’”‘‘ˆ•ǯǤ Š‹Ž‡ ‹– ‹•
Š‡ ‘–‡– ’‡”–‹‡– –‘ –Š‡•‡ ‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡• —†‡” ͳ ‹• –Š‹•Žƒ•–’Š”ƒ•‡–Šƒ–™‹ŽŽ…‘…‡”–‡ƒ…Š‡”•ƒ†•–—†‡–•ǡ
•‡–‘—–„‡Ž‘™ȋ‹boldȌƒ†ƒ’’Ž‹‡•–‘„‘–Šƒ†Ž‡˜‡Ž Š‘’‡ˆ—ŽŽ› ’”‘˜‹†‹‰ •‘‡ ‹†‡ƒ• ‘ˆ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ‘ˆ ™Šƒ–
ȋ‡š…‡’–ͳǤͶǡ™Š‹…Š‹•‘–‹„‘Ž†ƒ†ƒ’’Ž‹‡•–‘Ž‡˜‡Ž ‹‰Š– …‘•–‹–—–‡ ǯ—ˆƒ‹Ž‹ƒ” ’”‘‘ˆǯ ‹‰Š– ƒŽŽƒ› •‘‡ ‘ˆ
‘Ž›Ȍǣ the concerns.

OT1 Mathematical argument, language and proof

‘™Ž‡†‰‡Ȁ‹ŽŽ
OT1.1 Construct and present mathematical arguments through appropriate use of diagrams; sketching
graphs; logical deduction; precise statements involving correct use of symbols and connecting
Žƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ǡ ‹…Ž—†‹‰ǣ …‘•–ƒ–ǡ …‘‡ˆϐ‹…‹‡–ǡ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ǡ ‡“—ƒ–‹‘ǡ ˆ—…–‹‘ǡ ‹†‡–‹–›ǡ ‹†‡šǡ –‡”ǡ
variable.
ͳǤʹ †‡”•–ƒ†ƒ†—•‡ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽŽƒ‰—ƒ‰‡ƒ†•›–ƒšƒ••‡–‘—–‹–Š‡…‘–‡–Ǥ
OT1.3 Understand and use language and symbols associated with set theory, as set out in the content.
’’Ž›–‘•‘Ž—–‹‘•‘ˆ‹‡“—ƒŽ‹–‹‡•ƒ†’”‘„ƒ„‹Ž‹–›.
ͳǤͶ †‡”•–ƒ†ƒ†—•‡–Š‡†‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘‘ˆƒˆ—…–‹‘Ǣ†‘ƒ‹ƒ†”ƒ‰‡‘ˆˆ—…–‹‘•Ǥ
OT1.5 ‘’”‡Š‡† ƒ† …”‹–‹“—‡ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…ƒŽ ƒ”‰—‡–•ǡ ’”‘‘ˆ• ƒ† Œ—•–‹ϐ‹…ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ‡–Š‘†• ƒ†
formulae, including those relating to applications of mathematics.

16 Mathematics in School, September 2017 The MA website www.m-a.org.uk

౨”‘‘ˆ

Content
A1 Understand and use the structure of mathematical proof, proceeding from given assumptions
through a series of logical steps to a conclusion; use methods of proof, including proof by deduction,
’”‘‘ˆ„›‡šŠƒ—•–‹‘Ǥ
‹•’”‘‘ˆ„›…‘—–‡”Ǧ‡šƒ’Ž‡Ǥ
Proof by contradiction (including proof of the irrationality of 2  ƒ† –Š‡ ‹ϐ‹‹–› ‘ˆ ’”‹‡•ǡ ƒ†
application to unfamiliar proofs).

‡ˆ‘”‡ ™‡ ‰‹˜‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• ˆ‘” ”‡ƒ†‡”• –‘ —•‡ ™‹–Š –Š‡‹” †‹˜‹†‹‰ „› ͵ ‹• ʹǤ Š‡ •‡– ‘ˆ ‹–‡‰‡”• …ƒ –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ „‡
•–—†‡–•ǡ’‘••‹„Ž›ƒ•ƒˆ‘…—•ˆ‘”†‹•…—••‹‘Ȁ‡š’Ž‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ †‹˜‹†‡† ‹–‘ –Š”‡‡ ‘Ǧ‘˜‡”Žƒ’’‹‰ …ƒ•‡• ™Š‹…Š ƒ”‡
™‡‹…Ž—†‡‡šƒ’Ž‡•‘ˆ‡ƒ…Š‘ˆˆ‘—”Ǯ‡–Š‘†•‘ˆ’”‘‘ˆȀ ‡šŠƒ—•–‹˜‡Ǥ
†‹•’”‘‘ˆǯƒ•‰‹˜‡‹–Š‡‘–‡–•–ƒ–‡‡–ƒ„‘˜‡Ǥ
Case 1: If n = 3m for some m ‫א‬Ժǡ–Š‡n3 = (3m)3αʹ͹m3
‘” •‘‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• –Š‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰ †‡ϐ‹‹–‹‘• ƒ”‡ = 9(3m3Ȍǡ™Š‹…Š‹•ƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͻǤ
”‡“—‹”‡†ǣ
Case 2: If n = 3m – 1 for some m ‫א‬Ժǡ–Š‡n3 =(3m – 1)3 =
The set of natural numbers ‹•†‡‘–‡†„›Գαȓͳ, ʹ, 3, . . . }.
ʹ͹m3Ȃʹ͹mʹ + 9m – 1 = 9(3m3 – 3mʹ + mȌȂͳǡ™Š‹…Š‹•ͳ
The set of integers ‹•†‡‘–‡†„›ԺαȓͲ, ±1, ±ʹ, ±3, . . . }.
Ž‡••–Šƒƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͻǤ
The set of positive integers ‹•†‡‘–‡†„›Ժ+ αȓͳ, ʹ, 3, . . . }.
The set of rational —„‡”•‹•†‡‘–‡†„› Case 3: If n = 3m – ʹˆ‘”•‘‡m ‫א‬Ժǡ–Š‡n3 = (3m – ʹȌ3 =
p ʹ͹m3 – ͷͶmʹ Ϊ͵͸m – 8 = 9(3m3 – ͸mʹ ΪͶm – ͳȌΪͳǡ™Š‹…Š
Էαȓ : p ‫א‬Ժ, q ‫א‬Ժ+}.
q ‹•ͳ‘”‡–Šƒƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͻǤ
The set of real —„‡”• ‹• †‡‘–‡† „› Թ ƒ† …ƒ „‡ Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡–Š‡”‡•—Ž–‹•–”—‡ˆ‘”ƒŽŽ‹–‡‰‡”•nǡƒ•”‡“—‹”‡†Ǥ
–Š‘—‰Š–‘ˆƒ•ƒŽŽ—„‡”•‘ƒnumber line.
”‡ƒŽ—„‡”–Šƒ–‹•not ƒ”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ—„‡”‹•…ƒŽŽ‡†ƒ ͵Ǥ౨šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆ†‹•’”‘‘ˆ„›…‘—–‡”Ǧ‡šƒ’Ž‡
irrational —„‡”Ǥ
A prime —„‡” ‹• ƒ ’‘•‹–‹˜‡ ‹–‡‰‡” p > 1 that has no ‹•’”‘˜‡ –Š‡ •–ƒ–‡‡– –Šƒ–ǣ ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ n ‫ א‬Ժǡ –Š‡ ‹–‡‰‡”
’‘•‹–‹˜‡‹–‡‰‡”ˆƒ…–‘”•‘–Š‡”–Šƒͳƒ†p itself. f(n) = nʹ Ϋn Ϊͳͳ‹•’”‹‡Ǥ
A square —„‡”‹•ƒ—„‡”‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘”nʹ™Š‡”‡n ‫א‬ԺǤ Proof
A cube —„‡”‹•ƒ—„‡”‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘”n3 ™Š‡”‡n ‫א‬Ժ.
‡ †‹•’”‘˜‡ –Š‹• •–ƒ–‡‡– „› ϐ‹†‹‰ ƒ ‡šƒ’Ž‡ ˆ‘”
ͳǤ౨šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆ’”‘‘ˆ„›†‡†—…–‹‘ ™Š‹…Š –Š‡ •–ƒ–‡‡– †‘‡• ‘– Š‘Ž†ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• …ƒŽŽ‡† ƒ
counter-example.
Prove that for all n ‫א‬Ժǡ‹ˆn ‹•‘††ǡ–Š‡nʹ is odd.
While f(nȌ ‹• ’”‹‡ ˆ‘” •‘‡ ˜ƒŽ—‡• ‘ˆ n ƒ• •Š‘™ ‹
Proof
–Š‡ƒ„Ž‡ǡ™Š‡n αͳͳǡf(11) = 11ʹȂͳͳΪͳͳαͳͳέͳͳǡ
Let n „‡ƒ‘††‹–‡‰‡”ǡ–Š‡n αʹk + 1 for some k ‫א‬ԺǤ ƒ†Š‡…‡‘–’”‹‡ǡ•‘–Šƒ––Š‡•–ƒ–‡‡–‹•not –”—‡ƒ•
there exists an n ‫א‬Ժǡƒ‡Ž›n αͳͳǡˆ‘”™Š‹…Šf(n) is not
Therefore nʹαȋʹk + 1)ʹ αͶkʹ ΪͶkΪͳαʹȋʹkʹΪʹk) + 1. ’”‹‡Ǥ
‘™ǡ •‹…‡ k ‫ א‬Ժ ™‡ …ƒ ™”‹–‡ nʹ α ʹm Ϊ ͳǡ ™Š‡”‡ Š‹• ’”‘˜‹†‡• ƒ …‘—–‡”Ǧ‡šƒ’Ž‡ –‘ –Š‡ •–ƒ–‡‡–ǡ ƒ†
m αʹkʹ Ϊʹk ‫א‬Ժǡƒ†Š‡…‡nʹ ‹•‘††ǡƒ•”‡“—‹”‡†Ǥ Š‡…‡™‡Šƒ˜‡†‹•’”‘˜‡†–Š‡•–ƒ–‡‡–ǡƒ•”‡“—‹”‡†Ǥ

ʹǤ౨šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆ’”‘‘ˆ„›‡šŠƒ—•–‹‘ ͶǤ౨šƒ’Ž‡‘ˆ’”‘‘ˆ„›…‘–”ƒ†‹…–‹‘
”‘˜‡ –Šƒ– ‡˜‡”› ‹–‡‰‡” –Šƒ– ‹• ƒ ’‡”ˆ‡…– …—„‡ ‹• ‡‹–Š‡” Prove that for all n ‫א‬Գǡ‹ˆͶn Ϋͳ‹•’”‹‡ǡ–Š‡n is odd.
ƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͻǡ‘”ͳŽ‡••ǡ‘”ͳ‘”‡–Šƒƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͻǤ
Proof
Proof
‡’”‘˜‡–Š‹•„›…‘–”ƒ†‹…–‹‘ǡƒ•ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™•Ǥ
ƒ…Š…—„‡—„‡”‹•–Š‡…—„‡‘ˆ•‘‡‹–‡‰‡”nǤ˜‡”›
‹–‡‰‡”‹•‡‹–Š‡”ƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆ͵‘”‹•‘‡Ž‡••‘”–™‘Ž‡•• —’’‘•‡–Šƒ––Š‹•‹•‘––Š‡…ƒ•‡ǡ‹Ǥ‡Ǥ–Šƒ–Ͷn Ϋͳ‹•’”‹‡ǡ
–Šƒƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆ͵•‹…‡–Š‡ƒš‹—”‡ƒ‹†‡”™Š‡ ™Š‡”‡n ‫א‬Գǡƒ†n is even.

n –3 Ȃʹ –1 Ͳ 1 ʹ 3 Ͷ 5 ͸ ͹ 8 9 ͳͲ
f(n) ʹ͵ ͳ͹ 13 11 11 13 ͳ͹ ʹ͵ 31 Ͷͳ 53 ͸͹ 83 ͳͲͳ

Mathematics in School, September 2017 The MA website www.m-a.org.uk 17

–Š‹•…ƒ•‡ǡn αʹk for some k ‫א‬Գǡƒ†Š‡…‡Ͷn ΫͳαͶʹk Ϋͳ ʹʹǤ ‘”ƒŽŽ”‡ƒŽ—„‡”•x, yǡʹx ʹy αʹxy.
αȋͶk)ʹ ΫͳαȋͶk ΫͳȌȋͶk + 1). ʹ͵Ǥ For all n ‫א‬Ժǡ‹ˆn ‹•‘††ǡ–Š‡n3 is odd.
ʹͶǤ For all n ‫א‬Գǡ‹ˆͶn Ϋͳ‹•’”‹‡ǡ–Š‡n is odd.
‘™‡˜‡”ǡ•‹…‡k ‫א‬Գǡ™‡Šƒ˜‡–Šƒ–„‘–ŠͶk Ϋͳ, Ͷk Ϊͳ‫א‬Գ ʹͷǤ For all m, n ‫א‬Ժǡ‹ˆmn ‹•‡˜‡ǡ–Š‡‡‹–Š‡”m or n is
ƒ†Ͷk Ϋͳ, Ͷk + 1 > ͳǡƒ†Š‡…‡Ͷn ΫͳŠƒ•ƒ–Ž‡ƒ•––™‘ even.
ˆƒ…–‘”•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒͳǡ™Š‹…Š…‘–”ƒ†‹…–•–Š‡ˆƒ…– ʹ͸Ǥ For all n ‫א‬Գǡ‹ˆʹn Ϋͳ‹•’”‹‡ǡ–Š‡n ‹•’”‹‡Ǥ
–Šƒ–Ͷn Ϋͳ‹•’”‹‡Ǥ ʹ͹Ǥ For all a ‫ א‬Է ƒ† ƒŽŽ ‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ —„‡”• bǡ a + b is
irrational.
Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡‘—”ƒ••—’–‹‘–Šƒ–n ‹•‡˜‡‹•‹…‘””‡…–ǡƒ† ʹͺǤ If a + b > ͳͲͲǡ–Š‡‡‹–Š‡”a > ͷͲ‘”b > ͷͲǤ
hence n —•–„‡‘††ǡƒ•”‡“—‹”‡†Ǥ ʹͻǤ For all a ‫א‬Էǡƒ†ƒŽŽ‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ—„‡”•bǡ–Š‡ab is
irrational.
͵ͲǤ Š‡”‡‹•‘Žƒ”‰‡•–‡˜‡‹–‡‰‡”Ǥ
šƒ’Ž‡• 31. ξʹΪξ͸δξͳͷǤ
͵ʹǤ ξ͸ΫξʹεͳǤ
‡ˆ‘”‡ •–ƒ”–‹‰ –Š‡•‡ǡ ”‡…ƒŽŽ ‘Ž›ƒǯ• ˆ‘—”Ǧ’‘‹– ’Žƒ ˆ‘” 33. For all n ‫א‬Գǡ‹ˆnʹ ‹•‡˜‡ǡ–Š‡n is even.
•‘Ž˜‹‰ƒ›–›’‡‘ˆ’”‘„Ž‡ǣ ͵ͶǤ For all n ‫ א‬Գǡ ‹ˆ nʹ ‹• ƒ —Ž–‹’Ž‡ ‘ˆ ͵ǡ –Š‡ n is a
—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆ͵Ǥ
ȋ‹ȌԘ—†‡”•–ƒ†–Š‡’”‘„Ž‡Ǣ 35. For all n ‫א‬Գǡ‹ˆn = m3 Ϋm for some m ‫א‬Գǡ–Š‡n is
ȋ‹‹ȌԘ†‡˜‹•‡ƒ’ŽƒǢ ƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆ͸Ǥ
͵͸Ǥ If n, k ƒ”‡ ’‘•‹–‹˜‡ ‹–‡‰‡”•ǡ –Š‡ nk Ϋ n ‹• ƒŽ™ƒ›•
ȋ‹‹‹ȌԘ‡š‡…—–‡–Š‡’ŽƒǢƒ† †‹˜‹•‹„Ž‡„›k.
͵͹Ǥ ‡–™‡‡ƒ›–™‘rational —„‡”•–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ‘–Š‡”
ȋ‹˜ȌԘŽ‘‘„ƒ…Ǥ
rational —„‡”Ǥ
In each case either prove or disprove ȋ„› ϐ‹†‹‰ ƒ 38. Š‡”‡‡š‹•–•ƒ”‡ƒŽ—„‡”a •—…Š–Šƒ–aʹ αʹǤȋ‹–ǣ
counter-example) the given statement. ”ƒ™ƒ”‹‰Š–Ǧƒ‰Ž‡†–”‹ƒ‰Ž‡ǤȌ
39. If n ‫ א‬Գ –Š‡”‡ ‡š‹•–• ƒ ”‡ƒŽ —„‡” a •—…Š –Šƒ–
1. For all n ‫א‬Գǡ‹ˆn ‹•‘††ǡ–Š‡nʹ is odd. aʹ = nǤ ȋ‹–ǣ ”ƒ™ ƒ …‹”…Ž‡ ‘ˆ †‹ƒ‡–‡” n + 1 and
ʹǤ For all n ‫א‬Գǡ‹ˆnʹ ‹•‘††ǡ–Š‡n is odd. –Š‡ ’‡”’‡†‹…—Žƒ” –Š”‘—‰Š ƒ ’‘‹– ‘ –Š‡ †‹ƒ‡–‡”
3. For all n ‫א‬Գǡn ‹•–Š‡•—‘ˆ•“—ƒ”‡•‘ˆ–™‘ƒ–—”ƒŽ ™Š‹…Š†‹˜‹†‡•–Š‡†‹ƒ‡–‡”‹–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘n : 1.)
—„‡”•Ǥ ͶͲǤ ξʹ‹•‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽǤ
ͶǤ Š‡•—‘ˆ–™‘‘††—„‡”•‹•‡˜‡Ǥ ͶͳǤ There exists irrational —„‡”• a, b •—…Š –Šƒ– ab is
5. Š‡•—‘ˆ–™‘‡˜‡—„‡”•‹•‡˜‡Ǥ ʹ
”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽǤȋ‹–ǣ‘•‹†‡” ʹ .)
͸Ǥ Š‡•—‘ˆƒ‡˜‡—„‡”ƒ†ƒ‘††—„‡”‹•
ͶʹǤ ‡–™‡‡ƒ›–™‘real —„‡”•–Š‡”‡‹•ƒirrational
odd.
—„‡”Ǥ
͹Ǥ Š‡’”‘†—…–‘ˆ–™‘‘††—„‡”•‹•‘††Ǥ
Ͷ͵Ǥ ξ͵‹•‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽǤ
8. For all n‫א‬Գǡ‹ˆn‹•‡˜‡ǡ–Š‡ͻnʹΪ͸n‹•ƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡
ͶͶǤ Š‡ ’”‘†—…– ‘ˆ –™‘ rational —„‡”• ‹• ƒŽ™ƒ›•
‘ˆͳʹǤ
rational.
9. Š‡•—‘ˆ–™‘…‘•‡…—–‹˜‡‘††—„‡”•‹•‡“—ƒŽ–‘
ͶͷǤ Š‡ ’”‘†—…– ‘ˆ –™‘ irrational —„‡”• ‹• ƒŽ™ƒ›•
–Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡‘ˆ–™‘•“—ƒ”‡—„‡”•Ǥ
irrational.
ͳͲǤ ›ƒ–—”ƒŽ—„‡”‰”‡ƒ–‡”–Šƒͳȋ•‘ʹ, 3, Ͷ, . . . ) has Ͷ͸Ǥ ‘” ƒŽŽ ”‡ƒŽ —„‡”• u, vǡ ‹ˆ Ͳ δ u, v δ ͳǡ –Š‡
ƒ’”‹‡ˆƒ…–‘”Ǥ
11. Š‡’”‘†—…–‘ˆ–™‘…‘•‡…—–‹˜‡‹–‡‰‡”•‹•‡˜‡Ǥ u v
δͳǤ
ͳʹǤ Š‡”‡ƒ”‡‹ϐ‹‹–‡Ž›ƒ›’”‹‡—„‡”•Ǥ 1  uv
13. ‘”ƒŽŽ’‘•‹–‹˜‡”‡ƒŽ—„‡”•aǡbǡ…•—…Š–Šƒ–ab = cǡ 2
Ͷ͹Ǥ ξͶ ‫ א‬Է ‹• ‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽǤ ȋ‘–‡ǣ ξͶ α ʹ α and so is
then aζξc or bζξc. 1
ͳͶǤ For all n ‫א‬Ժǡ–Š‡‹–‡‰‡”f(n) = nʹ Ϋn Ϊͳͳ‹•’”‹‡Ǥ …Ž‡ƒ”Ž›”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽǨ‘—”…ŠƒŽŽ‡‰‡‹•–‘attempt to prove
15. For all m, n ‫א‬Ժǡ‹ˆmʹ + nʹ ‹•‡˜‡ǡ–Š‡m + n is even. –Š‡ ‘”‹‰‹ƒŽ •–ƒt‡‡– „› –”›‹‰ –‘ —•‡ –Š‡ •ƒ‡
ͳ͸Ǥ For all n ‫ א‬Գǡ –Š‡ •— ‘ˆ n …‘•‡…—–‹˜‡ ƒ–—”ƒŽ ’”‘‘ˆ„›…‘–”ƒ†‹…–‹‘ƒ”‰—‡––Šƒ–›‘—™‘—Ž†ˆ‘”
—„‡”•‹•ǣ ’”‘˜‹‰–Šƒ–ξʹ‹•‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒ†‹†‡–‹ˆ›™Š‡”‡–Š‡
ԙȋƒȌԘ‡˜‡‹ˆn ‹•ƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͶǢ ƒ”‰—‡–ˆƒ‹Ž•‹–Š‹•…ƒ•‡ƒ•›‘—Š‘’‡‹–™‘—Ž††‘ǤȌ
ԙȋ„ȌԘ‘††‹ˆn ‹•‡˜‡„—–not ƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͶǢ ͶͺǤ ˜‡”› ‹–‡‰‡” –Šƒ– ‹• ƒ ’‡”ˆ‡…– …—„‡ ‹• ‡‹–Š‡” ƒ
—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͻǡ‘”ͳŽ‡••ǡ‘”ͳ‘”‡–Šƒƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆͻǤ
ԙȋ…ȌԘ†‹˜‹•‹„Ž‡„›n if n is odd. ͶͻǤ ‘” ƒŽŽ ”‡ƒŽ —„‡”• a, b, cǡ ‹ˆ a + b + c α Ͳǡ –Š‡
ͳ͹Ǥ If x ‹•ƒ”‡ƒŽ—„‡”•—…Š–Šƒ–εͲǡx
x 2 –1 βΫʹǡ–Š‡ ab + bc + ca ζͲǤ
either x > ͳ‘”Ϋʹ< x < ΫͳǤ x 2 ͷͲǤ ‘” ƒŽŽ ‘Ǧ‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡ ”‡ƒŽ —„‡”• a, bǡ –Š‡
18. ‘’‘•‹–‹˜‡”‡ƒŽ—„‡”a ‡š‹•–••—…Š–Šƒ–a + 1 δ ʹǤ 1
(a + bȌη ab .
19. ‘ ‹–‡‰‡” n ‡š‹•–• •—…Š –Šƒ– Ͷn Ϊ ͵ ‹• ƒ •“—ƒ”‡
a 2
—„‡”Ǥ 51. For all n ‫א‬Ժǡnʹ + 3n Ϊ͹‹•‘††Ǥ
ʹͲǤ ‘”ƒŽŽ‘Ǧ‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡”‡ƒŽ—„‡”•a, b, cǡ‹ˆaʹ + bʹ = cʹǡ ͷʹǤ For all p ‫ א‬Էǡ p β Ͳǡ ƒ† ƒŽŽ ‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ• qǡ pq is
then a + b ηc. irrational.
ʹͳǤ For all n ‫א‬Ժǡn(n + 1) is even. 53. For all n ‫א‬Գǡnʹ Ϋn ‹•ƒ—Ž–‹’Ž‡‘ˆ͵Ǥ

18 Mathematics in School, September 2017 The MA website www.m-a.org.uk

 ͷͶǤ Š‡•“—ƒ”‡‘ˆƒ›ƒ–—”ƒŽ—„‡”‹•‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘”͵k ‹‹Žƒ”Ž›ǡ™Š‡™ƒ•–Š‡Žƒ•––‹‡ǡƒ†™Š‡‹•–Š‡‡š–
or 3k + 1 for some k ‫א‬ԳǤ –‹‡–Šƒ––Š”‡‡Ǯ’”‹‡›‡ƒ”•ǯ‹ƒ”‘™Šƒ˜‡–Š‹•’”‘’‡”–›ǫ
55. There are no ƒ–—”ƒŽ —„‡”• m, n ˆ‘” ™Š‹…Š Š‡ Žƒ•– –‹‡ –Š‡ Žƒ––‡” ‘……—””‡† ™ƒ• Œ—•– ƒˆ–‡” ‡”ƒ–
mʹΫnʹ = 1. †‹‡†ǡƒ†–Š‡‡š––‹‡–Š‡Žƒ––‡”‘……—”•–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡–Š”‡‡
Š‹•Ž‹•–‹•ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡˜‹ƒ–Š‡Ž‹ǣwww.personal.reading. •—……‡••‹˜‡ ‘……—””‡…‡• ‘ˆ –Š‹•Ǥ ˆ–‡” –Š‹•ǡ –Š‡ ‡š– –‹‡
ƒ…Ǥ—Ȁ̱••‰Žƒ‹•Ȁšƒ’Ž‡•Ǧ‘ˆǦ’”‘‘ˆǤ’†ˆ. Readers are Ǯ’”‹‡›‡ƒ”•ǯ‹ƒ”‘™Šƒ˜‡–Š‹•’”‘’‡”–›–Š‡”‡ƒ”‡ϐ‹˜‡‹
‹˜‹–‡† –‘ …‘–ƒ…– –Š‡ ƒ—–Š‘”• „› ‡ƒ‹Ž ƒ– p.glaister@ ƒ”‘™Ǥ ‘”ˆ‘—”Ǯ’”‹‡›‡ƒ”•ǯ‹ƒ”‘™™‹–Š–Š‹•’”‘’‡”–›
reading.ac.uk™‹–Šˆ—”–Š‡”‡šƒ’Ž‡•ƒ†–Š‡•‡™‹ŽŽ–Š‡ ™‡Šƒ˜‡–‘‰‘„ƒ…–‘–Š‡–‹‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ‰ƒƒ”–ƒǨ
„‡ƒ††‡†–‘–Š‡Ž‹•–Ǥ Readers are advised not to add the last theorem to the
‹ƒŽŽ›ǡ ”‡ƒ†‡”• ƒ› „‡ ‹–‡”‡•–‡† –‘ ‘–‡ –Šƒ– ʹͲͳ͹ Ž‹•–‘ˆ‡šƒ’Ž‡•ƒ„‘˜‡ƒ•–Š‡’”‘‘ˆ‹•…‡”–ƒ‹Ž›„‡›‘†
‹• ƒ ’”‹‡ —„‡”ǡ ƒ† –Šƒ– ʹͲͳ͹ α ͻʹ Ϊ ͶͶʹǡ –Š‡ •— Ž‡˜‡ŽǨ
‘ˆ •“—ƒ”‡• ‘ˆ –™‘ ƒ–—”ƒŽ —„‡”•Ǥ  ˆƒ…–ǡ ƒ› ’”‹‡
—„‡”‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‘”Ͷn Ϊͳǡ™Š‡”‡n ‫א‬Գǡ…ƒƒŽ™ƒ›•„‡ References
‡š’”‡••‡†—‹“—‡Ž›ƒ•–Š‡•—‘ˆ•“—ƒ”‡•‘ˆ–™‘ƒ–—”ƒŽ
—„‡”•Ǥ ‘”‡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽŽ›ǡ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ –Š‡‘”‡ǡ ‘”‹‰‹ƒŽŽ› ͳǤ౧™ ™™Ǥ‰‘˜Ǥ—Ȁ‰‘˜‡”‡–Ȁ’—„Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘•Ȁ‰…‡Ǧƒ•Ǧƒ†ǦƒǦŽ‡˜‡ŽǦ
™”‹––‡ †‘™ „› ‡”ƒ– ƒ† •—„•‡“—‡–Ž› ’”‘˜‡† „› mathematicsǤ……‡••‡† ƒ—ƒ”›ͳʹͲͳ͹Ǥ
—Ž‡” ȋ”‡ˆǤʹȌǡ ™Š‹…Š •–ƒ–‡• –Šƒ– ƒŽŽ odd ’”‹‡ —„‡”• ʹǤ౧ ƒ–Š™‘”Ž†Ǥ™‘Žˆ”ƒǤ…‘Ȁ ‡”ƒ–•ͶŽ—•ͳŠ‡‘”‡ǤŠ–Ž.
p ȋ‹Ǥ‡Ǥ‘–‹…Ž—†‹‰p αʹȌ…ƒ„‡‡š’”‡••‡†—‹“—‡Ž›ƒ• ……‡••‡† ƒ—ƒ”›ͳʹͲͳ͹Ǥ
–Š‡•—‘ˆ•“—ƒ”‡•‘ˆ–™‘ƒ–—”ƒŽ—„‡”•x, y ‫א‬Գǡ‹Ǥ‡Ǥ
p = xʹ + yʹǡ‹ˆƒ†‘Ž›‹ˆp αͶn + 1 for some n ‫א‬Գ.
Š‡ Žƒ•– ›‡ƒ” ˆ‘” ™Š‹…Š –Š‹• ‘……—””‡† ™ƒ• ͳͻͻ͹
Keywords:”‘‘ˆǢšƒ‹ƒ–‹‘•ǢŽ‡˜‡ŽǢŽ‡˜‡ŽǤ
ȋα ʹͻʹ Ϊ ͵ͶʹȌǡ ƒ† –Š‹• ™ƒ• ƒŽ•‘ –”—‡ ˆ‘” –Š‡ ’”‡˜‹‘—•
Ǯ’”‹‡ ›‡ƒ”ǯǡ ͳͻͻ͵ ȋα ͳʹʹ Ϊ Ͷ͵ʹȌǤ ‡ƒ†‡”• ƒ› ™‹•Š –‘
†‡–‡”‹‡–Š‡‡š–Ǯ’”‹‡›‡ƒ”ǯˆ‘”™Š‹…Š–Š‹•‹•–”—‡ǡƒ•
Authors 
 Ž‹œƒ„‡–ŠǤ
Žƒ‹•–‡”ǡ‡†”‹……Š‘‘Žǡ‡ƒ†‹‰Ǣ
™‡ŽŽƒ•–Š‡‡š––‹‡–™‘…‘•‡…—–‹˜‡Ǯ’”‹‡›‡ƒ”•ǯŠƒ˜‡ ƒ—Ž
Žƒ‹•–‡”ǡ‡’ƒ”–‡–‘ˆƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹…•ǡ‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ
–Š‹•’”‘’‡”–›ǤŽŽ‘ˆ–Š‡•‡ƒ”‡‹–Š‹•…‡–—”›ǡ„—–ƒ”‡•–‹ŽŽ ‡ƒ†‹‰ǡ‡ƒ†‹‰Ǥ
*&6(5HYLVLRQ&DUGV[KDOISDJH/D\RXW3DJH e-mail: [email protected]
•‘‡™ƒ›‘ˆˆǨ

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