Predicate Logic 

Predicate Logic deals with predicates, which are propositions, consist of variables.

Predicate Logic - Definition

A predicate is an expression of one or more variables determined on some specific domain. A

predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either authorizing a value to the
variable or by quantifying the variable.

The following are some examples of predicates.

Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM

o Consider E(x, y) denote "x = y"

o Consider X(a, b, c) denote "a + b + c = 0"
o Consider M(x, y) denote "x is married to y."

Quantifier: 
The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of quantifier in predicate logic -
The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of
quantifier in predicate logic - Existential Quantifier and Universal Quantifier. Universal
Quantifier.

Existential Quantifier:is a p quantifier.

There are seveIf p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as ∃x p(x)
and read as "There exists at least one value in the universe of variable x such that p(x)
is true. The quantifier ∃ is called the existential quantifier.

There are several ways to write a proposition, with an existential quantifier, i.e.,

(∃x∈A)p(x)    or    ∃x∈A    such that p (x)    or    (∃x)p(x)    or    p(x) is true for some x
∈A.that p (x)    or    (∃x)p(x)    or    p(x) is true for some x ∈A.

Universal Quantifier:
If p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as ∀x,p(x) and read as "For every x ∈U,p(x)
If p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as ∀x,p(x) and read as
"For every x∈U,p(x) is true." The quantifier ∀ is called the Universal Quantifier.

There are several ways to write a proposition, with a universal quantifier.

∀x∈A,p(x)    or    p(x), ∀x ∈A      Or    ∀x,p(x)    or    p(x) is true for all x ∈A.  (x) is true for
all x ∈A. 
Negation of Quantified Propositions: 
When we negate a quantified proposition, i.e., when a universally quantified
proposition is negated, we obtain an existentially quantified proposition,and when an
existentially quantified proposition is negated, we obtain a universally quantified
proposition.

The two rules for negation of quantified proposition are as follows. These are also
called DeMorgan's Law.

Example: Negate each of the following propositions:

1.∀x p(x)∧ ∃ y q(y)

Sol: ~.∀x p(x)∧ ∃ y q(y))

      ≅~∀ x p(x)∨∼∃yq (y)        (∴∼(p∧q)=∼p∨∼q)
      ≅ ∃ x ~p(x)∨∀y∼q(y)

2. (∃x∈U) (x+6=25)

Sol: ~( ∃ x∈U) (x+6=25)

      ≅∀ x∈U~ (x+6)=25
      ≅(∀ x∈U) (x+6)≠25

3. ~( ∃ x p(x)∨∀ y q(y)

Sol: ~( ∃ x p(x)∨∀ y q(y))

      ≅~∃ x p(x)∧~∀ y q(y)        (∴~(p∨q)= ∼p∧∼q)
      ≅ ∀ x ∼ p(x)∧∃y~q(y))

Propositions with Multiple Quantifiers: 

The proposition having more than one variable can be quantified with multiple
quantifiers. The multiple universal quantifiers can be arranged in any order without
altering the meaning of the resulting proposition. Also, the multiple existential
quantifiers can be arranged in any order without altering the meaning of the
proposition.

The proposition which contains both universal and existential quantifiers, the order
of those quantifiers can't be exchanged without altering the meaning of the
proposition, e.g., the proposition ∃x ∀ y p(x,y) means "There exists some x such that p
(x, y) is true for every y."

Example: Write the negation for each of the following. Determine whether the
resulting statement is true or false. Assume U = R.
1.∀ x ∃ m(x2<m)

Sol: Negation of ∀ x ∃ m(x2<m) is ∃ x ∀ m (x2≥m). The meaning of ∃ x ∀ m (x2≥m) is

that there exists for some x such that x2≥m, for every m. The statement is true as
there is some greater x such that x2≥m, for every m.

2. ∃ m∀ x(x2<m)

Sol: Negation of ∃ m ∀ x (x2<m) is ∀ m∃x (x2≥m). The meaning of ∀ m∃x (x2≥m) is

that for every m, there exists for some x such that x 2≥m. The statement is true as for
every m, there exists for some greater x such that x 2≥m.can't

First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence

In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements using
propositional logic. But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only represent the facts,
which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or
natural language statements. The propositional logic has very limited expressive power.
Consider the following sentence, which we cannot represent using PL logic.

o "Some humans are intelligent", or

o "Sachin likes cricket."

To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some more
powerful logic, such as first-order logic. 

First-Order logic: 
o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial
intelligence. It is an extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a
concise way.
o First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate
logic. First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information about
the objects in a more easy way and can also express the relationship between
those objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world
contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in
the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits,
wumpus, ......
 o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or
n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes
between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:

o Syntax
o Semantics

Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-
order logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write
statements in short-hand notation in FOL. 

Basic Elements of First-order logic: 

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

C++ vs Java

Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....

Predicates Brother, Father, >,....

Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, .... 

Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

Equality ==

Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:
o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic.
These sentences are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a
parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......,
term n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

                Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).
Complex Sentences:
o Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using
connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

o Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement. 

o Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two
atoms together in a statement. 

CConsider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x
is the subject of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a
predicate.nt and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate. 

Quantifiers in First-order logic:

o A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and
quantification specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
o These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range
and scope of the variable in the logical expression. There are two types of
quantifier:

a. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)

b. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

Universal Quantifier: 
is Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the
statement within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular
thing. 

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted

A. 
represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A. 

o For all x
o For each x 
o For every x.

Example: All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:

. Existential Quantifier: Existential quantifiers are the type of

quantifiers, which express that the statement within its scope is true for at least one
instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used

with a predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

IfIf x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as: x
is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

o There exists a 'x.'

o For some 'x.'
 o For at least one 'x.'

Example: some boys are intelligent

∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x) 

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent. 

Points to remember:
o The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.
o The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.

Properties of Quantifiers:
o In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
o In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
o ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.
b. Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:
c. 1. All birds fly.
In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)." 
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.
              ∀x bird(x) →fly(x).
 d. 2. Every man respects his parent.
In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y=
parent.
Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:
              ∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).
e. 3. Some boys play cricket.
In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game.
Since there are some boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented as:
              ∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket). 
f. 4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.
In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y=
subject.
Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following
representation for this:
              ¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].
g. 5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.
In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y=
subject.
Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use
following representation for this:
              ∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧
student(y) → ¬failed (x, Mathematics)].
Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

cs)].

Free and Bound Variables:

The quantThe quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There
are two types of variables in First-order logic which are given below:

Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside

the scope of the quantifier.

          Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs

within the scope of the quantifier.

          Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.

ifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There are two types of variables in First-order
logic which are given below:
Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside the scope of the
quantifier.

          Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs within the scope of the
quantifier.

          Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.