ERECTORS'

MANUAL
A Guide to Health and Safety in Steel Erection

E G Lovejoy CEng, FICE, FIStructE.

assisted by

H R Stamper MIOSH, MIIRSM.

&

P HAllen CEng, MICE, MWeldl.

© British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd.,

4 Whitehall Court, London, SW1 A 2ES Telephone 0171-839-8566, Fax 0171-976-1634

British Ubrary Cataloguing-in-Publication UDC 624.943.3: 624.94.014.2 ISBN 0 85073 027 9 A catalogue

Data

record for this book is available from the British Library.

Although care has been taken to ensure, to the best of its knowledge, that all data and information contained herein is accurate 10 the extent that it relates to either matters of fact or accepted practice or matters of opinion at the time of publication, The British Constructional Steelwork ASSOCiation, the reviewers and the authors do not assume responsibility for any errors in or misinterpretation of such data and/or information of any loss or damage arising from or related to its use.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means (including photocopying and recording) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended). The written penn iss ion of the copyright holder must also be obtained before any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval system of any nature. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission 10 reproduce, transmit or store in a retrieval system any part of this publication should be addressed to the Publishers. Waming: The doing of an unauthorised act in relation to a copyright work may result in both civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution. This book is sold subject to the Standard Conditions of Sale of Net Books and may not be re-sold in the UK below the net price given by the Publishers in their current price list.

This publication

has been reviewed by and is published the support of: The Steel Construction Institute

with

, st Edition January 78 3M 2nd Edition June 1993 1M

Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by Staples Printers Rochester Limited. Neptune Close. Medway City Estate. Frindsbury. Rochester. Kent ME2 4LT.

ii

The British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd.

The British Constructional Steelwork Association Limited is the national representative organisation for the constructional steelwork industry: its Member companies undertake the design, fabrication and erection of steelwork for all forms of construction in building and civil engineering. Associate Members are those principal companies involved in the purchase, design, or supply of components, materials, services etc. related to the industry. The Corporate Membership category is available to clients, professional offices, educational establishments, etc. which support the development of national specifications, quality, fabrication and erection techniques, overall industry efficiency and good practice. The princlpal objectives of the Association are to promote the use of structural steelwork' to assist specifiers and clients; to ensure that the capabilities and activities of the industry are widely understood and to provide members with professional services in technical, commercial, contractual and quality assurance matters. This book is one of a series of publications produced by the BCSA to give practical advice and guidance to all personnel engaged in working with structural steelwork in the construction industry. The opinions expressed therein are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the BCSA. The publication is not intended to be either a 'Specification' or a 'Code of Practice' and should not be treated as such.

iii

About the authors

E.G. Lovejoy
Geoff Lovejoy was for some years a partner in Andrews Kent & Stone, consulting engineers specialising in the design and supervision of structures using all materials. He subsequently became a senior construction engineering Inspector of Factories in the Health and Safety Executive, where he was responsible for advice on access problems and latterly was the senior engineer for all structural matters. During his employment with the Executive he was their representative on a number of British Standard, CEN and ISO committees on structural aspects and roofing.

H.R. Stamper
Bert Stamper has been a safety professional for over twenty years. He was appointed Group Safety Manager for the Redpath Dorman Long Group of companies in 1978 before taking up his present job as Trafalgar House Corporate Safety Adviser in 1985. He has a long standing association with steel erection going back to 1974 and chaired the Industry Working Party set up to assist in the development of Guidance Note GS28 Parts, to 4. His previous involvement with British Standard committees on fall arrest equipment and detailed knowledge of the steel fabrication industry has given him considerable experience of safety in steel erection.

P.H. Allen
Peter Allen first became actively involved in construction safety through the Joint Advisory Committee report on 'Safety in Steel Erection' published in 1979. Following this he continued working in conjunction with the Health & Safety Executive drafting team in the production of Guidance NoteGS28 Parts 1 (1984),2 (1985) and 3 (1986) see Section 2.1 and on the BSI committee revising BS 5531 (1988) see Section 22. He has lectured on safety aspects at BCSA and other construction safety courses and seminars, and was involved in W H Arch's book 'Structural Steelwork - Erection'. Safety is one of his responsibility areas in his current range of activities within BCSA as Assistant Director (Technical).

iv

Acknowledgements
The BCSA and those involved in compiling this publication wish to record their thanks to:British Standards Institute for permission to rep roduce tables etc from their publications, copies of which can be obtained from:British Standards Institution (Sales) Linford Wood Milton Keynes Bucks MK146LE Mr 0 J Cochrane (Technical Publications Service) forthe preparation of the diagrams etc. The following organisations, to its scope and content: which kindly commented on the draft text with respect

Amalgamated Engineering & Electrical Union Engineering Construction Industry Training Board Health & Safety Executive National Engineering Construction Employers Association The Steel Construction Institute and from the BCSA members:Mike Harness Atlas Construction Ltd Robert Miller Octavious Atkinson & Son Ltd Geoff Beaumont Leonard Cooper Ltd. Peter Miller Watson Steel Ltd

Foreword
This publication has been written with the objective of assisting all individuals who have to visit or work on a construction site by providing guidance on safe and efficient procedures. Detailed information is given for those who from their training as skilled tradesman are referred to as supervisors, charge hands, erectors etc., engaged in the actual erection of the framed structure. It has been produced in this format to allow its users to carry it with them during their working periods for immediate reference when required orto check in case of doubt. In this respect it is not intended to be read and used as a text book but rather as a reference manual. The text is in succinct but plain English and covers a wide range of erection activities.

As it was not practical to give detailed advice on every single activity reference has
been given in Section 2 to various other publications giving further advice that may be beneficial to the user prior to undertaking a specific activity. It is expected that this publication will mainly be used by those engaged in the building construction industry. Howeverthe scope has been broadened tocoverthe engineering construction industry as well, where it has been practical to do so, and those peripheral activities involved in the construction of any framework. The data in this publication is based on that originally used by Redpath Dorman Long Limited, in their publication 'Erectors Manual', prepared in 1979. It has been supplemented by the additional data primarily from BS 5531 and the Health and Safety Executive's Guidance Note GS 28. (see Section 2) In compiling this publication it has been assumed that it will be used by suitable qualified and experienced people working in compliance with a method statement (see Section 3.2), and having the necessary equipment available forthe construction of the framework,

vi

CONTENTS
Page

1.

LEGISLATION , ., Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 , .2 Regulations , .3 Future legislation GUIDANCE DOCUMENTS 2.1 Health & Safety Executive 2.2 British Standards Institution 2.3 Others INFORMATION AND PROCEDURES 3.1 Management System Method Statement 3.2 Drawings 3.3 Symbols 3.3.1 Abbreviations 3.3.2 Types of Drawings 3.3.3 Accuracy of information 3.4 3.5 Design aspects General hazards 3.6 ERECTION 4.1 General Storage and Stacking 4.2 Uniform Sections 4.2.1. Uniform Sections with cleats or plates 4.2.2. Plates 4.2.3. Tubes, pipes, angles etc 4.2.4. 4.3 Erection Operations 4.3.1. Bolting Welding & Cutting 4.3.2. 4.3.3. Grouting LIFTING GEAR 5.1 General Rules 5.1.1. Care & Use 5.1.2. Identification and Marking 5.2 Use of Lifting Gear 5.2.1. General Points 5.3 Plate clamps 5.4 Lifting beams and frames 5.4.1. Types
vii

,
1

2.

3 3 3

3.

4 4 5 5 8

9 9 9 10

4.

l'
11 13 14 15 17

18 18
19 20

5.

21 21 21

22 22
23 24 25

5.5

5.6 5.7 5.8

5.9

5.10

5.11

5.12 5.13 6. 6.1

Chain slings Types of Chain Double Leg Slings Forms of Chain Sling Shortening Chain Sling Basic Rules Lifting techniques 5.6.1. The Choke Hitch 5.6.2. The Basket Hitch Bull dog grips Slings and slinging 5.8.1. Slings 5.8.2. Estimating capacity 5.8.3. Basic Rules Hooks, Eyebolts and Shackles 5.9.1. Hooks 5.9.2. Eyebolts 5.9.3. Shackles 5.9.4. Basic Rules Wire Rope Slings 5.10.1. Types 5.10.2. Damaged Slings 5.10.3. Basic Rules Fibre Rope 5.11.1. Types of Fibre 5.11.2. Cutting Fibre Rope 5.11.3. Care of Ropes Knots for Construction Purposes Remote release shackle

5.5.1. 5.5.2. 5.5.3. 5.5.4. 5.5.5.

26 26 26 26 27 28 30 30 33
34

35 35 37 40 41 41
44

46 48 51 51 53 54 54
54

55 56 56 57 58 58 60 61 62 62 62 63 63

CRANES Crane Safety·. 6.1.1 Mobile Cranes - Self Propelled 6.1.2 Mobile Cranes - Crawler and Wheeled 6.1.3 Tower Cranes 6.1.4 Derrick Cranes 6.2 Crane Operations 6.2.1 Manufacturer's Handbook 6.2.2 Automatic Safe Load Indicator 6.2.3 Tandem/Special Lifts 6.3 Use of Cranes 5.3.1. Ufting 5.3.2. Travelling 6.3.3. Suspended loads

64

64 65 66

viii

6.4 6.5 6.6

Personnel Lifting Heavy Lifting Statutory Requirements 6.6.1. Inspection 6.6.2. Examination 6.6.3. Test

67 68 68 68 68 68 70 70 70 70 72 72 73 73 75 75 75 75 76
77

7.

LIFTING AND PULLING DEVICES

7.1 Chain Blocks 7.2 ' Snatch Blocks 7.2.1. Loads 7.2.2. Rope Requirements 7.3 Pul-Lifts 7.4 Proprietary pulling machines (Tirfors) 7.5 Jacks 7.6 Winches
ROPES 8.1 Wire Ropes 8.1.1. Storage 8.1.2. Offloading 8.1.3. Handling and Use 8.1.4. Working Conditions 8.2 Anchorages 8.3 Guy Ropes 8.4 Blondins (running lines) WORKING PLACES 9.1 Types of Scaffold 9.2 Working Platforms and Stages 9.3 Edge Protection 9.3.1. Wire rope 9.4 Mobile Scaffolds 9.5 Mobile Work'Platforms 9.5.1. Basic Rules 9.6 Suspended and Slung Scaffolds Use of scaffolds 9.6.1 9.7 Ladders 9.7.1. Care of ladders 9.7.2. Securing ladders 9.7.3. Basic Rules 9.8 Extending ladders

8.

78 78 79 79 80 80 81 81 82 84
84

9.

85 85 86 87 88

ix

10. 11.

HEALTH AND WELFARE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 11.1 Safety Helmets 11.2 Safety Belts and Hamesses 11.3 Eye and Face Protection 11.4 Hand Protection 11.5 Foot Protection 11.6 Bad Weather Protection 11.7 Hearing protection 11.8 Respiratory equipment FIRST AID 1. Breathing 2. Unconsciousness 3. Severe bleeding 4. Suspected broken bones 5. Bums 6. Eyes 7. Electric shock 8. Gassing 9. Minor injuries 10. Record keeping 11. First Aid materials SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 13.1 Lighting at Night 13.2 Fire FALLS OF PERSONS AND MATERIALS 14.1 Openings in floors, walls or roofs 14.2 Pitched roofs 14.3 Fragile materials TRAINING REQUIREMENTS 15.1 Training of all Persons on Site 15.2 Erectors

89

90 90 90 91 91 91 91 91

12.

92 93 93 93 93 94 94 94 94 94 94 95 95 95

13.

14.

96 96 96

15.

98 98 101

APPENDICES

1.

LEGISLATION

Statutory instruments are legal documents including Acts of Parliament and subordinate regulations approved by the Secretary of State which detai.1among other matters, the Health and Safety Standards necessary to comply with the law.

1.1

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974

This important piece of legislation lays down the general duties of employers and employees at work. This means it shall be the duty of every person while at work a) to take reasonable care for the health and safety of himself and others whc may be affected by his actions or omissions at work; b) to co-operate with his employer or anyone else where it is necessary tc . enable them to comply with their statutory duties; and c) not to intentionally or recklessly interfere with or misuse anything provided under a statutory requirement in the interest of health and safety at work.

1.2

Regulations

The four regulations which apply to construction work were made under the Factories Act 1961. These are: a) b) c) d) The Construction The Construction The Construction The Construction (General Provision) Regulations 1961 (Lifting Operations) Regulations 1961 (Working Places) Regulations 1966 (Health and Welfare) Regulations 1966

These regulations lay down detailed requirements for construction work whereas the Health and Safety at Work etc Act applies to employment generally. Other regulations affect construction work and these are shown below: The Abrasive Wheels Regulations, grinding or cutting operations.

1970. Apply to all abrasive wheels used for

The Safety Representatives and Safety Committees Regulations, 1977. Deals wittthe appOintment of safety representatives, their functions including inspection of the workplace. The Control of lead at Work Regulations, 1980. Applies to any work which may expose persons to lead including fume. There is also an associated approved code 01 practice.

Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981. Deals with the provisions for first aid facilities, arrangements and provisions. An approved code of practice also exists. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988. These require assessments to be made with regard to hazardous substances so that prevention or adequate control is secured. The Electricity at Work Regulations electricity supply and equipment. 1989 provide for the prevention of danger from

The Construction (Head Protection) Regulations, 1989. Deals with the provision, maintenance and replacement of suitable head protection. Noise at Work Regulations, 1989. If excessive noise cannot be reduced at source ear protection must be used to prevent hearing damage. The Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations 1989. This document deals with the design, construction, repair and modification of pressure systems including transportable gas containers. The Lifting Plant and Equipment (Records of Test and Examination etc) Regulations 1992. A summary of these regulations etc. can be found in Guidance Note GS 28 Part 4 (see 2.1).

1.3

FutureLegislation

The European Community has issued a number of Directives which have been converted into UK regulations. They will affect those involved in the preparation of method statements as well as those carrying out erection tasks and all should be aware of at least the basic requirements of these regulations. For example, The Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations mirrors the "Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974" in that it sets principles and general duties on employers and employees in all working activities. Other regulations are: Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations Manual Handling Operations Regulations Workplace (Health, Safety & Welfare) Regulations Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations. and others will follow in the course of harmonization of legislation throughout Europe.

2.

GUIDANCE DOCUMENTS

In addition to these legal requirements a number of guidance documents have been published for those working in the construction industry. These publications are not legal requirements but representa standard of good practice and therefore should be carefully considered when deciding upon the most appropriate methodof erection.

2.1

Health and Safety Executive

Part 1 Initial planning and design Part 2 Site management and procedures Part 3 Working places and access Part 4 Legislation and training Guidance Note GS 15 General access scaffolds GUidanceNote GS 42 Tower scaffolds Guidance Note PM 30 Suspended access equipment Guidance Note GS 31 Safe use of ladders, step laddersand trestles GUidanceNote HS(G)19 Safety in working with power operated mobile work platforms GUidanceNote GS 28/

2.2

BS 308: BS 1192 BS 2052 BS 4278 BS 4604 BS 4928 BS 6166 BS 6570 BS 6994 BS 7121 a)

British Standards Institution

Engineering Drawing Practice Construction Drawing Practice Ropes made from manila, sisal etc. Eyebolts for lifting purposes The use of HSFG bolts in structural steelwork Man-made fibre ropes Ufting slings Selection, care & maintenance of steel wire ropes Steel shackles for lifting purposes Safe use of cranes.

2.3

Others

British Constructional Steelwork Association Structural Steelwork-Erection National Structural Steelwork Specification for Building Construction National Federation of Roofing Contractors Roofing and cladding in windy conditions Lifting Equipment Engineers Association CP for the safe use of lifting equipment Steel Construction Institute Good practice in composite floor construction National Engineering Construction Employers Association Health and Safety at Work.

b) c) d) e)

3.0 INFORMATION AND PROCEDURES

3.1 Management Systems
This is the term used for overall control of the project throughout the design, drawing, fabrication and erection stages and is often embodied in a quality assurance scheme. It covers the ability of all those involved in the project to properly carry out their individual tasks, and sets down their various areas of responsibility. Forthe erectorthe most important aspect is to have a method statement (see Section 3.2) before commencing erection work. It is also necessary to take account of any revisions which may be issued in the course of the work. The method statement should take account of the following: The and The The The erection scheme and procedures to be adopted (see Sections 3.2 4.1) drawings to be used (see Section 3.3) accuracy of the information given (see Section 3.4) deSign checks required prior to erection (see Section 3.5).

Other items covered should include the required degree of inspection and erection tolerances, the recording of any modifications made on site, and the services and facilities either received from, or supplied to, other site operatives.

3.2

Method Statements

Under Section 2 of the 1974 Act employers are required to supply safe plant and systems of work, provide adequate information, training and supervision, provide safe access and egress and a working environment without risks to health. Employees must take reasonable care of themselves and others and co-operate with employers. As a means to achieve these aims an important part of the planning for a safe system of work is the provision of a method statement. This will set out the proposed erection scheme and the necessary procedures. Employees must follow these procedures which may consist of standard sheets for Simple jobs up to more extensive requirements for more complex work. The supervisor should be consulted about any aspects of the work which is not fully understood. Hazards must De reported as soon as possible so that action can be taken quickly to eliminate the problem. Always carry out the necessary safety precautions.

3.3

Drawings

This Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations has generally been based on BS 1192 and BS 308 where appropriate. In other cases those used by custom and practice have been included. 3.3.1 Symbols a) Datums, levels, orientation bench mark

r
BM
N

level on plans

+
V

level on cuts, sections, elevations

North point

b) Indication of planes and voids direction of span, floor or L/_- 7 roof structure opening in ceiling/floor/ wall/etc

X
I
[

Annotation of steel sections c) angle Joist/universal (EA and UEA) beam (UB) universal column (UC) channel

tee rectangular hollow section (RHS)

L T

circular hollow section (CHS)

d)

Bolts and holes for bolts on fabrication drawings site HSFG bolt end view open hole, countersink ___J,{_ nearside, ~ end view open hole, countersink far side, end~ view Applications

open hole, end view

..

openhole,* side view

site HSFG bolt, side view

-'*'-

e)

Annotation of welds

arrow and reference . ~ lines site weld " ~

Site square butt weld, both sides

square butt weld

II

fille1Weld@

site single V butt weld, other side

single V butt weld

site fillet weld arrow side

f)

Types of line Visible outlines and edges Hidden outlines and edges Centre lines, lines of symmetry & Reference IiRes

Continuous thick Broken thin Chain 1hin

------

g)

Steps and gradients

Applications

direction of RISE, ramp/--~> stair/steps

Straight stair/steps

direction of FALL, slope

---t>

Dog leg stairs

21

22 23 24 25

10

20 19 18

17 16 15 14 13 12 11

15.35
+

Ramp

<

1:12
+

15.15

3.3.2

Abbreviations BS (I) BSEN Bwk CL(c) Crs (or c/c) CofG Drg Expn FFL (orffl) GA Galv HD Hexlrd/Hex (or XOX) HSFG British Standard (Institute) British Version of a European Standard. Brickwork Centreline Centres Centre of Gravity Drawing Expansion Finished Floor Level General Arrangement Galvanised Holding Down Hexagonal headed bolt, round shank, hexagonal nut High Strength Friction Grip Internal diameter Kilogramme Left Hand Millimetre Metre Not to scale Outside diameter Packing Plate Right Hand Rain water pipe Safe Working load Structural Slab Level Underside Working Load Limit
8

10
kg LH mm m NTS OD Pkg PIt RH RWP SWL SSL

U/S
WLL

3.3.3 Types of Drawings Drawings convey information between the designer, the fabricator and the erection team. They consist of: a) General arrangements - plans, elevations and sections showing the relationship between each member. These are sometimes over printed with erection marks and thus referred to as marking plans. Each steel member should be numbered. Assembly Details - showing how the members are connected together. List and Schedules - giving details of all the bolt, brackets and individual members etc being delivered to site.

b) c)

3.4

Accuracy of Information

Check with the method statement (see Section 3.2) that all the appropriate and latest drawings are available on site before commencing erection work. Check each drawing to ensure it contains all the necessary information to erect the components safely. Check for any special features and connection details to ensure they fit properly and the correct size and type of fasteners are available to secure individual pieces and achieve stability at each stage of erection. If there are any discrepancies or misunderstanding about the drawing detail or erection notes consult your supervisor, so that, if necessary the matter can be brought to the attention of the designer or detailer for clarification.

3.5

Design aspects

The resistance to overtuming which a single column or column assemblies can safely tolerate should be critically assessed and recorded, highlighting the design assumptions made. Where hold-down bolts are to be used, a sufficient factor of safety should be provided against pull-out. Holding down bolts in addition to those necessary for the permanent structure may be required during erection. It is recommended that a minimum number of four holding down bolts be used on braced bay columns shown in Fig 1. Components should be delivered to site in the correct order- so that the erection sequence can be followed. Weights should be clearly marked on all members, bundles of components and sub assemblies of one tonne and over. BS 5531 gives information for safe erection procedures to assist in the preparation of the method statement (see Section 3.2).

Fig 1.

The following items concerning the site conditions need to be clarified prior to commencement of erection: a) b) c) the provision and ma,intenance of hard standing for cranes and general access to the site; the investigation of soil conditions and identification of hazards affecting the safe operation of cranes; the definition of any anticipated special environmental and climatic conditions that effect the work on or use of the site.

3.6 General Hazards

Some of the health hazards which may be encountered in the course of erection are: a) The grinding or welding of surfaces treated with galvanizing or lead based paint will give rise to dangerous dust or fume. b) c) Deteriorating insulation materials such as asbestos will also give rise to harmful dust. Contamination of materials from process plant may occur.

The use of the appropriate breathing apparatus and other protective equipment etc. may be necessary in such circumstances. Information on other hazards can be found in the publications listed in Section 2.

Fig 2.

10

4.
4.1

ERECTION
General

It is important that the provisions of the method statement are followed. The inspection of foundation bolts should be carried out prior to erection to ensure that they are correctly positioned and securely fixed. Incorrect erection sequence can lead to instability during construction, therefore, each component must be adequately secured and made stable as soon as possible by tying in adjacent, vertical, horizontal and bracing members to form a rigid bay or box before progressing further. On the industrial type building shown in Fig 2, erection should always commence with the braced area and all bracing should be fitted before progressing further. Some components may require temporary support during erection (ie guyed or propped) and this should be carried out before releasing the lifting appliance in order to prevent toppling or collapse. Always refer to the relevant working drawings and instructions to ensure stability is achieved at each stage. A minimum percentage of bolts or welding should be completed. Whenever possible the structure should be assembled into panels and frames on the ground to minimise the time spent working at heights. Careful planning should eliminate the need to re-sling steel above ground and long pieces should be slung in such a way to prevent bowing. Where structures can distort or collapse under their own weight when lifted, steps must be taken to use temporary bracing and to clearly identify the slinging points. Check with the Supervisor that placing temporary loads on the structure or using pulling devices will not cause instability of the structure during the lining and levelling phase. The completed structure at the time of "handover" should be within the specified erection tolerances. For most buildings these are generally taken as those specified in the "National Structural Steelwork Specification for Building Construction" although for some special structures, or parts of structures, other more stringent tolerances may be specified.

4.2 Storage and Stacking

Material delivered loaded and stored firm and level with at regular intervals to site which is not required for immediate use should be off in a suitable area. The area set aside for this purpose must be wooden sleepers or other suitable material placed on the ground to act as bearers.

Avoid placing heavy loads on top of underground services such as electrical cables, culverts, drains, etc which may be damaged due to the weight of steel resting on the ground. Steel should be stacked safely and in the correct sequence
11

so that components

required to be erected first are easily accessible. Where possible members should be stacked so that water does not collect in webs and hollows. Leave sufficient access between stacked material for slinging and crane movements. (See Fig 3)

-r----l~~--Keep crane
ill

clear for access

l..=.

...!__

Jl_~_JL

I··

=s

----=>~ Clear
Fig 3.

c::=:=========~
t access

Heavy Sections

Medium Sections

Light Sections

tX ,
Too little clearance

,25mm
Adequate clearance Fig 5.

Fig 4.

Ground bearers and timber battens should be used to separate stacked material so that slings can pass around components when they are to be lifted clear of the stack. Timber battens should be properly dried hardwood. Green timber or softwood should not be used. Timber must be large enough to allow the chain hook or the eye of the sling to pass under the material. (See Fig 5) There are several methods of stacking steel which will give stability and optimise space. These are illustrated in figures 6 to 24. The method used will depend largely on the uniformity of the steel and the overall dimensions of each component.

12

4.2.1. Uniform Sections Similar web and flange dimensions

Allowance

for

slinging

Fig 6

Beams placed directly on top of another to secure or

If necessary use locking device to secure top tier of beams together to prevent individual beams being dislodged (see Fig 7)

alternatively below
Fig?

stack each tier 90° to the one

Web height much greater than flange width

Use horizontal clamps to lift clear of stack (see Fig 8)

d-----

_-_

'1f";.

4.2.2. Uniform

Sections

with cleats or plates

The same stacking principal can be used for beams or columns fitted with cleats on one flange (see Fig 9).

Keep sufficient distance between stacks to avoid cleats catching when beam is being lifted.

Fig 10

View on XX

llfu mIl

If necessary place timber vertically between stacks to maintain safe clearance. The width of timber must be greater than the depth of both cleats.

Use horizontal clamps on end of beam to lift clear (See Fig 11).
Fig 11

Cleats both sides - It is not possible to stand these beams up or stack them as shown above, therefore, a pyramid system to stacking should be employed (See . Fig 12).

y..J--1_
/ r ( /
Fig 12

~~i)~Jt -ia_ JL JLt

/ / / / / r
1//

1//

//

14

Columns with Base Plate - Make sure timbers are directly above one another (See Fig 13). _

Fig 13

4.2.3.

Stacking Plates a) Incorrect Method i) Packing blocks not in line ii) Packing blocks not of uniform thickness iii) Stacked on uneven ground

~=3~~~~~~C;~~
Slope 1 in 40

b) Correct Method i) All timber blocks in line

Fig 14

thickness iii) Stacked on even ground iv) Timber packs sufficiently deep to allow plate clamps to be properly Deeper inserted packv) Stack on a slope of 1 in 40 approx for drainage Fig 15

/(((1(/

Even ground

c) Use plate clamps to lift horizontally from the stack

Do not lower or lift plates from the stack in this manner (See Fig 16).

Small timber will prevent slipping during the lift

Stagger layout on plan

Fig 16 15

Light Plate may be stacked together

Always use a pinch bar and wedge to separate plates prior to positioning plate clamps. This will avoid fingers being accidentally caught under the plate (See Fig 17).

Fig 17

For turning beam use a turnover dog if the section is light enough to be turned manually (See Fig 18).

Make sure the dog does not jam when engaged on the flange. Always tum the beam away from you and lift the dog clear as the beam turns over.

Fig 18

If it is more suitable light plate can be stored vertically in purpose made racks. (See Fig 19)

Fig 19

16

4.2.4. Tubes, Pipes, Angles etc Dismantled racking system for storing items which require to be raised by lifting appliance
Fig 20

\\8£}""
r
I

Each rack in Fig 20 is simply made from steel channel and each tier can be lifted· clear to allow slings to be attached. Provided the base dimensions are large enough the rack can have three or four tiers.

Fig 21

Small tubes, bars or pipes which are easily handled can be stored in racks. (See Fig 21).

Ensure tubes are tight together

Pipe or tube must be capable of resisting bending without damage.

~~

~~

6Yd
Steel frame

This system of stacking (See Fig 22) is used where the pipe or tube can be lifted at each end using pipe lifters or similar lifting arrangement (See Fig 23). Large pipes, tubes or bars which require to be lifted and stacked by passing slings around their circumference should be stored in a suitable racking system (See Fig 24). The same principle can be adopted when stacking circular hollow sections that have plates etc attached to them but more space around them will be required to avoid cleats catching (see Fig 10). Tubes, pipes or bars must be positioneddirectly above one another Timber packing with wedges nailed in position.

Fig 24 17

4.3 Erecting Operations

It is not the purpose of this Manual to fully deal with the many operations, given in Section 15.2, that go to make good erection practice. It does provide a ready source of reference in cases of doubt, and acts as an aid for some of the.erection operations. 4.3.1. Bolting a) Safety Initial bolting of an end connection must be made with at least two bolts opposite each other in plan and have approximately a th ird of total number of bolts fixed in the joint. This stops the member from pivoting, is sufficient to carry its self weight and allows the supporting crane sling to be released (see Section 6.3). The connection can then be fully bolted and, after lining and levelling, all the bolts made "snug tighf. Care must be taken when fixing a member with a Single bolt to ensure that pivoting does not occur. b) Tightening Ordinary Bolts (4.6 and 8.8 grade - non pre-loaded)

These bolts are used in holes with 2 or 3mm clearance on the shank diameter of the bolt. They should be used with nuts of the same grade as the bolt and, where required by the specification, with plain washers of the appropriate form (E-normal, F-heavy). There are no special installation techniques for these bolts beyond tightening them up with a podger spanner. On completion of tightening all the bolts in the joint, the connected parts should have been firmly drawn together. This condition is referred to as being "snug tighf'. c) Tightening loaded) High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (8.8 and 10.9 grade - pre-

In the UK it is these HSFG bolts that are commonly used as pre-loaded bolts but there are other proprietary types available. HSFG bolts have wider heads and thicker nuts than ordinary bolts and are also used in holes with 2 to 3mm clearance on the shank diameter of the bolt. They are always used with spectat hardened washers when they are pre-loaded, either under the bolt head or nut whichever is to be rotated to pre-load the bolt. There are various methods of pre-loading these bolts, three of which are discribed in BS 4604 and are in common use in the UK. In all three methods, before any pre-loading is undertaken: contact (faying) surfaces of the steel must be in accordance to the specification; packing shims must be inserted to ensure no gaps occur in the joint (see 4.3.1 e); bolts in the joint must be "snug tighf'.
18

Preloading is then achieved by one of the following methods: (i) Torque Control Method

By use of a special wrench which can be set by the operator to tighten the bolt to the required pre-load. The recommendations of the wrench manufacturers should be followed. (ii) Part Turn Method By making a permanent mark on the bolt and nut to show the relative positions when "snug tighf' and then giving the nut the extra part turn specified, using a power impact wrench if necessary. (iii) Load Indicator Method

By the use of a device known as a Load Indicator Washer laid flat against the steel with the protrusions against the bolt head or nut. The bolt is then tightened until the Load Indicator shows that sufficient pre-load has been put into the bolt shank. This information is obtained by the use of feeler gauges under the washers. d) Tightening the Joint

The bolts in a joirrt are normally tightened in a set sequence, starting at the centre and working towards the sides and ends of a joint in splices and from the compression side to the tension side of a moment joint, for example the bottom row to the top row of bolts on a portal frame haunch. e) Use of Shims

If a gap occurs in the joint betwen two components it can generally be packed out with steel shims. However, if this gap is greater than 6 mm or occurs in a friction grip joint then check that this will not adversely affect the design of the connection.

4.3.2. Welding and Cutting

Welding is a specialised activity and should only be undertaken by a qualified operative. Components that require welded connections are erected using temporary fixings to hold both parts together to allow the welder to complete the joint The storage assembly and operating of oxy-gas cutting equipment maybe within the skills of an erector. Cutting of ends and edges of components should only be undertaken with the agreement of the supervisor to ensure that the load carrying capacity of the member is not adversely affected. During cutting and welding operations the risk of fire may increase substantially and therefore steps must be taken to prevent hot material and sparks igniting combustible material which may be some distance from the operation.
19

4.3.3. Grouting
The provision of bedding under the base plates is sometimes required to be carried out by the erector after lining and levelling has been completed. This bedding is generally a cement/sand mix, although it could be a cement paste or fine concrete depending on the space between the underside of the base plate and the top of the foundation. Details of the proportions of cement'sandlfine aggregate/water ratio to be used, together with the method of placing should be specified and adhered to. Care must be taken to avoid the cement coming into contact with the skin or eyes and protective equipment should be worn.

20

5.
5.1
5.1.1.

LIFTING GEAR
GeneralRules
Care and Use

Proper care of lifting equipment is essential if failure of the equipment and accidents are to be avoided. The three basic rules are: a) Always check for damage and excessive wear before use; b) Never misuse or overload equipment; c) Always store equipment correctly after use. 5.1.2. Identification and Marking

Lifting gear is any purposely made item used to connect a load to a lifting appliance such as chains, ropes, shackles, eye bolts, lifting beams etc. Lifting gear is given a 'Working Load Limit' (WLL) which is the maximum Working Load (SWL) the item is designed to carry. Safe

Normally the SWL is the same as the WLL but in certain conditions the equipment may be de-rated where the SWL is less than the WLL. Each item of lifting gear must have a unique identity number and must have been examined at least once in the previous six months. Colour coding can help to identify lifting gear which is within the prescribed examination period and therefore should be considered as part of the employer's safe system of work. Before using the equipment Establish the SWL. Make sure the identity number is legible and the item has been appropriately examined. Check for defects including excessive wear and tear. If you are in any doubt consult the supervisor.

There are two methods in use for rating lifting gear. These are: • the uniform load method • the trigonometrical method both of which are discribed in BS6166: Part 1: 1986. Modem lifting gear is rated in accordance with the uniform load method which gives a fixed rating for the sling between 0° and 90° and for two legged and four legged slings a lower fixed rating between 90° and 1200• Three legged slings are only rated up to 900•
21

However, the trigonometrical has been adopted throughout this Manual as much of the existing eqiuipment is rated in this manner. An example of typical marking on a master ring is shown in Fig 25. tor a 10mm link two leg chain sling.

Component Code Number Sling Identification Number Component Identification "'SWL at max included angle Number

Trade Mark and Quality Suffix

Fig 25 "'Rated in accordance

Note that the marks are not stamped on the crowns which are highly stressed areas as such marks could act as stress raisers. with the trigonometrical method.

5.2

Use of Lifting Gear

5.2.1. General Points to Consider when Using Lifting Gear

a) Shock Loads Lifting gear will experience a shock load whenever the speed of the load is suddenly increased. This can occur if the crane brakes are used erratically or the load is snatched (See Fig 26). Slack chain raised too quickly. Snatching can impose a load 5 times the SWL of the lifting gear.

';

Fig 26

b) Angle Between Sling Legs As the angle between a two leg or multiple leg sling increases the carrying capacity decreases, therefore, the person using the slings must calculate the Safe Working Load for the correct angle of use avoid overloading the sling.

to

22

It is recommended

that the angle does not exceed 90°. Identical double leg grade 'T' chain slings each marked 16t WLL at 0°. Note the different weights which can be lifted with identical chain slings at 0° and 60°.

Maximum Load='6.4t

Maximum

Load='4.2t

Fig 27

Fig 28

c) Care of Lifting Gear Always store lifting gear away from extremes of heat, cold and wet. Place surplus lifting gear in a store, suitable boxes or racks when not in use to avoid accidental damage. See 5.1. d) Legal Requirements The law requires all lifting gear if in regular use to be examined within the previous six months. Do not store gear away as 'private property' in case it misses this statutory examination. (See Appendix 12).

5.3

Plate Clamps

Plate clamps are made in two types, one for lifting plates vertically and the other for use in pairs, or in fours, for lifting plates horizontally. They are made in various sizes with lifting capacities up to around 3 tonnes. Larger clamps are mostly used in a fabrication shop.

Vertical Type

Horizontal Type

Fig 29

Fig 30

23

Clamps should be of adequate size and strength for the loads to be handled and all the teeth on the clamp face, and/or locking cam should be sound. Plate clamps used to raise or lower metal plates by gripping one edge ofthe plate, should not be directly attached to the hook of the lifting device but connected to it by a short sling. (As shown in Figures 31 to 33).

Short length of chain between hoOk and clamp

Fig 31

Where two clamps are used to raise or lower a plate by gripping one edge, the clamps should be applied so that their centre lines are in line with the respective sling legs.

Self-locking clamps should not be used unless they are fitted with a safety catch to prevent the clamp inadvertently releasing the load in the event of momentary 'No load' conditions.

5.4

Lifting beams and frames

Lifting beams or spreader beams are used to distribute loads or to stiffen long plates or components. They must be marked with their safe working load.

24

5.4.1. Types of Lifting Beam, Spreader and Frame

a) Lifting Beam The types of lifting beam are diagrammatically represented in Figures 34 and 35. It will be noted that the suspension points are shown as being vertically below the crane hook. Although single suspension points are shown, multiple suspension points for use with two or more crane hooks can be provided, as can multiple load attachment points.

Fig 34

Fig 35

b) Lifting Spreader A lifting spreader is diagrammatically represented in Figure 36. It can be considered to be a strut in pure compression. The line of action of the top sling and the load suspension point coincide at the neutral axis at the end of the spreader.

Fig 36

c) Lifting Frame A lifting frame is diagrammatically represented in Figure 37 which is in effect a of a beam and spreader. combination of four spreaders. In addition to the above types there can be a combination One of the simpler forms is represented in Figure 38.

25

Fig 37

Fig 38

5.5 Chain Slings

5.5.1. Types of Chain and Grades of Steel Chain is manufactured types of chain slings. in various grades of steel and then formed into different marks:

The grade of steel is identified by the following Identification (M) (S) Mark

Grade M Grade S Grade T

Fig 39

(T)

Two chains which are identical in size but made from different grades of steel can have completely different Working Load Limits (WLl) Remember - Do not judge the WLL of a chain by its size. Check the WLL marked on the sling or the grade mark and size so that it can be compared with the SWL tables. See Appendix 7. 5.5.2. Double Leg Slings

Fig 40

a Orthodox Straight

Lift

b Choke Hitch

c Basket

Hitch

d Three Leg Sling

e Four Leg Sling

f Endless Sling

26

5.5.3. Forms of Chain Slings

Single leg sling If the ends can pass through one another it is reevable collar chain sling.

~aaaDDaD~~
Fig 41

Collar chain sling

Fig 42

5.5.4. Shortening Slings

Chain must be passed down through the clutch

Unloaded

chain

Fig 45

"'

Loaded Chain

Double leg slings fitted with shorteninq clutches

If it is necessary to shorten a chain a suitable adjuster should be used so that the chain links are not subjected to excessive stress.

27

NEVER PASS IT UP THROUGH and eventual failure.

THE CLUTCH - this will cause severe distortion

Chains must never be shortened by a knot or twisting the chains.

Never pass the chain up through the clutch.

This link will bend and fail

Fig 46
Unloaded chain Loaded Chain

Fig 47

5.5.5. Basic Rules

Chain slings are used frequently should always be observed.

to erect steel and therefore the following rules

NEVER
a) Lift with the point of the hook.

b)

End hook

Fig 49

c)

Join a broken chain

Fig 50

28

d)

Cross or twist a chain

Fig 51

e)

Use excessively pitted, corroded or damaged chain

Fig 52

f)

Hammer a chain to straighten it

Fig 53

g)

Pass chain over a sharp comer

Fig 54

h)

Over load a chain

Fig 55

x x

29

5.6

Lifting Techniques
and points to watch when using chain slings

Some lifting techniques

5.6.1. The Choke Hitch

A common slinging configuration for lifting steel is the choke hitch using double leg chain slings.

The choke hitch gives the necessary grip to prevent slippage and the double chain sling provides the balance to give a stable lift. BUT REMEMBER Chain manufacturers now recommend you re-rate the SWL by a factor of 0.8 therefore a stamped 16t at 0° set of chains would only be capable of lifting vertically 16.4t x 0.8 = 13.1t. Therefore the maximum vertical lift in using 16.4t chains in this configuration would be 13.1t. Do not forget that the angle a must also be taken into account when using multileg slings and this will further reduce the lifting capability of the sling. TYPICAL GRADE T CHAIN
-

Angle a WWL SLL

0° 16.4t 13.1t

30° 15.8t 12.6t

60° 14.2t 1'.4t

90° 11.6t 9.3t

LIFT TYPE STRAIGHT LIFT CHOKE HITCH LIFT

For example: Double leg chain sling marked 16tat 0° if used at 90° with a choke hitch has a safe WOrking load of 9.3t
30

A choke hitch creates a grip and produces crushing force around the load being lifted, therefore it is extremely important to ensure that: a) the load will not collapse under this additional pressure such as bundles of thin wall tubes or pipes (but also see Fig 71).

b) Adequate packing is used to prevent the chain links from being bent over sharp comers. The amount of packing required varies according to the particular job and in a manual of this type it is not possible to cater for every situation. The illustrations in Figures 58 to 62 provide some examples of good and bad practice.

Fig 58

Fig 59

Wooden packers will crush and break causing the load to become unstable.

Wooden packing placed carefully at the edge of each flange to keep the chain away from the sharp comer

Fig 60

Fig 51

Fig 52

Bad practice - timber packing will split under load and may fall out

31

c)

Never hammer the bight to increase the grip force since the chain or hook may be damaged or overloaded. If the hook is positioned properly the weight of the load will be enough to provide a secure bight.

It is always better to use chain slings of sufficient length so that: a) the angle between the legs will not be excessive ie. the longer the chain the smaller the angle. the load can be lifted near each end which will give greater stability and minimise the access problem of reaching the chain to disconnect once it is in position.

b)

Angle a too large

~~ ~~ When connecting the crane hook to the chain to lift make sure that: a) the hook is placed centrally over the load (See Fig 59).

c)

On two leg chain the hooks should point away from one another (See Fig 66).

Fig 66 32

Turning Material Through 90° using a Choke Hitch

Note the position of the bight near the edge of the flange. The hook should lie flat on the flange and just project over the flange end to avoid bending the chain around this comer "', Stand at side of beam away from tum. Point ~~_o04OC.o-,:p,,\) hooks away from each other (See Fig 67).
Fig 67 ,..
~Jt....'-"~J-"-J.-k.'_":...6.~:;""::'_'

Lower onto bottom flange

Pack to allow chain under flange

Fig 68

Fig 69

Position of the loop is face upwards during the turning operations.

5.6.2. The Basket Hitch Material can be lifted using a double leg chain shaped in a basket hitch in particular situations. Care must be exercised when considering the type of slinging configuration because of the tendency for the legs to pull together making the load unstable. Only use this method of lifting where the load will remain level and where the legs of the sling will not move towards each other.
33

Loose loads such as piping should not be carried in a double chain leg basket hitch. Also see Figures 116 and 117.

Fig 71

A basket hitch can be very useful when lifting heavy loads which have secure catchment points which will prevent the chain legs moving in.

Fig 72

5.7

Bull dog grips

Bull dog grips are used to clamp wire ropes where they are made off at eyes or shackles. The size of bull dog grips should match the size of the rope. The correct method of assembly is shown in Figure 73. Wire rope diameter (0)
<20 <30

Number of Grips 3 4

34

5.8

Slings and Slinging

5.8.1. Slings a) The Single leg Sling Remember-The hook of a single chain sling placed in the master ring does NOT double the SWl of the slings (See Fig 74). The master link is the weak link. Although the chain has been doubled the master link can only carry the WLl of the single chain. If both collars are engaged in the crane hook the SWl is double that of a single chain (See Fig 75). Normally the collars would be gathered in a shackle before being attached to the hook. REMEMBER the shackle must be rated at twice the SWl Do NOT use a shackle in the loop of the chain. b) The Double leg Sling (Brothers) For details of Fig 76. see Section 5.5

Fig 74

Fig 75

c) Three leg Sling Three leg chain slings can be very useful when used in a choke hitch to lift irregular loads. The WLL of the sling must be re-rated because of the choke hitch in each leg and the angle between legs. The angle between the legs can be established by measuring arid doubling the angle 13 between the outmost leg and the vertical axis. Once you have obtained the angle check the appropriate chart for the correct SWL. Remember the angle between the legs must never exceed 90°. 35

The SWL of a three leg sling used in basket hitch configuration will remain the same as for an orthodox lift As always account must be taken of the angle between the legs. d) Four Leg Chain Sling a is the angle between diagonally opposite legs and should never exceed 90°. Once you have estimated a check the Appendix 7 to obtain the SWL.

Four leg chain slings can also be used in choke or basket hitch configuration. Remember to re-rate the sling accordingly. Take care when using three and four leg slings that each leg is equally loaded. Situation can arise where only two of the legs take the full weight of the load.

Fig 79

Under these conditions the sling selected should be capable of lifting the full load by two legs. e) Hooking Back Unwanted Sling Legs Always place the hook of the unused leg in the master link (See Fig 80.)

Double leg sling with only one leg in use. The WLL must be halved
Fig 80

36

Four sling with two legs in use (Fig 81) The WLL must be halved and proper account must be taken of the angle between the legs.

Rg81

Hang hooks of all sling legs in master link when lift has been completed to ensure that hooks do not snag. (Fig 82)

Fig 82

5.8.2. Estimating Capacity

a) Angles Between Sling Legs Double Leg Slings When using double the tables provided. and therefore great errors will affect the leg and multi leg slings the SWL must be established using The table in Appendix 7 shows the SWL for various angles care should be taken when judging the angle since any safe use of equipment.

The following techniques will h_elpestimate the correct angle between sling legs.

!
L

1.4 L Fig 83

= Length

1.8 L
of Sling Leg

Therefore if the length of the leg is equal to the distance attachment point, the angle will be approximately 60°.
37

between each sling

Three Leg Slings Angle between legs is double the angle Angle

f3

= 30° + 30° = 60°

Fig 84

Four Leg Slings Use same formula as in double leg slings but remember the angle which must be used is between diagonally opposite legs. b) Weight of Load It is extremely important to know the weight of the load to be lifted. This information may be stencilled on the load or contained in the delivery list, advice note or drawings. All loads over 1T should be marked with their weight However, if weights have not been given it will be necessary to estimate the load to be lifted and this should be done using the formula given in Fig 85. Guessing the weight of a load which is being lifted by a crane operating just within its SWL limit can lead to instability or failure if the weight has been assessed wrongly.
Volume = (L

x W x 1) (Assuming

uniform thickness).

·r 1.·_·1-- \
T

.Ir

~
'

W id
I
l_L'_~~

-l---

+--, '
Ib
I/

W.3~

~V'"X0.80XO

T~V=LX3.2DXT
!

Fig 85 38

Material Steel Concrete Timber (average)

Weight (kg/cubic metre)

7850 2300 560

c) Centre of Gravity (C of G) To achieve a balance lift it is necessary to identify the C of G so that the sling can be placed equidistant from the sling legs or adjusted to take account of the unbalanced load. This can be calculated easily be breaking the load into regular shapes.

!
"======

J
~

~1 '===::f::=;:========'
Unknown C of G

======

Fig 86

A." + Bw+

Cw

If the C of G has to be determined in other planes the same method can be used. Failure to establish the correct C of G may result in the load tilting or toppling. .

39

Examples The sling legs are of equal length and secured at each end of the load. Note how the load has tilted 15° from horizontal.

Slings legs are of equal length and attached so they are equidistant from the C of G.

The sling legs are adjusted using a shortening clutch to lift horizontal with the sling attached to each end of the load .. (See Fig 45).

Fig 87

5.8.3. Basic Rules

a) Lifting Tackle 1. Check for damage, excessive wear and rust before use. 2. Keep tackle away from extreme heat, cold, acids and other corrosive substances. 3. Store tackle properly when not in use. 4. Check the SWl and identification number before use. b) Safe Working loads (SWL) 1. Establish the weight of the load to be lifted - (remember you must include the weight of the lifting tackle in this calculation). 2. Select the correct size of tackle and lifting configuration which will lift the load safely.
40

3. Remember that using multi-leg sling can sometimes result in two of the legs carrying most of the weight. In these circumstances assume a two leg lift and select the size of multi leg sling accordingly. 4. Shackles must be fitted with the correct pin in order to lift the specified

~L

5. Never exceed the SWL and ensure the tackle has been re-rated to take account of choke or basket hitch configuration. c) Slinging 1. Check all lifting tackle and connection once the slack has been taken up. Lift slightly and check the balance of the load. 2. Never grasp a sling or load. If necessary use the open palm to hold in place or better still a wooden pole or batten. 3. Do not touch the hoist block. 4. Never stand, walk or crawl under a load. 5. Never ride on the hook or load. 6. Never tie knots or wrap slings around the hook to shorten the sling. ·7. Never twist or join chains. 8. Make sure the sling rides freely on the hook and individual links are not locked or their movement impeded. 9. Where possible keep sling angles less than 900 by using the correct length of sling. 10. Ensure packing is used to protect sling against sharp comers. 11.Do not hammer down the bight of a choke hitch.

5.9

Hooks, Eyebolts and Shackles

5.9.1. Hooks
a) Hooks on chain slings Chain slings are very useful devices for lifting loads in difficult conditions since they withstand a certain degree of rough handling without being damaged. However, they require to be properly connected to the lifting appliance and load, if the load is to be lifted safely. Their hooks have to be provided with an effective device which will prevent the sling, load or other device being accidently displaced from the hook.

OR
Have their hooks shaped in such way as to minimise as far as possible the risk of displacement
41

Fig 88

The examples of hooks shown in Fig 88 meet the requirements of the Regulations and are the type normally used on site. However, chain slings with conventional hooks sometimes arrive with a delivery of material and care has to be taken to avoid inadvertently using chain slings or cranes with this type of hook (Fig 89).

Illegal on construction DO NOT USE

sites
Fig 89

x x x

b) Use of Hooks Never carry material on the point of the hook.

ii

Never load the hook in this manner. The hook will stretch and break.

Fig 91

iii

Never leave unwanted slings hanging from the hook. Only the slings in use must be on the hook.

Fig 92

iv Always make sure that the load is supported in the saddle or seat of the hook, use a shackle if necessary.

42

·Every sling for raising or lowering on a lifting appliance be securely attached by a method which will not result in damage to the sling or supporting lifting gear.

The ring of the sling and point of the hook may be damaged because the lifting ring is too small

Fig 94

Use a Bow shackle to connect the eye of separate slings together before placing on the hook.

Fig9S

The upper end of the double or multiple leg slings used for raising or lowering must be connected by means of a shackle or link of adequate strength. c) Hook check list Hooks should be checked for defects such as: Excessive wear on the top lifting point or seat of the hook. ii Stretching of the point or opening of the throat.

iii Twisting of the hook.

iv Gouge marks, scoring. cracking, corrosion or distortion. v Failure of the safety catch.

These defects can adversely effect the lifting capability of the hook and should be reported immediately to the supervisor.

43

5.9.2. Eyebolts
There are three types of eyebolts commonly used for lifting purposes.

a) Collar Eyebolt
Fig 96

b) Eyebolts with Link

c) Dynamo Eyebolt

a) Collar Eyebolt The eye of this bolt is smaller than the eye of the dynamo eyebolt and wifl nottake the hook of a lifting appliance without a shackle. It is designed to lift to its rated working load limit in the vertical plane only, but will accept an off centre lift at a reduced safe working load. A careful check must be made to establish loading from Appendix 1. the safe working load for inclined

Collar eyebolts are normally used for permanent attachment to heavy equipment and are usually fitted in pairs. Mis-matching can be a serious problem with the various eyebolt sizes which are now available and therefore a section on this subject has been included in

5.9.2.e.
b) Eyebolts with Links The link is an integral part of the eyebolt and is large enough to accept a hook. They are regarded as general purpose eyebolts and are used in preference to the collar eyebolt whenever the lifting axis cannot be confined to the vertical plane. It can be used to lift the rated SWl provided the angle of pull is not greater than 15° from the vertical axis, (less than 30° angle between the sling legs) otherwise it has to be re-rated.

44

c) Dynamo Eyebolts This type of eyebolt is designed for vertical lifting only and must not be used for any off-centre lift. The eye of the Dynamo should be large enough to accept direct entry of a hook. Make sure the lifting device is directly above the eyebolt before raising the load and avoid pushing or pulling the load into position since this may produce an offcentre lift, d) Security and Alignment of Eyebolts Collar eyebolts and eyebolts with links which are used in pairs must have their cross axis aligned. Any deviation must be less than 5°.

seLmax ,

-r--- "': '" ----.-.~

~!

'.

c:

~I

_--:'..'

~-.' i

....::. _._

-,

50

max

Fig9S

If necessary machined washers or shims may be inserted under the collar to give the necessary adjustment for this alignment to be achieved. Washers or shims should be as thin as practicable to achieve the necessary alignment and no more than one should be used under each collar. The diameter of the washer or shim should be the same as the collar under which it is placed. Check the eyebolt has been fully inserted since any gap between the machined fact of the collar and load will greatly weaken the ability of the eyebolt to withstanding off-centre forces. If it does not screw fully home by hand: DO NOT force the eye with a bar or other levers. Remember eyebolts should never be over-tightened. ii Remove the eyebolt and check the depth of tapped hole to find out it is long enough to accept the bolt or has been partially blocked. iii Check the thread and diameter of the eyebolt against the thread and diameter of the tapped hole to ensure they are compatible and are not wom or damaged. iv Examine the machined face and undercut to ensure it is not marked or scored preventing the bolt being fully inserted.

45

e Mis-matching Over recent years a change from imperial to metric measurement, together with the introduction of new thread sizes has resulted in a great deal of confusion between eyebolt and existing tapped hole dimensions and thread sizes. Eyebolts and tapped holes now in use have one of five possible thread forms: British Standard Whitworth British Standard Rne Unified Coarse Unified Fine International Standard BSW BSF UNC UNF ISO

The introduction of the last thread form has lead to a greater. possibility of mismatches and therefore great care has to be exercised when selecting an eyebolt to fit a tapped hole. The danger is that one size will engage with the next size up. Examples: Metric M16 eyebolt will enter and screw round twice in M18 hole M18 eyebolt will enter and full screw into M20 hole M12 eyebolt will enter and full screw around five times in "BSP and so on Before engaging and eyebolt in a tapped hole, check for marking W7h-Ch i will the size and thread type of both the eyebolt and hole ie M18 eyebolt M18 hole 5/8· BSW' 5/8" BSW hole 3/8" BSP 3/8· BSF hole . icate )(

If in doubt check the size and thread type of eyebolt and holes before engaging both components. 5.9.3. Shackles A shackle consists of a body and threaded pin made from various grades of steel . and normally used to conned a load to a lifting appliance. Shackles come in three main types: a) Dee Shackle b) Bow Shackle c) Grab Shackle

Fig 99 46

The principal difference between the types shown can be summarised as follows: a) Dee Shackles These come in various sizes and are used for general engineering purposes. The shape caters for the shackle to be loaded top and bottom on the longitudinal axis. The opening across the jaw should be kept as small as possible but should still allow for adequate movement between the shackle and other components. Check the SWL to make sure it is compatible with the load to be lifted.

The pull at the top and bottom should be along the longitudinal axis

Fig 100

b) Bow Shackle The bow shackle is also made from various steel grades and has a larger internal area than a Dee shackle of similar SWL. This can be useful when attaching several lifting comoonemsto the body of the shackle. The shape of the body permits balanced off-centre loading within the crown area. The SWL determines the size of shackle to be used but the jaw width should be kept as small as possible within the permitted SWL range without causing undue restriction of movement.

Fig 101

47

c) Grab Shackle This is a Dee shackle with a countersunk pin. Normally used in grab operations. d) Shackle Pins

3
Fig 102

4
5

§)

Dee and Bow shackles may be fitted with all1ypes. fitted with types 3 and 4.

Grab shackles may only be

Eye and collar pins types 1 and 2 are for general use provided the shackle can be seen in use and there is no greater tendency for the pin to unscrew. Countersunk pins types 3 and 4 are ideal when the shackle has to pass close to fixed structures where the projecting head of some other pin type may catch . .Type 5 is used in permanent or semi permanent situations or where there is a tendency forthe pin to unscrew. The plain part of the pin should project through the shackle so that when the nut is saewed on the pin it does not tighten against the body of the shackle. The cotter pin will prevent any movement in the position of the nut.

5.9.4. Basic Rules Shackles must be positioned and loaded properly in order to avoid damage, distortion and possible failure. 1. Take care to select the correct size of shackle for the job. It is wrong to assume a shackle need only carry the weight of the load. The example shown in Fig 103 shows that each shackle will carry the forces generated in the sling legs. The same principle can be seen in other situations such as the anchor for snatch or rope blocks. The pull on the anchor is more than twice the load being lifted therefore a shackle must be selected which will carry the total pulley force.
48

PuII3T+ friction of the

snatch block

I.i
~

Load sr

on the rope
(approx 10"10) -,

Anchor6T·

friction in the block

t
Fig 103

2. Dee shackles are primarily designed to take the load through their longitudinal axis. (Fig 100). 3. Note how the Bow shackle is connected to the sling anchor so that the pull in each leg of the sling is taken by the crown of the shackle and the pin carries the vertical load. (See Fig 101)

4. Always make sure the pin is screwed fully into the shackle and that the collar is hand tight against the shackle body. see Fig 104. The only exception to this rule is a Hexagon Head and Nut pin which is designed to rotate freely in the shackle and has a cotter pin inserted to prevent movement in the nut. If you experience difficulty engaging the pin check for thread damage or distortion of the pin or shackle.

Gap between collar and body of shackle -the pin should be fully engaged.

JL
Fig 104

V 1\"
y
.' /

Never use a bolt to replace the properly designed . shackle pin. A bolt does not have the same lifting capability and will distort and fail in use.

5. Lifting brackets or lugs fitted to the load should allow for the shackle to take the load along its longitudinal axis

Fig 105

Fig 106 49

Correct way to position lifting bracket.

6. Always avoid eccentric loading of the shackle by using as small a jaw size as practicable within, of course, the specified SWL or by inserting spacers at either side of the pin to reduce the gap.

Hook

Fig 107

X
Fig 109

H 10 9'

7. Avoid passing a rope around a shackle in this manner because of the crushing effect on the rope strands due to the very tight radius. Remember the safe working load of the rope is only equivalent to a single rope and it must not be regarded as being double.

8. Always gather the eyes of a double or multiple leg sling in a shackle before placing it on the crane hook. This will ensure the hook is loaded in the bowl.

Fig 110

9. Avoid placing the pin of the shackle against a moving surface in case it unscrews from the shackle body.
Fig 111

50

5.10 Wire Rope Slings

Wire rope slings are made by returning the ends of the wire rope to form lifting eyes and then splicing the rope or applying a ferrule. (Fig 112). Splicing has now been largely superseded attachment. by the ferrule or socket method of

Many wire rope slings have lifting eyes fitted with thimbles which provide a robust inner skin 10 protect the inside of the eye during lifting operations. Sling lifting eyes without thimbles are available and generally referred to as 'soft' eyes. (Fig 113) Extra care has to be taken with this type of eye since the wire rope at the top of the eye tends to flatten when the sling is loaded and may cause damage to the strands.

Thimble

refer to as 'soft' eye Wire rope slings

Fig'12

Fig 113

5.10.1. Types of Wire Rope Slings

Some examples of slinging configuration using wire rope slings:
Use wooden packers to prevent slipping of wires.

a) Cradle Sling Normally used for lifting heavy stable loads. Always make sure the legs of the sling will not pull together during the lift. The more rope making contact with a cylindrical surface the less possibility of slippage, so check that the correct length of sling has been selected to achieve a good grip ie the sling should not be too long. If the angle between the sling legs is too wide use a spreader bar or lifting beam to eliminate the angle.

Fig 114 51

b) Halshing Sling Method of using a single wire rope sling in place of an endless sling. A stirrup should be fitted around the 'bight' to prevent the rope being damaged. This can be removed once the lifting operation has been completed. The 'bight' gives additional grip to stop the load slipping out of the sling.

c) Double Wrap Slings Another method of achieving a grip around the load which will prevent it slipping. Two slings are used which gives a higher SWL than a single sling and each sling can be positioned away from the centre to help stabilise the load during the lift.

d) Reeving Slings Using two slings to achieve a grip around the load with one eye of the sling reeved through the other forming a 'bight'. Normally used for lifting tubes, bars, rods, etc to prevent their slipping.

Fig 117

52

e) Combination Slings Can be used for lifting heavy steel beams and columns, etc where it is necessary to maintain the correct angle between the sling legs by joining slings together in the manner shown.

~
Fig 118

<7

/ .

is

'\

5.10.2. Damaged Slings

.,_

Length-10 R""" diamete' d

x

-I

_jd

:_'.
Fig 119 Always measure diameter across its widest point

Do NOT use the wire rope sling if the number of visible broken strands exceed 5% of the total wires over a length of 10 times the rope diameter. Although this legal requirement that no more than 5% of the strands may be broken, 6S6570 recommends a smaller limit on the number of broken strands when the wire rope is being used with a factor of safety less than 5. In a typical 13mm diameter wire rope of construction 6 x 1~ (6 representing the number of strands and 19 indicating the number of wires in each strand) 5% or more of visible broken strands over a length of 10 times the rope diameter would represent: 6x 19 5% of 114 10 x 13mm

= =

114 strands 6 broken strands over a length of 130mm

Therefore if there are 6 or more broken strands over a 130mm length of the rope DO NOT USE
53

5.10.3. Basic Rules DO NOT Pass slings over sharp comers - use suitable packing where necessary. See Fig 113 Overload the sling. Drag slings from under loads, drop them from a height or use them for rolling loads. Using slings which have kinks, cuts or crushed strands. Loops in slack slings being pulled tight and kinking. Extreme heat or cold Inspect the sling for damage before use and ensure the Safe Working Load of the sling can be clearly established. Avoid shock loading by raising the sling slowly.

DO NOT DO NOT

AVOID AVOID AVOID ALWAYS

ALWAYS

5.11 Fibre Rope

Fibre ropes should NOT be used for lifting any loads over 0.5 tonne or as guys 5.11.1. Types of Fibre Fibre ropes are made from either natural or synthetic fibres. a) Natural fibre Natural fibre includes manilla, sisal and hemp. The types of most commonly used are manilla and sisal. Manilla is strong, durable and has the ability to withstand rough handling and weathering. However, it tends to rot unless it is properly maintained and requires to be regularly cleaned and aired to dry out. Avoid prolonged exposure to sunlight. ii Sisal tends to be less durable than manilla and generally not as strong. It is coarse and rough when handled and should be regularly maintained. b) Synthetic fibre SynthetiC fibre includes Nylon, polyester, polypropylene and polyethylene rope and these are generally replacing natural fibre ropes because they stand up better to wear, rot, chemicals, impact and abrasion. Nylon is probably the best well known of the synthetic fibre ropes and is very flexible, light to carry and has good resilience against attack by fungus or rot Care has to be taken near heat since nylon will melt at high temperatures. This
54

may be caused by constant frictional heat, resulting in the other fibres melting. Avoid prolonged exposure to sunlight by placing the rope undercover when not in use. Although resistant to alkalis it will deteriorate rapidly in contact with acids and paints. ii Polyester commonly known by its trade names such as Dacron and Terylene. It is very similar to Nylon but heavier and not as strong. However, it is more resistantto the effects of sunlight and attack by acid and alkalis. Nevertheless, all chemicals should be avoided where possible.

iii Polypropylene is distinctive because it comes in a variety of colours. One major advantage is that it is very light in weight and will readily float on top of water. However, it is not as strong as nylon or polyester nor does it have the same ability to withstand low level to medium temperatures. Highly resistant to attack by acids and alkalis but prolonged exposure to sun light should be avoided. iv Polyethylene ropes are not as strong as other types of synthetic fibre ropes but will resist attack by acids and alkalis with the exception of nitric acid. This type of fibre rope is NOT recommended for any form of lifting. Size for size the relative strength of the various ropes can be compared against nylon. Nylon 100% Polyester 85% Polypropylene 60% Manilla 37%

5.11.2. Cutting Fibre Rope

Sometimes it is necessary to cut fibre rope into manageable lengths. Whenever this is done the cut ends must always be treated to stop the rope fraying. This is easily done USing a back splice crown knot, dipping in glue or the following method which will keep the ends of the rope tidy. Use a sufficiently long length of twine to form a loop A and hold it in position using thumb and forefinger. Take end marked X and tightly whip it round this loop and then pass this end through the loop A as shown. Pull on the Y end until the loop A is undemeath the whipping about half way along its length.
55
Y

x x

Make sure both ends are tight before trimming off X and Y.
Fig 120

,
I,._.gnal position of the loop A

5.11.3. Care of the fibre ropes: 1. Avoid 2. Avoid 3. Check 4. Check Dragging ropes along the ground, sharp edges or leaving in damp and dirty conditions. Chemicals, paints, prolonged strong sunlight and excessive heat. For wear, cuts, nicks, bum marks and discolouration. For deterioriation in general condition of rope such as as reduction in diameter, excessively loose strands and powder like dust coming from the rope interior. Store in a cool dry well ventilated place when not in use, preferably on a wall hanger clear of the floor. Remove excessive dirt, mud and other abrasive/corrosive substances by washing it in clean cool water and drying in a well ventilated area.

5. Always 6. Always

5.12 Knots, Hitches and Bends for Construction Purposes

An essential requirement for every erector employed on construction ability to securely tie the various ropes or lashings used. work is the

The following gives advice on how best this can be done and the pojnts to consider regarding rope strength and slippage. The main activities are: a) securing ladders, Youngman's stagings and scaffold boards;

b) tailing-in and other guide ropes when lifting awkward pieces; c) hauling of bolts, tools, wire ropes, etc from below; d) securing loose loads tightly together to prevent displacement. Make sure you select the correct size and type of rope for the purpose. the strength of each type of knot can be found in the Appendix 10. The size of rope that is required can be established from Appendix 8. Once you have selected the correct type consider the following points before use: a) the strength of the rope is reduced by 50% wherever knots and bends are formed, 25% in the case of hitches. Remember this fact when forming the knot bend or hitch; 56 Advice on

b) most ropes when wet lose 30-40% of their strength, therefore the SWL tables give values based on dry rope strength during straight pulls; c) due to the waxy surface on polyethylene and to some extent on polypropylene rope there is a tendency for most knots to slip, therefore, it is advisable when using this type of rope to double up the knot for added security; . d) avoid passing rope over sharp corners and do not pull rope around bends which will damage the outer surface of the rope; If it is necessary to change the direction of pull a properly anchored single sheave block should be used. e) avoid using knotted ropes for raising material or in conjunction with rope blocks; f) knots if used in sequence on the one rope system should be regarded as one knot for the purpose of reducing the safe working load of the rope.

5.13 Remote release shackle

This is a column lifting device eliminating the need to climb to the top of the newly erected column in order to detach the crane hook.

Ready 10r lifting After release

During

lifting

Fig 121

After lifting the column the shackle is released by pulling the release ropes first one way and then the other five or six times. The rachet action withdraws the pin allowing the shackle to be lifted clear of the column after it has been fixed into position.
57

6.

CRANES

6.1 Crane Safety

The majority of steel work today is erected using various forms of power driven lifting appliances. A crane is a lifting appliance and the types most commonly used in construction fall into three main categories: Mobile, tower and derrick cranes. Accidents involving cranes usually result in serious consequences, care must be taken by: to ensure the crane is operated within safe limits. to ensure that the loads imposed by the crane can be sustained by the ground or any means of support. by checking both in the static condition and when travelling under load. therefore, great

to ensure that steel work offered up by the crane for fixing is properly slung and that the load is adequately controlled during the lift. The following basic crane rules should be observed. 6.1.1 Mobile Cranes - Self propelled (Figs 122 and 123)

a) Stability - The ground on which the crane will stand must be firm, level and free from obstruction. For "blocked duties" all outriggers must be fully extended, jacked and locked. Timber or steel plates should be placed beneath the pads of the outriggers to spread the load over a larger area. The machine should be level before attempting the lift and in many cranes there is a 'level bubble' which can be used to check this condition .
.,.__

Approx
1 metre off plumb

Fig 122

>It)
Co Co c:(

70mm out of

By using suitable blOCks under the outriggers, the ground bearing area is increased from A to B. By using the outriggers stability is increased from support
points X to Y.

~~nr~

__ ~~lev:_l

58

Once the jacks have taken the weight of the crane a visual inspection should be carried out to ensure that the wheels, where recommended by the manufacturer are clear of the ground. Further checks should be made during the initial stage of the work for any "out of level" movement so that it can be corrected before continuing. Remember for every centimetre the base is "out of level" the top of a high jib may be out of plumb by 15 times this amount. This will put a side pull on a jib and cause stress for which it is not designed. b) Crane Duties Some types of mobile crane are designed to operate 'free on wheels' which means lifting without the use of out-riggers. This must only be carried out if the crane is designed for 'free on wheels' duties and the crane is permitted to be used in this mode. Great care must be taken to ensure tyre pressure is correct and that general tyre condition is good since a soft tyre will cause the crane to be out of level particularly when slewing over the soft wheel and overturning may occur. c) Factors Affect~ng Lifting Capacity Crane manufacturers specific duties. supply capacity charts showing the safe working load for

These take account of the length of the jib or boom and the distance between the centre of the slewing ring and hoist line. The longer the jib and greater the radius the lower the safe working load limit becomes. However, additional factors can affect the lifting capacity of the crane and the crane driver should check that: i) the correct amount of ballast has been fitted;

Counterbalance Minimum hook radius

Ballast

Fig 123
59

ii) account has been taken of the change in lifting capacity on some cranes when slewing through different quadrants.

Fig 124

d) Suspended

Loads in Transit

Lifting and carrying with a suspended load requires special care since ground conditions may vary and additional stress will be set up in the crane superstructure due to travelling. i) the jib length should be kept as short as possible;

ii) the jib angle should be kept well within the safe working load but not too near the vertical in case the movement of the load causes the jib to fold back on itself; iii) the ground over which the crane will travel should be firm, level and free from obstruction. It may be necessary to use crane mats for soft ground conditions and these should be positioned before attempting to move the crane; iv) the load must be carried as near to the ground as possible and should be kept in line with the chassis of the crane by engaging the appropriate locks; v) a banksman should be employed to watch for proximity hazards and in the case of long loads to control the load using a hand-line in order to prevent is striking adjacent buildings or the crane jib itself.

6.1.2 Mobile Cranes - Crawler and Wheeled

These types of crane are used to ensure mobility about the site. There will normally be a full slew superstructure and they may be fitted with a lattice type strut jib or a telescopic jib. On larger cranes the lattice jib will be assembled and dismantled on site and care must be taken that the correct procedures are observed. With telescopic jibs it should be recognised reduces as the jib is telescoped outward. that the safe load capacity quickly

60

The crawler crane is given traction by its weight and it is suitable for rough terrain work. Wheeled cranes may be driven on the public highway and may need to extend outriggers before being used. A minimum distance of 600mm should be maintained part of the crane. 6.1.3 Tower Cranes a) Rail Mounted Cranes The steel rails on which the bogies run must be joined together either by fishplates or other means so that the track as laid can be considered to be a continuous length from end to end. Stops of robust construction must be positioned at each end of the continuous length of track. These stops must be bolted direct to the track and not Clipped. When the crane is not in use local stops must be fitted at each end of each bogie assembly on each track. These local stops should be secured to the rail in such a manner as to prevent movement. It is preferable that the stops extend across the two rails forming the track. b) General Points on Tower Cranes It is essential that a tower crane should at all times operate from a firm level base: i) due to the wide slewing structures and buildings; area great care must be taken to avoid other between obstacles and any

ii) high tower cranes may be required to be frtted with aircraft warning lights if situated near flight paths; iii) where possible, cranes should be positioned so that loads do not pass over occupied premises, public thoroughfares and roads, rivers and railways; iv) clear signals must be given and therefore a banks man will be required for loads which cannot be seen by the driver. Radio communication may be necessary between the driver and slinger. v) consideration must be given to weather condition such as high winds or poor visibility which affect safe operation; vi) tower cranes are used to lift light loads over large areas and this means, in many cases, lifting loads close to the safe working load of the crane. Great care must be taken not to lift a load which is not plumb, since any out of vertical load could result in overloading the crane. vii) when leaving the crane unattended all loads should be disengaged and the hook raised as high as possible at an appropriate radius.
61

During adverse weather conditions and after working hours 'Out of Service' procedures should be followed which would include turning the main jib to the side of the tower away from the wind and placing it in a free slew condition. 6.1.4 Derrick Cranes sites are the Scotch Derrick and the

The two types normally seen on construction Guy Derrick. -

Both these derricks have a higher lifting capacity at greater radius than most other types of crane because of the vertical mast used to support the derricking jib. The basic difference between the two cranes is the method used to secure the vertical mast. The mast of the Scotch Derrick is supported by two rigid backstays whereas the Guy Derrick mast is held by a number of anchored steel wire ropes. Points to consider when using these cranes are: erection and dismantling of derrick cranes must be carried out under proper supervision by personnel who have experience in undertaking this task safely; ground conditions for crane standing weight of the crane, load and ballast; must be firm and level for the combined

the type and amount of crane ballast used should be in accordance with the manufacturer's instruction and must be properly secured to prevent displacement; scotch derrick cranes mounted on rails or travelling gabbards require adequate track foundations and the rails lined, levelled and securely joined using suitable fishplates. Where holes have to be made in the fishplate or rails, these should be drilled and not flame cut; suitable wheel stops must be positioned at either end of the track and securely fixed to the rail by bolts. Clips should not be used for fixing end stops; When 'Out of Service' or adverse weather conditions apply, crane stops should be secured at either end of the crane bogies. These stops should be placed hard against the bogie wheels and the clamps correctly tightened onto the rail to prevent movement.

6.2

Crane Operations

Further information will be found on crane use in BS 7121: Part 1: 1989 Safe use of cranes, Part 1,General. This part deals with common features of crane use and other parts will be issued in due course. Crane Signals are shown in Appendix 9. 6.2.1

Manufacturer's Handbook

The crane-maker's handbook should be readily available to the crane driver for reference and supplemented by training and additional information where necessary.

62

6.2.2 Automatic Safe Load Indicator

This device when fitted to a crane automatically gives, within specified tolerance limits, a warning when nearing the safe working load of the crane and a furthel warning when the safe working load has been exceeded.

6.2.3 Tandem/Special

Lifts

Tandem lifting should only be considered if the dimensions or weight of the loae cannot be safely handled by a single crane. Tandem lifting must not to be carriee using tower cranes. The whole operation must be carefully planned. It should not be assumed that the weight will be shared equally between the cranes since manipulation of the load intc position may cause instability.

63

The cranes used should have similar characteristics and the safe working load of each crane should normally be at least 25% in excess of the calculated shared load. The lift should be carried out under proper supervision and the crane drivers and banksmen should clearly understand each step of the operation. The banksman, who should be experienced in the work and should wear distinctive clothing, must give instructions to crane drivers from a position where they can be clearly seen. No one should be in the Vicinity of the lift unless they are directly involved in the operation.

6.3

Use of Cranes

6.3.1. Lifting a) Crane Blocks Crane blocks with exposed lifting eyes or bolts must be carefully checked during the statutory weekly examination. If eyes or bolts are found to be darnaqed they should be changed immediately. Blocks should always be reeved symmetrically or tilting may result causing excess wear on the rope and sheave leading to component failure. b) Precautions Never lift anything which is greater than the SWL of the crane. Never snatch loads when lifting as this can impose a shock load on the crane and associated tackle. Never drag a load. This imposes side loading on the jib.

Fig 126
Side load at jib head

--

Side load at jib head

Fig 127

c) Change of Radius-on lifting loads There is an increase in radius from a no load to a loaded condition. This is due to deflection in the jib and ropes caused by the imposition of the load. Always make allowances for this deflection when deciding on the correct radius and corresponding SWL.

c;,
I I I

1
I I I I

Fig 128

No-load radius

I:

-I'

Loaded radius

:i 1\
Ii

Change in radius

6.3.2. Travelling a) Change of radius-level ground Always take great care when moving or stopping a crane since any sudden change in direction can set up pendulum swing resulting in 'out of radius' overloading or damage due to the load striking the crane superstructure. Use hand lines where necessary especially when loads have largewind catching areas. Always travel with the load as nearto the ground as practical so that the load can be kept under control.
Fig 129

I~ -,
\
,

1\

Load radius lase in radius due to swinging load

65

b) Change of Radius sloping ground

- on
a. Level ground. Correct load radius

Try to avoid working on sloping ground but if this is not possible then remember the radius will alter when slewing (see Fig 124).

b. Uphill position The load moves in towards the machine. The decrease in load radius may cause the machine (or jib) to tip over backwards. Greatest danger of instability occurs when load set down.

c. Downhill posi1ion. The load moves out of radius away from the machine. This may overload the crane and cause the machine to tip over forwards.

Fig 130 Increase in load radius

c) Lowering or MoVing Loads

If the load is lowered or moved too quickly the impact on existing steelwork may cause the person fixing the steel to fall. Always creep the load into position over the last few metres.

6.3.3. Maintaining Suspended Loads While Connecting

Steelwork which is raised into position by crane must be secured using service bolts to fix end connections sufficient to carry the weight and stabilise the member before releasing the supporting crane sling. (See 4.3.1).
66

In the case of erecting a roof truss it will mean fixing the truss ends to the eaves! valley beam or column and also the purl ins to achieve stability before disconnecting the chain sling. The crane and lifting gear should not be released until each component or subassembly is properly secure with the appropriate number of fasteners. Time should be allowed to complete a lift to avoid the load being left suspended for long periods. If this is unavoidable, due to unforeseen circumstances such as weather, then arrangements should be made to man the crane during this period. No crane should be left unattended with a load suspended from the crane hook. If hydraulic power is used the crane must be manned with the engine running.

6.4 Personnel Lifting (See also

9.0 for Working Platforms and Access)

This must only be carried out if the lifting appliance is suitable for man lifting and the crane is permitted to be used for this purpose. Note that for man lifting: a) the lifting appliance must be fitted with automatic braking, ie (the brake is applied automatically when the control lever, handle or switch is released). b) on cranes which have both Engine Control lowering (Eel) and Free Fall (FF) the (ECl) mode must be selected before commencing man lifting. Never lower men in free fall conditions. If a key is used to select the mode of operation the key should be removed once the correct selection has been made. c) the chair or cradle used must conform with current legal requirements. The SWl should be clearly marked on the cradle together with the maximum number of persons it can carry. The guard rail height must be 1.05m to 1:15m. The toe board height must be 150mm and a mid rail should be fitted where possible.

_j

'.'5 m

t.osm tc

S7

6.5 Heavy Lifting

A heavy lift which goes smoothly is not easy nor a matter of luck. It is the result of: a) Detailed planning to establish that i) the exact weight of the lift is known, together with its associated lifting tackle; ii) the correct size of crane is available taking account of SWL, reach and slew area; iii) lifting points have been properly marked and suitable tackle made available including, if necessary, special equipment such as lifting brackets, clamps, spreader beams, etc. iv) suitable standing or support conditions exist and a competent winch or crane driver with banksman is used; v) proximity of hazards and trapping zones have been assessed and resolved; vi) weather conditions do not affect the stability of the load or lifting appliance. b) Proper briefing before commencing the lift to ensure that everyone clearly understands the purpose of the task and special precautions which must be taken to avoid mishap; c) Careful preparation by the supervisor and erection squad to: i) keep the working area clear of obstructions and hazards; slings and tackle before lift

ii) ensure a final check is made of all connections, commences; iii) establish suitable access and fixing positions;

iv) check that the proper tools and equipment are available for lining, fixing and that hand lines are attached, where necessary. A good lift is a well engineered task performed by a skilled squad who fully understands each other's job and who recognize the importance of having only one man in charge. Each man has his own specific task with the right and duty to call out if anything unforeseen is noted. Remember - teamwork makes a good lift.

6.6 Statutory Requirements

6.6.1. Inspection
This comprises of a weekly inspection to identify and assess any defects which may affect the safe operation of the lifting appliance.

68

The type of inspection will vary between cranes and guidance on this matter should be obtained from the crane manufacturer. The automatic safe load indicator and load/radius indicator should always be included as part of the weekly inspection. The results of statutory weekly inspections under the appropriate Section C. must be entered in the F91 register

6.6.2. Examination
Lifting appliance examinations must be carried out within the previous fourteen months or after substantial alterations or repair to the crane. Results of examinations should be kept with the crane. Lifting tackle associated with the crane must be examined within the previous 6 months. 6.6.3. Test Before first being taken in to use the crane must have been tested. A record of the test and examination specifying the SWL of the machine must be Signed and kept available for inspection. Further tests must also be carried out within the previous four years following this inital test and after any substantial alteration or repair.

69

7.

LIFTING AND PULLING DEVICES

For a summary of testing and examination of lifting gear see Appendix 12.

7.1 ChainBlocks
Chain Blocks are precision made pieces of equipment and as such should be treated with care and the following rules should be observed: a) ALWAYS - examine load chain to ensure that it is not twisted. In the case of a block lifting on two falls, twisting can arise from the bottom block being turned over. • • • • • use them for lifting vertically or near vertically. reeve the load chain round a load. lift with the point of the hook. lengthen the arm of a lever operated hoist by means of tube, etc. use them for towing vehicles, etc. use them inclined to the vertical as the load increases in the same manner as inclined sling legs. Side pull tends to cause the chain to slip from its coreet location and jam the lift.
Suspension Point (Safety catch or "moused")

b)

ALWAYS DONaT DONaT DONaT DONaT DO NOT DONaT

c) d) e)
f)

- throw or drop them from a height.

g) h)

A typical single fall chain block is shown in Fig 132.

Chain blocks do not work to their best advantage when used horizontally as the load chain tends to jam up in the gypsy and the pull chains pick up mud and any loose stones.

Continuous travel chain

Load chain

7.2

Snatch Blocks
Fig 132

7.2.1. Loads

The load on a snatch block anchorage depends on the weight of the load, the angle of the rope deflection and the friction per sheave. There are two types of snatch block available, The British Standard where the eye fitting can take twice the load in the lead line and the American Crosby where the eye fitting can only take the same load as the lead line.
70

Thus for rope deflection angle shown Pull 1T 1T 1T 1T 1T 1T AngleQ 0 30 60 90 120 1S0 Load on anchorage 2T 1.ST 1.7T 1.4T 1.0T O.ST

go'
120'

o·
LOAD

1T Fig 133

\:;; \"

Load on Anchorage (load will vary depending on angle of pull)

As will be seen from Fig133 the load applied to the anchorage of the snatch block can be as twice the load on the lead line. Therefore, the wire rope sling or chain and the shackle used for attaching the eye of the block to the point of anchorage must be strong enough to take this load. .

7.2.2. Rope requirements

Length of wire rope required when using a three and a two set of sheave blocks for lifting:a) Distance from centre of top block to centre of bottom block in its lowest position 28m. Therefore length of rope between the sheaves will need to be 28m x S 140m long.

b) Lead to winch from top block making necessary allowance for snatching is 70m (but see Fig 134). c) Five turns of wire on winch will be 12m (see Fig 13S). d) Allowance for length of rope round sheaves say Sm Therefore minimum length of rope

= 140 + 70 + 12 +5 = 227m

To allow for any small variation use a rope 240m long. DO NOT use more snatch blocks than necessary as the friction losses increased with every snatch block.

,
Fig 134

Winch (size calculated from load to lift and arrangement of sheaves used)

12d min lead

71

Winch to be securely anchored and

b:~~I"\ with banast

Angle of rope imposes a load on snatch of P1

Fig 135

5 holding tums recommended but not less than two tums Angle of Fleet Safe angle can be obtained by allowing a minimum lead of 1 in 12 (see Fig 134). The greater this lead the more easily is the wire wound on to the winch barrel.

..

Resultant load on snatch 2P1 (See Fig 133)

Protect sling with wood or sacking

Arrangement of winch and snatch blocks

7.3

Pul-Lifts

Special care should be exercised in the use of lifting appliances such as pul-lifts which incorporate plate link load chains. This type of chain is flexible only in one plane and it is most important to avoid a 'side pull' in any other plane as this will set up excessive bending stresses. Pul-lifts are limited in their length of use.

7.4

Proprietary Pulling Machines (known as Tirfors)

This item is also a lifting appliance and should therefore be treated as such because it is subject to the same Regulations as cranes. The SWl should be stamped on it together with an identification number. Wire ropes used with Tirfors must also comply with the recommendations in this Manual for other wire ropes. Only the correct diameter wire ropes should be used and fitted in the appliance which must be operated in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. All hooks forming part of the appliance must be fitted with catches to ensure safe use. The operating handle stub is fitted to the crankshaft by shear pins to prevent
72

overload and damage. Only the correct handle or extension should be employed to operate the Tirfor. Sheared pins indicate that too much pressure has been used on the operating lever. To avoid this happening use one or more pulley blocks to reduce the load on the machine. Anchorage must always be suitable and capable of withstanding the force exerted. Never anchor Tirfors to moveable objects such as shuttering or scaffolds. Tifors either singly or reeved up through wire rope blocks are ideal for lining up the bases on holding down bolts.

7.5

Jacks

Jacks must only be placed on adequate supports or against rigid material which will prevent accidental movement. The head or toe of the jack should have full face contact. Where necessary, precautions must be taken to prevent the jack head from slipping, by inserting suitable packing between the jack head and the load. When jacking up the load suitable packing must be inserted in case the jack or jacks fail; NEVER leave a load supported solely on jacks, unless the jack is fitted with mechanical locking rings.

7.6
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Winches
inspected frequently and be thoroughly examined, regular intervals. cleaned and lubricated at

Winches should be:

lifted using the lifting points provided for that purpose. bolted securely to a firm foundation to provide adequate anchorage. bearers should be used to support winches. square with the line of pull (except as shown permitted angle of fleet). in Figure Only metal the

135 showing

not be less than twelve times every metre length of the drum away from the drum axis to the first lead block around which the rope passes, and should be positioned as nearly as possible centrally between the drum flanges. NEVER used to lift or lower a load in excess of the SWL marked on the winch. used the slow speed gear when lifting or lowering since high speeds may result in excessive forces on the handles and stresses on the handle shift. Higher speed gears, when provided, are for unloaded operations or very light loads.

6) 7)

73

8)

used with rope that is: Strong enough for the job. Long enough (when the load is at its lowest position at least two turns must remain on the drum). Properly anchored. Does not overfill the drum.

9)

kept protected from water, oil or other foreign matter that might reach the brake linings. A wet brake loses its effectiveness.

10) checked before use thatthe brake is operating it is in the correct gear. effectively. If in doubt use the slow speed gear.

the driving pinion is fully engaged. the lock device provided to keep the pinion in position is properly applied. the handles are fully engaged and properly secured. 11) checked that the pawl is engaged in the ratchet wheel when hOisting. 12) preferably controlled by the handles when lowering. Use the slow speed gear unless the load is known to be considerably less than the safe working load. DO NOT try to stop a falling load with a pawl. When winding a wire rope onto the barrel of a winch, due regard must be given to the lay of the rope. If the rope is wound on correctly with relation to the lay of the rope, the rope will tend to ride when the tension is released (see Rg 133).

74

8.

ROPES

Fibre ropes are dealt with in Section 5.11

8.1 Wire Ropes

Guidance on the selection, care and maintenance of general purpose steel wire ropes is given in BS 6570. 8.1.1 Storage If a rope is not to be put into service immediately it should be stored under temperate dry conditions, protected from weather and clear of the ground. Reels must not be stored or transported with the flanges horizontal. Ropes which have been removed from a machine for future use should be thoroughly cleaned and a suitable dressing applied before storage. Ropes should be replaced in the store, examined regularly and a rope dressing should be applied if necessary. Ropes having a length in excess of 30m should be stored on a reel. 8.1.2 Offloading To avoid physical damage ropes should be off loaded with care. The reels or coils should not be dropped. Coils of wire rope should not be lifted by their bands, unless it is known that the bands are especially designed for this purpose. 8.1.3 Handling and Use of Wire Ropes on Drums and Pulleys

Careful attention to storage, handling and working conditions will result in longer rope life. To prevent kinking or twisting of the lay, ropes should be reeled out without slack and in a straight line. Coils of rope should preferably be reeled out from a turntable. Altematively, where the coil is short, one end can be made free and the remainder rolled along the ground. For ease of handling, the inside end should first be secured to an adjacent tum. The rope should be kept as clean as possible during this operation. Never throw off turns of rope with the drum or reel flat on the ground (see Fig 136). Where the rope is to be coiled in several layers on the drum it must be neatly layered on the drum, against brake tension on the reel, Fig 136. Do not attempt to reeve the rope through the blocks before coiling it on the drum. This is liable to induce turns into the rope resulting in disturbance of the lay when it is under load.

Fig 136
75

Direction of Slope

8.1.4 Working Conditions

Careful attention to the design and maintenance of drums and pulleys is necessary if the ropes are to give satisfactory service. Reverse bends in the reeving of the rope should be avoided whenever possible. a) Angle of Fleet The maximum angle of fleet of the rope between drum and pulley should n01 exceed 2° for grooved drums, 1'/20 for plain drums.
Maximum angle of fleet +II(;: ---

Fig 137

The direction of coiling a rope on a plain drum, depending should be in the direction shown in Fig 138. b) Pulley and Drum Grooves The bottom of the rope groove should be a circular arc over an . angle not less than 1200, with a groove radius of 7'/2 per cent (minimum 5 per cent) greater than the normal radius of the rope. The angle of flare of the sides of the pulley grooves should be 520 with the grooves smoothly finished and radiused at the edges. Pulleys should be grooved to a depth not less than one and a half times, and drums to a depth not less than one third the diameter of the rope. Any groove deepened by rope wear may damage the rope and should be re-turned - certainly before fitting a new rope.

-- ------1m
---------

-----=:::~-

Pulley

upon the lay of the rope,

(A) Overwind Spooled left to right use right hand lay rope

(C) Underwind Spooled right to left use right hand lay rope

Overwind

Underwind

(8) Overwind Spooled right to left use left hand lay rope

(0) Underwind Spooled left to right use left hand lay rope

N.B. Is is preferable to arrange a layout to use right hand lay rope as this type is normally more freely available. Fig 138
76

\r--------.,;'

Pulley grooves correct. rope well supported Pulley groove too wide. rope will tend to flatten

T" ! 3r (min) for pulleys

i 2/3r (min) ~ordrums

Fig 140 R",Normal radius of rope (r) + 7'/2%

:':Jj:.

Pulley groove too narrow. rope will be crushed or deformed

x
affects rope

c) Pulley and Drum Diameters The ratio between pulley/drum and rope diameters fatigue and thus, the life of ropes. significantly

Where D = root diameter of the pulley or drum (see Fig 138), and d diameter of the rope, (see Fig 119).

= nominal

It is recommended that the ratio D/d should not be less than 20 and very considerable improvements in rope life will be achieved if the ratio can be increased still further.

8.2

Anchorages

Anchorage bocks must be properly formed with adequate strength and mass to resist the applied loads with preferably a means of adjustment to the wire rope adjacent to the terminal fitting.

~
Fig 143 The pun of the rope tends to bend the anchor cleats and can cause overstressing T7 Fig 144 The pull on the rope is applied axially via a tumbuckle close to the anchor cleats

Anchorages for push-pull props must be capable of resisting upward loads as well as downward loads. They must also be capable of resisting horizontal loads in both directions.

8.3 Guys
In most situations 3 guys used at approximately 120 intervals on plan will be acceptable.
0

Fibre rope must not be used as guys. Wherever possible guys must be placed so that they are not liable to accidental disturbance and fouling. Where guys are likely to be hit they should be made conspicuous by the use of bunting.

8.4 Running Lines

Great care has to be taken when running lines are rigged for safety harnesses or belts. When using these checks must be made that the line is: . supported on anchorages that are sufficiently strong. securely fixed to these anchorages. of size and strength to support a falling person or persons. Proprietory webbing line systems are available which can be looped around the uprights at either end of the beam and tensioned with a twin-latch ratchet device incorporated in the line itself. Once this safety line has been tensioned in accordance with the manufacturers instructions the lanyard should be securely attached to the line.

Fig 145

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9.

WORKING PLACES

9.1 Types of Scaffolds

A "scaffold" is:any temporarily provided structure on or from which persons:-

(i)
(ii) and (iii)

perform work or obtain access, or by which materials are taken to a place of work,

any working platform, working stage, gangway, run, ladder or stepladder, and fitted with any guard rail, toe board or other safeguard.

A "slung scaffold" is a working platform suspended by ropes or chains or rigid members height. at a fixed

A "suspended scaffold" is a working platform suspended by ropes or chains and capable of being raised or lowered but not a boatswain's chair or similar. Also see Section 9.6 for other examples.

9.2 Working Platforms and Stages

Platforms over 2 metres high must be closely boarded, erected and fixed to prevent movement. The prOjecting ends must not overhang end supports by more than four times their own thickness unless they are secured against movement. They should rest evenly on supports which must be spaced as shown:32mm thick boards - support not greater than 1.0m apart. 38mm thick boards - support not greater than 1.5m apart. 51 mm thick boards - support not greater than 2.6m apart. Larger spans can be covered by the use of suitable light weight platforms maximum of 7.0m. Widths of platforms commonly used by erectors:Access only - 600mm minimum. Depositing materials and footing - 800mm with 430mm minimum passage. Cylindrical steelwork - 430mm minimum.
79

up toa

9.3 Edge Protection

Working platforms over 2 metres high should be properly guarded to prevent falls of person or materials by: a) guardrail fixed at 91 Omm to 1.15m above boards. b) toeboard not less than 150mm high. c) the distance between the top of the toeboard and the underside of the guardrail not to exceed 765mm. d) toeboard and guardrails must be fixed inside the standards.

The removal of guard rails is permitted to allow the passage of materials but must be replaced as quickly as possible. 9.3.1. Wire ropes used as edge protection

Wire rope may only be used as edge protection in those situations where it is not reasonably practicable to use non-flexible guardrails. When wire ropes are used as edge protection, they must comply with the following: a) Length of ropes - to enable wires to be correctly tensloned they must be installed in short sections, maximum 25m. b) Size of ropes - not less than 10mm in diameter and tested wire rope not soft cored. c) Tensioning - must be such that the total maximum deflection should never exceed 100mm in any direction. Because wire ropes have a tendency to stretch, means should be provided to maintain correct tension, for instance turn-buckles. d) Anchorage - as well as making the wire fast to the tum-buckle eyes, 3 bulldog grips should be provided to prevent slippage at the point of attachment. e) Height of ropes - these must comply with the standards for guardrails stated above. Where toeboards are not provided, there must be a mid point rope. f) T oeboards - as soon as there is a risk of materials falling, toe boards must be provided. The edge trim of the decking may provide an adequate toeboard. g) Position of ropes - they should perimeter to avoid the necessity protection. be as close as practicable to the floor of persons working outside the area of

For short duration work eg jointing, bolting up,etc guardrails and toeboards may be dispensed with providing there is adequate handhold, receptacles for loose materials and the platform width is at least 800mm.

80

9.4 Mobile Scaffolds and Platforms

The height of a working platform on a tower scaffold should be limited to three times the smallest base dimension for external use and three and half times for intemal use. Above this height towers need to be stabilised by means of ties, kentledge or guys. Access should be by a ladder inside the tower plan with access through the platform as small as is practicable. If wheels are fitted they should be locked when in use. When moving mobile towers no one should be on the platform and movement should be by pushing at the bottom.

9.5 Mobile Work Platforms

Other mobile work platforms will include articulated arm platforms, scissor lifts and crane jib baskets. These should be in good mechanical order, be properly maintained and inspected before use. All personnel should be properly trained and certificated for the use of the particular platform. A work platform basically consists of three main parts: A platform for persons, equipment, tools etc. A structure to support the platform which is provided to move the platform relative to the chasis. A chasis on wheels. There are two basic types: Type 1 Allows the platform to move universally relative to the chassis and incorporates a telescopic or articulated jib or jibs (see Figs 146 & 147). Normally provides vertical movement only but some models will allow the platform to rotate and extend horizontally. (See Fig.148).

Type 2

Dangers to watch out for include: People, tools or material falling from the platform. Overtuming due to gradients, wind loading, outriggers not in use, trailing platform cables etc. Collision with power lines, buildings, other vehicles etc. Failure of supporting structure or power transmission.

People becoming trapped or being struck by the machine or its moving parts.

81

9.5.1. Basic Rules a) Before Use The machine has a current test certificate and thorough examination report. Note the safe working load limits stipulated on the certificate over the range of permitted duties and - Keep within these limits. Any defects mentioned in the thorough examination report have been rectified.

Safe working load and maximum number of persons allowed on the platform is conspicuously marked on the machine. Restrictions the platform. the platform clearly show on the wind speeds and maximum gradient is clearly displayed on Where gradient restrictions are stipulated it is important to ensure has an inclinometer, spirit level or other suitable devices which will if the tilt is outside these limits. are fitted and operating to prevent 'Over centre'

Safety or limiting devices conditions.

All external power supplied are fixed to the cnassis and not left trailing from the platform where they can be caught resulting in overturning of the machine. Provision has been made for safe access on the platform and design prevents accumulation of water. Controls are clearly marked and easily understood by the operator. They should

be of the "Dead man's handle" type so that when released they return to neutral.
Ground conditions are level and firm unless the machine is deSigned to operate on rough surfaces. If you are unsure refer to the manufacturer or supplier's instructions/manuals.
82

Outriggers are fully extended and properly support the machine. Fit sole plates or spreaders where necessary. There is adequate clearance to prevent collision with adjacent structures, overhead power lines, other vehicles etc. Erect cones and warning lights around the machine where necessary. Operators are properly trained in the safe use of the machine and there is adequate provision for securely attaching harnesses while in the platform. Guards are in place and properly secured. b) During Use Avoid Exceeding the safe working load. Stacking material on the platform which will fall out or prevent the operator from standing on the platform floor. Towing other vehicles.

Using the WP as a jack, prop or tie. Leaning out of the platform. Operators should always wear safety harnesses securely connected to a suitable anchor point. Travelling with the platform unless it is absolutely necessary and the machine has been designed for this purpose. c) When not in Use Park the machine in a secure area. Lower the platform to its parking position. Apply the brake and switch off the engine. Remove keys and keep them in a safe place. d) Maintenance and Inspection

The operator should not carry out repairs or adjustments to the work platform unless qualified and authorised to so so. Frequent checks need to be undertaken on the following: Tyre damage and pressure. Brakes. Lights where fitted. Fuel, water and oil, where appropriate. Machine structure for visual defects.

83

Power mechanisms for raising, slewing etc including the controls to ensun they are working properly. Hydraulic systems for apparent leaks or damage. Operators should never place themselves in a position of danger while undertakin£ these checks.

A detailed thorough examination should be carried out by a competent person a1

least every six months, or sooner if recommended by the manufacturer. This type of examination is also necessary following major repair or modification. A certificate of thorough examination should be issued by the competent person and kept with the machine for future reference. Where a work platform is primarily used for the transfer of persons or goods from one level to another rather than used as a working platform, it may be deemed to be a hoist or lift. In such cases the special legal provisions relating hoists and lifts must be satisfied. The manufacturer or supplied will provide help and assistance on any aspect of the machined safe operation - so remember to ask if in doubt.

9.6

Suspended and Slung Scaffolds

These will include purlin and side rail cradles, suspended cradles and some proprietary column scaffolds. They must be properly designed and maintained, marked with their Safe Working Load and regularly inspected and examined.

9.6.1. Use of Scaffolds

a) Check the following before use: The wire ropes, chains or brackets used to support suspended and slung scaffolds are each be capable of taking the load imposed. The load should be calculated on the assumption that all men on the staging move to one comer, thus, the total load on one supporting wire rope could be: Weight of men + plant + materials + staging + 100% safety factor Slung platforms are secured to prevent undue horizontal movement. That the anchorage is suitable for the load. stagings.

Scaffold lashings are not used for supporting

Wire ropes used to support scaffolds have been tested and certificated. Stagings should be kept free from unnecessary obstructions, materials, rubbish and projecting nails. Boards used have been tested in accordance free from visual defect. with BSI tests. Boards must be

If a boatswain's chair is supported by a counterbalanced cantilever outrigger over a parapet wall, obtain advice from the supervising Engineer. The materials to ensure that they are in good condition and suitable for the purpose. b) During Use Erection, alteration, addition or dismantling experienced in this type of work. only be undertaken by workmen,

Scaffolds must be properly maintained and every part fixed, secured or placed in posrtlon as to prevent accidental displacement. Every scaffold should be securely supported, sufficiently and properly strutted or braced and rigidly connected to the building etc, or constructed to ensure stability without such connection. Partly erected or dismantled scaffolds must not be left unless there is a prominent warning notice eg "SCAFFOLD INCOMPLETE-NOT TO BE USED" or "SCAFFOLD NOT TO BE USED" and the access effectively blocked. c) Loading The safe working load must not be exceeded and impact shocks must be avoided. d) Effect of Weather Boards and ladders should be secured whenever high winds are expected and the scaffold must be inspected after severe weather conditions.

9.7

Ladders

The primary use of a temporary ladder should be to enable people to get from one level to another and not as a work place unless the provision of a working platform has been considered inappropriate. Safe systems at work should include the provision of sufficient ladders of the right length, ie, at least 1.0Sm above the landing place. Once a ladder has been used in a temporary position and the work completed it should be removed to its place of storage and not left where it could be used in an unauthorised manner. Tools which exert a twisting action, for example impact wrenches, should not be used from ladders. Rest platforms should be provided every 9.0m of height.

9.7.1. Care of ladders

a) Construction and Maintenance All ladders must be of sound construction free from any visual defect and of adequate strength for the purpose required. They should be grade 1, Industrial; Improvised b) Maintenance
85

ladders should never be used;

Ladders should not be painted as this could obscure defects. Clear varnish or linseed oil is a satisfactory treatment for preservation; Arrangements should exist for the regular inspection of ladders. It is sensible to number the ladders and keep records of service inspection and repairs. c) Handling Ladders should be handled with care and not be dropped or misused. If it has fallen or received a heavy blow it may have suffered compression damage and should not be used until it has been examined and any damage made good. d) Storage Ladders should be stored horizontally on racks and should have sufficient supporting points to prevent excessive sagging. Material must not be placed on the ladder and there should be good ventilation. Do not store ladders near radiators, stoves, steam pipes or other places subject to excessive heat or dampness. e) Transport Ladders carried on vehicles should be adequately supported to avoid sagging and should be tied to each support point to minimise rubbing and the effects of road shock. 9.7.2. Securing Ladders A high proportion of ladder accidents occur because the ladder was not properly secured. Fixing the top is the only sure method of preventing movement The use of sandbags at the bottom or a second person "footing" the ladder, may prevent the bottom slipping outwards, but is not that effective against sideslip. Where the stiles of ladders do not rest on the ground, platform etc, they should be securely lashed at the top and bottom to prevent accidental movement.

NEVER SUPPORT

A LADDER IN

THIS WAY They should always be supported on their stiles and not on a rung.

Fig 149

86

NEVER SUPPORT A BOARD IN THIS WAY. A rung is not designed to support the additional weight imposed when used as a support.

Fig 150

'.

. " -'~:
9.7.3. Basic Rules

.~ ", .:o-~. .: .

_o-_-_".-·

Always ensure footwear is free from grease or mud before using the ladder; Use both hands when climbing or descending, preferably on the rungs because in that way the hook action of the hands is more likely to sustain a person's weight in the event of a fall; Inspect the ladder before use to ensure that there is no visual damage; Ladders with broken or missing rungs should not be used. reported immediately and the ladder(s) taken out of use. Defects must be

Tools or materials should be carried slung from a belt or in a shoulder bag when ascending or descending a ladder in order to keep both hands free. Large items should be lifted into position using a hoist line or crane; Beware of slippery surfaces due to rain or ice; Never over-reach sideways; Only one man should be on a ladder at a time; Leaning ladders should be placed at the correct angle, 1 metre out to every 4 in the height. Vertical ladders may be lashed to the column and lifted with the steel member; Rungs must not be used as supports for scaffold boards etc, neither should ladders be positioned so that the bottom rung is the only means of support; Never stand a ladder on a drum, box or other unsteady base; Ladders no longer required should be taken down and placed into store; Ladders must never be left unsecured where they can be displaced by movement of steel etc; Make sure your footwear is in good condition;
87

Metal ladders and ladders with wire reinforcement electrical hazard; Ladders with wire or steel reinforcement the underside of the stiles.

should not be used near an} on

should be used with reinforcement

9.8

Extending Ladders
1 '/2 rung spacings for ladders with closed lengths up to and including Sm;

Overlap - On extending ladders there should be an overlap of at least:

2'/2 rung spacings for ladders with closed lengths over Sm and up to and
including 6m;

3'/2 rung spacings for ladders with closed lengths over 6m.
The ladder should be raised and lowered by the user at the base of the ladder in order to check that the locks are properly engaged.

88