UNIT III
Introduction to Writing across the Disciplines
Sooner or later, you will pursue a degree that requires writing tasks as course requirements. This unit provides an overview of the
writing genres that you will most likely encounter in three academic disciplines, namely, the sciences, business, and humanities. Also,
it includes a discussion of the American Psychological Association and Modern Language Association citation guides, which are
methods to acknowledge sources properly and to avoid committing plagiarism.
Objectives
Identify various writings in three disciplines, namely, the sciences, business, and the humanities.
Describe the typical writings in each discipline.
Apply citation guidelines in writing across the disciplines.
I. Writing in the Sciences
Writing in the sciences uses the third person point of view to maintain the objective tone. Also, it requires language precision;
the words should be clear and exact. Jargon, which Merriam Webster defines as “the technical terminology or characteristic
idiom of a special activity or group,” is commonly used since the readers are field experts or of similar disciplines with the
author.
Most writings in the sciences contain a hypothesis, an idea, or a theory that is not yet proven. The hypothesis is supported by
concrete evidence or experiments to test its viability and efficiency. Writing in the sciences usually involves painstaking
research. In the discipline, there are numerous methods on how to gather information, and they are quantitative in nature. After
the data-gathering process, the researcher proceeds with analyzing and interpreting the results.
The following are some common writings in the sciences:
1. Case study – This is a careful and intensive study of a specific subject or variable (e.g., person, phenomenon, epidemic, event,
etc.) in which scientists or researchers identify what leads to its success or failure. When gathering data, they often observe or
examine a single subject. Here is an example of a case study writing.
Plant employees investigated the possibility of installing drum heaters on the utility boilers and a back-pressure steam turbine
generator in acid plant #3, but determined that they would not meet the company’s payback criteria. Total annual savings
from the implemented measures are more than $335,000 in costs and 75,000 MMBtu in energy. Because the project’s total
costs were $180,000, the plant achieved a payback of just 6.5 months. Since the completion of the project, employees at the
Don plant developed additional tracking tools, protocols, and efficiency measures based on the SSAT software and the
methodology they gained from the Save Energy Now assessment. These insights are being shared with other Simplot facilities
The passage is from “Steam System Efficiency Optimized After J.R. Simplot Fertilizer Plant Receives Assessment,” a case
study by the US Department of Energy. It explains the methodology applied to gather data and the results it yielded. It states the
measures that employees installed after the project was completed.
2. Laboratory report – This is a formal documentation of an experiment, which includes the objectives, methods, and results. It
is a staple in the applied and natural sciences. In these disciplines, experiments or tests are conducted to prove or disprove
hypotheses or to identify problems. They follow a chronological pattern as events or progresses are recorded step by step.
Example: As described in the lab manual, ice was placed in a beaker and warmed until approximately 50% had melted. The
temperature of the ice/water mixture was then measured with a thermometer. This was followed by a similar measurement of
our unknown solid. In part II, water was heated until boiling and the temperature of the liquid/gas mixture measured with a
thermometer. This was followed by a similar measurement using our unknown compound. To get the best results possible, the
procedure in the manual was modified by repeating each trial three times.
The given text is from “Identification of a Compound Using Melting and Boiling Points,” a lab report by Dr. Ethan B.
Gallogly. It presents how an experiment was conducted. It shows how data gathering and observation are done for each trial.
3. Field report – This writing is commonly done in the social sciences. It aims to analyze behavior patterns manifested by the
subject based on specific theories. It is descriptive in nature as it provides a detailed account of what the researcher has
observed among the subjects (e.g., people, events, places, etc.) and his or her analysis of the situation.
Example:
Level of Influence
Volunteerism& Interpretation Formation Interpretation
Community of
Service as Personal
Alternative Social
Careers Opinions
Religion 3.59 High 3.98 High
class
Campus 3.44 High 3.64 High
ministry
Academic 3.28 Moderate 3.46 High
courses
Faith 3.62 High 3.85 High
community
Family 3.88 High 4.33 High
School High High
social 3.73 3.71
action
program
In terms of volunteerism and community service as alternative careers, academic courses (3.28) have a surprisingly moderate level of
influence to the students, while the family (3.88) is expectedly high. Furthermore, the influence of the variables when it comes to the
students’ formulation of their social opinions is high, with mean scores varying from 3.46 (academic courses) to 4.33 (family).
The passage is an example of an interpretation of the results from the data gathered. It describes what the researcher has discovered
while analyzing the data.
II. Writing in Business
• Writing in business aims to provoke actions or elicit responses from the readers. It follows a strict format, employs an objective tone,
and uses a formal language. The writer explicitly states his or her purpose and avoids using figurative speech or idiomatic expressions.
• The following are some common writings in business:
1. Memorandum – This is commonly referred to as memo. It is a form of written communication in a corporate setting. Its
main purpose is to inform or convey messages to concerned people or departments. It can be an announcement that is
printed out and distributed or that is disseminated via e-mail. Sometimes, it can be a letter of reprimand for an employee
who has violated a company policy.
Below is an example of a memorandum.
To: Kaye Omila
From: Human Resources Department
Date: August 24, 2016
Dear Ms. Omila:
This is to inform you that you have incurred seven counts of
tardiness in the month of August. You were late on the following
dates:
August 2 – 08:18 August 10 – 08:41
August 4 – 08:39 August 12 – 10:27
August 5 – 08:22 August 15 – 09:49
August 8 – 09:03
We would like to reiterate the importance of coming to work on
time as tardiness can greatly affect the work flow. Consider this
letter your first warning. Keep in mind that habitual tardiness can
lead to the termination of your contract with the company.
Please sign below to acknowledge that you have received this
letter.
_______________ Employee
_______________ Supervisor
In the letter above, an employee has been tardy for many times in a month. The sender is usually a person of authority, like a human
resource officer or manager, with expertise on the rules of the company. He or she is in charge of upholding the rules and making sure
that every employee conforms. Also, the language used in the letter is strictly formal.
2. Résumé – This is a short document that shows a person’s educational and professional background. It gives brief but
detailed information about an applicant’s employment or work history. Also, an applicant may include a list of references
or people who can tell about the applicant’s character and abilities.
Example:
Juan Dela Cruz
0909-1234-567
[email protected]
123 F. Zamora St. Caloocan, City
Work Experience:
UVN International School (June 2013 – Present)
Position Held: Teacher
-Handles an advisory class
-Teaches English in grades 8 and 9 levels
-Supervises the Speech Club
JUS School
Position Held: Teacher
(June 2010 – May 2013)
-Handled an advisory class
-Taught English in grades 7 and 8 levels
Education:
University of the Philippines
BS Secondary Education major in English
Cum laude
(June 2006 – March 2010)
Caloocan Science High School
First Honorable Mention
(June 2002 – March 2006)
Caloocan Elementary School
(June 1997 – March 2002)
References:
Jommel Salgo
HR Manager
[email protected] Cristina Baytan
Editorial Supervisor
[email protected]
David Chavez
Team Leader, Editorial
[email protected]
In the given example, the most recent job of the applicant is the first entry under “Work Experience.” A brief description of his tasks is
enumerated in each job using the appropriate tenses. The information is for the applicant’s prospective employers to have an idea of
what his skills are.
3. Letter of request – This letter is persuasive in nature. It aims to convince a person in authority or in charge to grant
permission for an action to be done or accomplished. In this letter, the requester explicitly states the purpose of the request.
Example:
August 24, 2016
Paz Del Rosario
Chairperson
Office of Admissions and Scholarships
Davidian University
Dear Madame:
I am a third-year student from the College of Liberal Arts and
presently a scholar enjoying a 50% discount on books and tuition.
Much as I am blessed with such privilege, I would like to request
that my discount be increased to 75% to help my parents finance
my studies this year. My father underwent a surgery last summer,
and he is currently on leave for recovery and therapy, which will
last for at least six months. At present, our entire family depends
on my mother’s income, which can only cover our basic needs,
such as food, rent, and utilities.
Attached herewith are the copies of my father’s medical
certificates and other pertinent documents for your perusal. I am
hoping that you will be able to accommodate my request for this
term.
Sincerely,
Maria Dela Cruz
In the letter above, the requester is asking for an increase in her scholarship grant, which is an amount of money that a school,
government, or any organization provides to a student based on certain criteria like academic records and family background. The
language used in the letter is semiformal and conversational. The sender uses the first-person point of view in stating the purpose of
her request.
III. Writing in the Humanities
• Humanities is a collective term for the arts, languages, and philosophies. It also involves literature, music, film, and history. The
writing in those disciplines are persuasive and argumentative in nature. It aims to convince the readers or critics to agree with the
claims made. The claims, however, are debatable. Readers and critics alike may either agree or disagree by proposing
counterarguments.
• Here are some common writings in the humanities:
1. Critique – This contains a writer’s opinion of the quality of any piece of writing or work of art. The writer is usually
knowledgeable of certain theories or approaches which serve as a basis of his or her review. Because a critique is subjective,
the writer can be biased toward a certain kind of writing or art work.
Example:
Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House is revolutionary in nature as Nora challenges the “woman” in Hannah Arendt’s observations of
patriarchal polities such as temperament, sex role, and status, as noted by Kate Millett in her work. Temperament refers to the
stereotyped personalities based on sex category—males as aggressive, females as submissive. Sex role denotes that a woman is to
raising children and taking care of household, while a man is to being successful to whatever field he pursues. The male, as
always, is superior in status, while the female is inferior. Nora defied these patriarchal polities when she turned into an assertive
and subversive woman by leaving Torvald and their children, expressing her desire to rediscover herself away from the norms
that kept her from “her.”
The passage is an excerpt of an informed criticism. The writer cited concepts from other scholars to support the claims and
develop the main idea further.
2. Review – This refers to an assessment of a particular work, such as a movie, a book, or music. In writing a review, the author
presents his or her observations in a general context. He or she analyzes how parts constitute the entirety of the material.
Example:
“Storm Warning” Poised to Find New Audience
(NewsUSA) – Billy Graham, an iconic spiritual advisor who has preached to more people around the world than any other religious
leader in history, sees warning signs in current events.
“Depression today not only describes the hard-economic state of affairs sweeping our world but the human state of mind,”
writes Graham. “I see this unfolding phenomenon as one of the many storm clouds hovering over a lost and dying world.”
To help people weather today’s economic and cultural climate, Graham has completely revised his book “Storm Warning”
which was originally written and published in 1992, in response to the fall of Communism and the Gulf War.
“Trouble brewing in the Middle East especially heightened interest in what the Bible had to say about the end days,” Graham
writes. “People began to wonder if there might really be something to the ancient prophecies spoken by God’s prophets, and
confirmed by His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ.”
This new edition of “Storm Warning” offers Graham’s perspective on the post-9/11 world. “We felt that in light of recent
developments since 9/11 it might be helpful to reprint the book, bringing it up to date since the turn of the century,” writes Graham’s
son, Franklin, in the book’s foreword.
The book looks at current events and how they relate to Biblical prophecy, especially a small part of the book of Revelations.
“Scripture speaks of earthquakes, wars, and rumors of wars, and warns us with urgency to prepare for the storms to come,” writes
Graham.
God may bring storms, Graham posits, but He also offers shelter. “Just as a laser pen helps focus attention on vital aspects of
a business presentation, in this book, I hope to use God’s Word—His laser beam—to shed light on His revealed plan to save the
human race from the explosive clouds rumbling through our world.”
The review is about Billy Graham’s Storm Warning. It contains brief information about Graham and his book (see the first and third
paragraphs) as well as several citations from the book. Also, it uses formal language in general.
IV. The American Psychological Association (APA) and the Modern Language Association (MLA) Citation Guides
• Citation guides refer to carefully crafted formats which are used to acknowledge sources of information. Their styles vary, depending
on the prescribed guide by the university or the field of study. For example, the American Psychological Association (APA) is
commonly used in social sciences, while the Modern Language Association (MLA) is commonly used in humanities.
• Most citations contain the following elements: ○ Author’s name ○ Title of work (book, article, etc.) ○ Year of publication ○ Page
number (s) ○ Volume or issue number(s) or edition(s)
• Text and nontext information require citations. Whether a paragraph is directly lifted or paraphrased, it still requires source
attribution. This way, one is safe from committing plagiarism.
• In-text citations are also known as parenthetical citations. When a writer uses a phrase or paragraph from another source, he or she
encloses the verbatim piece in quotation marks or paraphrase it and cites the source by placing the information inside the parentheses.
Keep in mind that the source of information provided in an in-text citation should correspond to the reference list.
1. Short quotations – These are usually less than 40 words. They are either paraphrased or enclosed in quotation marks.
○ APA format: Begin with the author’s last name followed by the year of publication of the work. Then present the quoted or
paraphrased material and include the page where it can be found. Alternatively, you can present the paraphrased or quoted
material first and then the information about the source—the last name of the author, the year of publication, and the page
numbers, all of which are enclosed in parentheses.
Examples: According to Reyes (2012), the romance mode “creates a world that is not fully equivalent to our own because it goes
beyond the parameters by which life is normally bounded” (p. 101).
The romance mode “creates a world that is not fully equivalent to our own because it goes beyond the parameters by which life is
normally bounded” (Reyes, 2012, p. 101).
○ MLA format: This format follows an author-page structure. The author’s last name is presented first, and then it is followed
by the page number(s). (In the APA style, the word page is abbreviated to “p.” while pages are abbreviated to “pp.” The “ps”
do not appear in the MLA in-text citation style.) The author-page structure works in two ways.
First, mention the author’s name within the sentence along with the quoted line. Indicate the page number(s) in a parenthesis after the
closing quotation mark.
Example: According to Reyes, the romance mode “creates a world that is not fully equivalent to our own because it goes beyond the
parameters by which life is normally bounded” (101).
Second, the quoted line can go first and then the author and page number are indicated in a parenthesis and placed after the closing
quotation mark.
Example: The romance mode “creates a world that is not fully equivalent to our own because it goes beyond the parameters by which
life is normally bounded” (Reyes 101).
2. Long quotations – Quoted sentences containing at least forty words are considered long quotations. This is called a block quotation
and is set apart from the main text.
○ APA format: Introduce the author’s last name first and then indicate the year of publication enclosed in parentheses. Present
the passage without quotation marks. Place the page number(s) enclosed in parentheses after the period.
Example: Reyes (2012) particularly noted in her study that: As a central mode in Philippine criticism, realism has given rise to a
number of critical views. In general, realist criticism favors serious, socially committed and actively engaged works. Within this
conceptual framework, writings that do not hew to the radical tradition assume less significance than those which follow the tradition
of Rizal and the “New Propagandists.”5 What originally emerged in the late eighteenth century as a movement, and later as an
analytical tool, has become normative. (p. 102)
○ MLA format: Set the quote in a block quotation if it is more than four lines long for prose, three lines long for poetry, or
two paragraphs long. The writer may add introductory sentences which include the author’s last name or, after the period,
include the author’s last name and page number. Enclose them in parentheses.
a) For prose, introduce the context first in one to two sentences and then present the passage. Remove the quotation marks.
Example: Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic humour, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three-and-
twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his character. Her mind was less difficult to develop. She was a woman
of mean understanding, little information, and uncertain temper. When she was discontented, she fancied herself nervous. The
business of her life was to get her daughters married; its solace was visiting and news. (Austen 4)
b) For poetry, keep the formatting as close to the original as possible.
Example: Leaning into the evenings I throw my sad nets to your ocean eyes. There my loneliness stretches and burns in the tallest
bonfire, arms twisting like a drowning man’s. I cast red signals over your absent eyes which lap like the sea at the lighthouse shore.
(Neruda 5)
c) For more than two paragraphs, indent the first line of the paragraphs.
Example: In Salungat: A Soledad S. Reyes Reader, Reyes insisted that: As a central mode in Philippine criticism, realism has given
rise to a number of critical views. In general, realist criticism favors serious, socially committed and actively engaged works. Within
this conceptual framework, writings that do not hew to the radical tradition assume less significance than those which follow the
tradition of Rizal and the “New Propagandists.”5 What originally emerged in the late eighteenth century as a movement, and later as
an analytical tool, has become normative.
This approach to Philippine literature offers a limited view of vernacular writing, much of which is meat for the masses, since realist
criticism is ever conscious of the need to dissociate serious/realistic from nonserious/romantic works. It would, therefore, be
instructive to focus our attention on the romance mode that has helped generate a large number of works. (102)
• Reference List – This is usually found at the last section of a published material. It is where the sources of information are
completely cited.
1. Books
a. A book with one author
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name first and then the initial of his or her first name. Place the year of
publication and enclose it in parentheses. Set the work’s title in italics. Then include the location where the work was
published and its publisher.
Example: Austen, J. (2009). Pride and Prejudice. New York, NY: Penguin Random House.
○ MLA format: Introduce the author’s last name and first name. Set the title of the work in italics. Indicate the
publisher and the year the work was published.
Example: Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Penguin Random House, 2009.
b. A book with two authors
○ APA format: Indicate the authors’ last names first and then the initial of their first names. Arrange them in an
alphabetical order. Place the year of publication and enclose it in parentheses. Set the title of the work in italics. Then
include the location where the work was published and its publisher.
Example: Cohn, R. & Levithan, D. (2008). Nick & Norah’s Infinite Playlist. New York, NY: Ember-Penguin Random
House.
○ MLA format: Introduce the first author’s last name and then the second author’s first and last names. Arrange them
in an alphabetical order. Set the title of the work in italics. Indicate the publisher and the year the work was published.
Example: Cohn, R. and David Levithan. Nick & Norah’s Infinite Playlist. Ember-Penguin Random House, 2008.
2. Periodicals – These commonly refer to magazines, news articles, and scholarly journals. In citing periodicals, the following
elements are always included: author’s name, title of the article, and the name of the periodical.
a. Journals – This type of periodical caters to a specific audience.
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name and the initial of the first name. Enclose the issue date in parentheses
by stating the year first followed by the month and the day. Specify the title of the article in sentence case, followed by
the title of the periodical. Set the title of the periodical in italics and include the volume, issue (in parenthesis), and page
range.
Example: Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(3), 5–13.
○ MLA format: Indicate the author’s last name and then the first name. Specify the title of the article in title-case style
of capitalization and enclose the title in quotation marks. Set the title of the periodical in italics. State the day,
abbreviated name of the month, year, respectively, then the pages.
Example: Herrera, Christine. “Personal Contacts Eyed to Repair China Relations.” The Standard, 2 September 2016,
A2.
b. Magazine – This type of periodical caters to a general audience.
○ APA format: The format for magazine articles is similar with the one for journals.
Example: Fantauzzo, L. (2016, July). Fear and loathing in Orlando. Rogue, p. 72.
○ MLA format: The format for magazine articles is similar with the one for journals.
Example: Fantauzzon, Laurel. “Fear and Loathing in Orlando.” Rogue, July 2016, 72.
3. Electronic sources – These contain a Web or uniform resource locator (URL) or digital object identifier (DOI). Readers can use
any of the two to verify the information included in the reference list.
a. Books
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name and initials of the first and middle names. Provide the year of
publication. Set the title of the work in italics and then identify the medium. Also, provide the URL or DOI address or
the download host.
Example: Hawkins, P. (2015). The girl on the train. [Kindle version]. Retrieved from Amazon. Com
○ MLA format: Provide the author’s last and first names. Set the title of the work in italics. Indicate the city where it
was published, the publisher, and the year. Specify the medium if it is a book, e-book, PDF, etc.
Example: Hawkins, Paula. The Girl on the Train. New York: Riverhead Books, 2015. E-book.
b. Periodicals
○ APA format: Provide the author’s last name and initials of first and middle names. Enclose the issue date in
parentheses, using the format “year, month day.” Specify the title of the article and then set the title of the periodical in
italics. Include the phrase “Retrieved from” followed by the URL address.
Example: Arong, J. (2016, June 23). Lost horizons: How to navigate the Tibetan countryside. Rogue. Retrieved from
http://rogue.ph/lost-horizons-navigate-tibetan-countryside/.
○ MLA format: Provide the author’s last and first names. Enclose the title of the article in quotation marks. Set the
title of the periodical in italics and then indicate the issue date by following this format: day, abbreviated name of the
month, year. Then indicate the URL address. In providing the date of access, include the term “Accessed” and then the
date: day, abbreviated month, year.
Example: Arong, Joanna. “Lost Horizons: How to Navigate the Tibetan Countryside.” Rogue, 23 June 2016,
http://rogue.ph/lost-horizons-navigate-tibetan-countryside/. Accessed 25 Aug. 2016.
