Chapter 6

Fluid Mechanics
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6.0 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics concerned with the static and
dynamics of fluid - both liquids and gases. The analysis of the behavior of fluids
is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics, which relate continuity of mass
and conservation of energy with force and momentum.

There are two aspects of fluid mechanics, which make it different to solid
mechanics namely; the nature of a fluid is much different as compared with
solid and in fluids it deals with continuous streams of fluid without a beginning
or ending. Fluid is a substance, which deforms continuously, or flows, when
subjected to shearing forces. If a fluid is at rest there is no shearing force acting.

6.1 Archimedes’ Principle

Archimedes’ principle states that a system submerged or floating in a fluid has
buoyant force Fbuoy acting on it whose magnitude is equal to that of the weight
of the fluid displaced by the system. Buoyancy arises from the increase of fluid
pressure with depth and the increase pressure exerted in all directions as stated
by Pascal's law. Thus, there is an unbalanced upward force on the bottom of a
submerged or floating object. An illustration is shown in Fig. 6.1. Since the
"water ball" at left is exactly supported by the difference in pressure and the
solid object at right experiences exactly the same pressure environment, it
follows that the buoyant force Fbuoy on the solid object upward is equal to the
weight of the water displaced according to Archimedes' principle.

Figure 6.1: Illustration of buoyancy follows Archimedes’ principle

Fluid Mechanics 63
Supposing that the volume of the water equivalent is V m3, the buoyancy force
Fbuoy is equal to V waterg. If the object has mass m, the apparent weight of the
solid object shall be mg - V waterg.

Let’s consider the general case where an object has density and volume
V. Its weight W is equal to Vg. When the object submerged in the fluid of
density fluid and displaced a volume V’ then the buoyant force Fbuoy is Fbuoy =
fluidV’g. If the volume V is equal to V’ and the object sinks to the bottom, this
shall be mean W > Fbuoy and also implies that the density of the object is
larger than the density fluid of fluid. Likewise, the object floats. It implies that
the density of object is smaller than the density of fluid.

If the object is neither sink nor float like a fish swimming in the sea,
fluidV’g = Vg. For ship that float on water, the condition fluidV’g = Vg is
also satisfies. However, the volume is V’ < V because only a small portion of
volume of ship is submerged in water. This implies that the density of ship is
less than density of water.

Example 1
A rock is suspended from a spring scale in air and found to be weight of
magnitude w. The rock is then submerged completely in water while attached to
the scale. The new reading of scale is wsub. Find the expression for the density
rock of rock in terms of the scale readings and density of water water.

Solution
The weight of rock in air is W = rockVg. The buoyant force is Fbuoy = waterVg.
The submerged weight is wsub = rockVg - waterVg. Thus, the ratio of submerged
w sub Vg ! Vg
weight and weight in air is " rock water
. This implies that the density
w rock Vg
w water
of rock rock = .
w ! w sub

6.1.1 Center of Buoyancy

The center of buoyancy for floating and submerged object would determine the
stability of the system. For stability or equilibrium, everybody knows that the
net force and net torque should be zero, which are Fnet = 0 and #net = 0.
Therefore, for an equilibrium system, the center of mass COM and center of
buoyancy COB should lie in same vertical line.
Fluid Mechanics 64
For a total submerged system such as a submarine, the center of mass COM
should lie below center of buoyancy COB since the submarine is designed such
that it is heavier at the bottom. If the submarine is tilted toward right, the COB
is shifted toward right. The torque out of the page with respect to COM is
restoring the tilt to equilibrium position. The illustration is shown in Fig. 6.2.

Figure 6.2: Center of buoyancy for a total submerged system

For the floating system such as the aircraft carrier, the COB is below the COM
as shown in Fig. 6.3. If there is a tilt, the COB is move toward right align the
metacenter. A restoring torque will move the aircraft carrier back to equilibrium.

Figure 6.3: Center of buoyancy for a floating system

Fluid Mechanics 65
6.2 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Liquid and gas are both fluids cannot resist deformation force. As it flows, it is
under the action of the force. Its shape will change continuously as long as the
force is applied. The deformation is caused by shearing forces, which act
tangentially to a surface as shown in Fig. 6.4. The force F acting tangentially on
a rectangular (solid lined) element ABDC causes deformation that produces the
dashed lined rhombus element a'b'c’d’.

Figure 6.4: Shearing force acts on liquid

When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the
fluid move relative to one another. When this happens adjacent particles have
different velocities. If velocity of fluid is the same at every point then there is no
shear stress produced and particles have zero relative velocity. An example is
the flow of water in the pipe where at the wall of the pipe, the velocity of the
water is zero. The velocity increases toward the centre of the pipe as its profile
is shown in Fig. 6.5.

Figure 6.5: The velocity profile of water flow in the pipe

Fluid Mechanics 66
The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This area is
F
given by A = $z$x. The shear stress % is equal to force per unit area i.e. # " .
A
The tan & is the shear strain ', which is defined as x/y. The rate of shear strain
shall be equal to d'/dt, which is also equal to

d' d ( x ) u
" " (6.1)
dt ydt y

where u is the velocity of the fluid particle at point E and u/y shall be the
velocity gradient. In the differential for u/y shall be written as du/dy.

The result of experiment has shown that the shear stress # is proportional to
the rate of change of shear strain.

du
#"( (6.2)
dy

The constant of proportionality is known as coefficient of dynamic viscosity (.

This is also known as Newton’s law of viscosity. The coefficient of dynamic
viscosity ( is defined as the shear force per unit area or shear stress #, required
dragging one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit distance
away. For fluid that has constant viscosity shall be called Newtonian fluid, other
wise it is a non-Newtonian fluid. Figure 6.6 shows the typical viscosity of some
fluids.

Figure 6.6: Viscosity of some fluids

Fluid Mechanics 67
From the results show in Fig. 6.6, the viscosity ( generally follows equation
(6.2).
n
. du +
# " A / B,, )) (6.2)
- dy *

where A, B and n are constants. For Newtonian fluids A = 0, B = m and n = 1.

The coefficient of dynamic viscosity of water is 1.14x10-3 kgm-1s-1, air is

1.78x10-5 kgm-1s-1, mercury is 1.55 kgm-1s-1, and paraffin oil is 1.9 kgm-1s-1.

6.2.1 Viscosity and Temperature

There is some molecules interchange between adjacent layers in liquids. But the
molecules are much closer than in gas that their cohesive forces hold them in
place much more rigidly. Thus, it reduces the molecules exchange. This
cohesion plays an important role in the viscosity of liquid.

As the temperature of a fluid increases, it reduces the cohesive force and

increases the molecular interchange. Reducing cohesive forces reduces shear
stress, while increasing molecules interchange increases shear stress. Thus, one
can see there is a complex relationship between molecules exchange and
cohesive force on viscosity. In general the reduction of cohesive force is more
than increase of molecules exchange. Thus, the viscosity of liquid is decreased
as temperature increases.

High pressure can also change the viscosity of a liquid. As pressure

increases the relative movement of molecules requires more energy hence
viscosity increases.

The molecules of gas are only weakly bounded by cohesive force between
molecules, as they are far apart. Between adjacent layers, there is a continuous
exchange of molecules. Molecules of a slower layer move to faster layers
causing a drag, while molecules moving the other way exert an acceleration
force. Mathematical considerations of this momentum exchange can lead to
Newton law of viscosity.

If temperature of a gas increases, the momentum exchange between layers

will increase thus increasing viscosity. It can be viewed as the temperature

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increases, it reduces the cohesive force further increase more molecules
exchange that increases the viscosity.

Viscosity will also change with pressure - but under normal condition this
change is negligible in gasses.

Kinematics viscosity 0 is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass

density, which is

(
1" (6.3)

The unit for kinematics viscosity is Stoke, whereby 1 stokes ST = 1.0x10-4 m2s-1.

Example 2
The density of oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its relative density and Kinematics
viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5.0x10-3 kg/ms.

Solution
The relative density of fluid is defined as the rate of its density to the density of
water. Thus, the relative density of oil is 850/1000 = 0.85.

Kinematics viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density,

which is 5.0x10-3/0.85 = 5.88x10-3 m2/s = 58.8 ST.

6.3 Pressure Measurement by Manometer

In this section, various types of manometers for pressure measurement shall be
discussed and analyzed.

Pressure is the ratio of perpendicular force exerted to an area. Thus,

pressure has dimension of Nm-2, in which 1.0 Nm-2 is also termed as one pascal.
i.e. 1.0 Nm-2 = 1.0 Pa. One atmospheric pressure 1.00 atm is equal to 1.013x105
Pa. Another commonly use scale for measuring the pressure is bar in which 1.0
bar is equal to 1.0x105 Nm-2.

The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top attached to the top of a
vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric pressure) to be
measured. An example can be seen in Fig. 6.7. This simple device is known as a

Fluid Mechanics 69
Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure measured
is relative to atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure.

The pressure at point A is gh1 + P0, where P0 is the atmospheric pressure.

Similarly, the pressure at point B is P0 + gh2. Pressure gh1 and gh2 are
termed as gauge pressure.

Figure 6.7: A piezometer tube manometer

"U"-tube manometer enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be

measured with the same instrument. The "U" tube manometer is shown in Fig.
6.8 filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is
being measured should have a density less than the density of the manometric
fluid and the two fluids should be immiscible, which does not mix readily.

Pressure at point B and C are the same. Pressure PB at point B is equal to

pressure PA at point A plus gh1 i.e. PB = PA + gh1. The pressure at point C is
equal to atmospheric pressure Patm plus mangh2 i.e. PC = Patm + mangh2.
Equating the pressure at point A and C should yield expression PA + gh1= Patm
+ mangh2. If the density of fluid to be measured is much lesser than density of
manometric fluid than pressure at point A is approximately equal to PA = Patm +
mangh2.

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 Figure 6.8: A “U” tube manometer

Pressure difference can be measured using a "U"-Tube manometer. The "U"-

tube manometer is connected to a pressurized vessel at two points the pressure
difference between these two points can be measured as shown in Fig. 6.9.

Figure 6.9: Pressure difference measurement by the "U"-Tube manometer

Point C and D have same pressure. The pressure at point A is PA = PC - h2g.

Pressure point B is PB = PD - manh1g - (hb-h1)g. This shall mean that pressure
Fluid Mechanics 71
difference between point A and point B is PA - PB = PC - h2g - PD + manh1g +
(hb-h1)g = g(hb – h2) + h1g( man - ).

The advanced “U” tube manometer is used to measure the pressure

difference (P1 – P2) that has the manometer shown in Fig. 6.10.

Figure 6.10: An advanced “U” tube manometer

When there is no pressure difference, the level of the manometric fluid shall be
stayed at datum line. The volume of level decrease in the left hand side shall be
equal to the volume of level raised in right hand-side. This implies that
2 2 2
.D+ .d+ .d+
2, ) h 1 = 2, ) h 2 and h1 = , ) h 2 , Thus, the pressure difference (P1 – P2)
-2* -2* -D*
.d+
2
8 . d +2 5
shall be h1 mang +h2 mang = , ) h 2 mang + h2 mang = h2 mang 61 / , ) 3 .
-D* 76 - D * 43

6.4 Static Fluid

Fluid is said to be static if there is no shearing force acting on it. Any force
between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at right angle to the
boundary. Figure 6.11 shows the condition for fluid being static.

This definition is also true for curved surfaces as long as the force is acting
perpendicular to the surface. In this case the force acting at any point is normal
to the surface at that point as shown in Fig. 6.11. The definition is also true for
any imaginary plane in a static fluid.

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 For any particle of fluid at rest, the particle will be in equilibrium - the sum
of the components of forces in any direction will be zero i.e. net force = 0. The
sum of the moments of forces on any particle about any point must also be zero.
i.e. net torque = 0.

Figure 6.11: An illustration to show static fluid

Since at static condition, the force is acting perpendicular to the surface of

contact, which can be different for different contact area, thus, it is convenient
to use force per unit area, which is termed as pressure.

6.4.1 Pascal's Law for Pressure at a Point

Pascal’s law of pressure states that at a particular point P, pressure acts on it

equal in all directions. Let’s take a point P in the fluid be denoted by a small
element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism shown in Fig. 6.12.

Figure 6.12: Pressure component acting on a point in the fluid

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The pressures are pressure px in the x direction, py in the y direction, and ps in
the direction normal to the sloping face. Since the net force is equal to zero at
static condition, the net force acting on both x and y directions should be zero.
For force acting in x-direction, px$y$z = ps$s$zsin 9 = pz$s$z $y = pz$y$z. This
$s
result implies that px = ps. For force acting on y-direction, the force relationship
$z$x$y g = py$z$x = ps$z$s $x + $z$x$y g, where $z$x$y g
1 1 1
is ps$z$scos 9 +
2 $s 2 2
is the weight of prism. The pressure ps is equal to py since ps = py since
1
$z$x$y g is approximately equal to zero. Combining the result above, pressure
2
acting on a point P is equal in all directions since px = py = ps.

6.4.2 Variation of Pressure Vertically in Fluid Under Gravity

There is pressure variation when fluid under gravity, which shall mean that the
pressure at different height is different. Let’s use Fig. 6.13 to derive the
equation of pressure of different height of fluid under gravity.

Figure 6.13: Pressure at different height in static fluid

The force F1 acting upward at the bottom is F1 = p1A. The F2 acting down from
the top is F2 = p2A. The weight of cylindrical volume of fluid is also acting
downward, which is gA(z2- z1). At static equilibrium, the net force is equal to
zero. Therefore F2 + gA(z2- z1) = F1, which shall mean

p2 + g (z2- z1) = p1 (6.4)

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6.4.3 Equality of Pressure at Same Level in Static Fluid

Pressure at the same level in static fluid is the same. Let’s use Fig. 6.14 to prove
the point.

Figure 6.14: Pressure at same level in static fluid

The net horizontal force is equal to zero. This shall mean that p1A = p2A. This
implies that pressure at same level is the same. This result is the same for any
continuous fluid such as the case where two connected tanks, which appear not
to have all directions connected.

6.4.4 General Equation for Variation of Pressure in Static Fluid

Based on the above two cases mentioned in Section 6.4.2 and 6.4.3, the
variation of pressure in static fluid can be derived based the situation shown in
Fig. 6.15.

Figure 6.15: The variation of pressure in fluid

The weight of the cylindrical fluid along center axis is gA$scos 9. The force
by pressure p1 perpendicular to area A is p1A and the force acting by pressure p2
is p2 perpendicular to area A is p2A. At static equilibrium
Fluid Mechanics 75
 gA$scos 9 = p1A - p2A (6.5)

where $s = (z2 - z1)/cos 9. For the same level case, 9 = 900, then gA$scos 9 = 0,
implying p1 = p2. For different level vertically, 9 = 00, cos 9 = 1, gA$scos 9 =
gA(z2 – z1) implies that gA$scos 9 = p1 = g$(z2 – z1) + p2, the different
level case.

Example 3
Find the height of column of water exerted by pressure of 500x103 Nm-2 giving
that the density of water is 1000 kgm-3.

Solution
The height of the column is h = p/( g) = 500x103/(1000x9.8) = 50.95 m.

6.5 Fluid Dynamics

There is motion in fluid, which shall mean the shearing force is not zero. The
motion of fluid can be studied in the same way as the motion of solids using the
fundamental laws of physics together with the physical properties of the fluid.
In study of fluid dynamic, the term uniform, non-uniform, steady, and unsteady
flows are used. Uniform flow shall mean the velocity is same at every point in
the stream. Steady flow means the conditions such as pressure, velocity, and
cross section area of flow may differ from point to point but do not change with
time. Based on the definition, the flow of fluid can be classified into four
categories, which are;

1. Steady uniform flow. Conditions such as velocity, pressure, and cross-section

of flow do not change with time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe
of constant diameter at constant velocity.
2. Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions such as velocity, pressure, and cross
section of flow change from point to point in the stream but do not change
with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the
inlet - velocity will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward
the exit.
3. Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every
point are the same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of
constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at a constant rate, which is
then switched off.
4. Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from
point to point and with time at every point. For example waves in a channel.
Fluid Mechanics 76
In our study of fluid dynamic, we shall restrict ourselves for the steady uniform
flow case.

6.5.1 Equation of Flow Continuity

Mass rate flow of the fluid is a measure of fluid out of the outlet per unit time.
For example an empty bucket weighs 5.0 kg. After 10 seconds of collecting
9 .5 ! 5 +
water, the bucket weighs 9.5 kg, the mass flow rate is ., -1
) = 0.45 kgs .
- 10 *

Volume flow rate Q is defined as the volume fluid discharge per unit time
or discharge rate. Using the example above, the volume flow rate shall be
0.45/1000 = 0.45x10-3 ms-1. If the cross sectional area A of a pipe and the mean
velocity um are known, then the volume rate flow Q is

Q = Au (6.6)

The principle of conservation of mass shall be applied for non-compressible and

compressible fluid. This shall mean the mass rate Q1 enter into tube is equal to
mass rate Q2 out of the tube. i.e. Q1 = Q2. Applying this principle to the case of a
streamline flow shown in Fig. 6.16, equation (6.7) is obtained

1A1u1 = 2A2u2 = constant (6.7)

Equation (6.7) is also termed as continuity equation. For incompressible fluid, it

has same density then 1 = 2 = . Equation (6.7) becomes A1u1 = A2u2.

Figure 6.16: Streamline flow showing volume rate is same at entrance and outlet

Fluid Mechanics 77
Example 4
An uncompressible fluid flows into pipe 1 and distributes via pipe 2 and pipe 3
as shown in figure below. Pipe 1 has diameter 50 mm and mean velocity 2.0 m/s.
Pipe 2 has diameter 40 mm and it takes 30% of total discharge per sec. Pipe 3
has diameter 60 mm. What are the values of discharge and mean velocity for
pipe 2 and pipe 3?

Solution
Using the conservation of mass, the discharge rate Q1 entering pipe 1 shall be
equal to sum of mass rate in pipe 2 and pipe 3. i.e. Q1 = Q2 + Q3. The discharge
2
. d2 + . 50 x10 !3 + -3 3
rate of pipe 1 shall be 2,, ))u1 " 2,, )) 2 = 3.93x10 m /s.
- 4 * - 2 *

The discharge rate of pipe 2 shall be 1.18x10-3 m3/s and discharge rate of pipe 3
shall be 2.75x10-3 m3/s.

. 40 x10 !3
The mean velocity of pipe 2 shall be 1.18x10 / , 2 -3 : ;
2
+
) = 0.939 m/s.
, 4 )
- *
-3 .
,
The mean velocity of pipe 3 shall be 2.75x10 / 2
:
60 x10 !3 ;
2
+
) = 0.973 m/s.
, 4 )
- *

6.5.2. Work Done and Energy

From the law of conservation of energy, it states that sum of kinetic energy KE
and gravitational potential energy PE is constant. i.e. KE + PE = constant. If the
fluid drop is falling from rest at the height h above the ground, its initial KE is
zero and its PE is equal to mgh. The KE and PE when it touches the ground is
1 1
mV 2 and zero respectively. Thus, by conversation of energy mgh = mV 2 .
2 2
From Kinetic energy-work done theorem, <KE " net work done. This should
Fluid Mechanics 78
mean that sum of the change of kinetic energy and net work done Wnet is a
constant. i.e. KE + Wnet = constant. For the case of fluid, the net work done
can be treated as volume multiplies by change of pressure P, which is Wnet =
V P. This shall mean that

P + KE/Volume = constant (6.8)

Equation (6.8) is known as Bernoulli’s principle, which states that, an increase

of pressure in the flowing fluid always resulting in decreasing of speed of fluid
and vice versa. The principle has been demonstrated in our daily activity like
the shower curtain get suck inwards when the water is first turned-on.
Squeezing the bulb of a perfume bottle creating high speed of the perfume fluid
reducing the pressure of the air subsequently draws the fluid-up. The window of
the house tends to explode during the hurricane because the high-speed
hurricane creates low pressure surrounding the house. The high pressure in the
house pushes the window outward. The foil of the aircraft wing lifts the aircraft
because the high speed airflow on top of the wing.

Let’s derive the equation for water jet as shown in Fig. 6.17 using equation
(6.8). The change in kinetic energy is

1 2 1 2
u 2 ! u1 + z2g – z1g = 0 (6.9)
2 2

Figure 6.17: Water jet

The flow from reservoir as shown in Fig. 6.18, the initial kinetic energy is zero.
Using the conversation energy, the final velocity of the water jet shall be

u 2 " 2g(z1 ! z 2 ) (6.10)

Fluid Mechanics 79
 Figure 6.18: Flow from a reservoir

The examples considered above have condition of constant pressure with

different velocity. Let’s consider the case where there is variation of pressure
and constant velocity such as the case shown in Fig. 6.19.

Figure 6.19: Fluid flow at different pressure

Pressure at point P2 is equal to pressure at point P1 plus the pressure difference

which is (z1 – z2) g. Therefore, the expression of pressure P2 is P2 = P1 + (z1 –
z2) g. Rearrange this equation shall yield,

P1 P2
/ gz 1 " / gz 2 (6.11)

For the case where there is variation of pressure and velocity, then combining
equation (6.9) and (6.11) would yield the Bernoulli’s equation (6.12).
Fluid Mechanics 80
 P1 u12 P u2
/ / z1 " 2 / 2 / z 2 (6.12)
g 2g g 2g

6.6 Bernoulli’s Equation

In this section, we shall begin with the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation.
Subsequently, the application using the Bernoulli’s equation shall be discussed.
The assumptions underlying the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation are steady
flow, density is constant, friction losses are negligible, and the streamline
single type, which mean constant velocity.

In deriving the Bernoulli’s equation, the principle of conservation of

energy shall be used. This shall mean that at a point in fluid, the sum of work
done by pressure P, kinetic energy KE of the fluid, and the PE potential energy
shall be constant.

Let’s consider a small element of the fluid of weight mg and cross sectional
area a flows from section AB to section A’B’ with velocity u and is situated at
the height z from the reference line shown in Fig. 6.20.

Figure 6.20: Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation

The potential energy of the fluid element is mgz. The potential energy per unit
weight shall be z, which is also named as potential head.

1
The kinetic energy of the element is mu 2 . The kinetic energy per unit
2
u2
weight shall be , which is also named as velocity head.
2g

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 The force at section AB shall be Pa. When the element of weight mg
mg m
moves from section AB to A’B’, the volume that shall be " and the
g
m
distance traveled shall AA’ or BB’ which is equal to .
a

The work done by the element of fluid moves from AB to A’B’ shall be the
force multiplies by the distance AA’. This shall mean work done is equal to
m Pm P
Pa = . The work done per unit weight shall be , which is also named
a g
as pressure head.

From conservation of energy, Bernoulli’s equation shall be

P u2
+ + z = constant = H (6.13)
g 2g

where H is the total head.

Example 5
A fluid of constant density 960 kgm-3 is flowing steadily through a tube as
shown in the figure. The diameters at the section 1 and section 2 are d1 = 100
mm and d2 = 80 mm respectively. The pressure gauge and velocity at section 1
are 200 x103 Nm-2 and 5.0 ms-1 respectively. Determine the velocity and
pressure gauge value at section 2.

Solution
Since the tube is horizontally placed z1= z2 and Bernoulli’s equation shall be
P1 u12 P2 u 22
/ " / . To know the speed at section 2, the continuity shall be used
g 2g g 2g
2
.d +
to determine it, which is u1A1 = u2A2. This implies that u 2 " ,, 2 )) u1 =
- d1 *
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 2 -1 . P1 u12 u 22 +
5.0(80/100) = 3.2 ms . The pressure at section 2 shall be P2 " ,, / ! )) .
- 2 2*
This shall mean that the pressure P2 is 207.0x103 Nm-2.

Let’s do an analysis for various types of Bernoulli’s heads by considering a

reservoir that feeds water to the households through a pipe that has different
diameter and rising over hill and going down the hill, and finally reaching the
household level as shown in Fig. 6.21. The pressure at various point 1 to 4 has
the relative magnitude order P4 > P2 > P3 > P1.

Figure 6.21: Analysis of Bernoulli’s heads

The analysis shall be based on conservation of energy whereby the total head H
is a constant, which is also Bernoulli’s equation. At point 1, the total head H is
consist of the potential head z1, since the gauge pressure is zero and the velocity
of water on the surface of dam is zero because the movement of water is
practical at still.

If the tap at the household end is shut, then the velocity head at point 2, 3,
and 4 shall be zero since the water in the pipe is in static condition. The total
head H2 at point 2 shall be equal to the sum of potential head z2, pressure head
P2' P2' P3'
. i.e. H2 = z2 + . The total head H3 at point 3 shall be H3 = z3 + and the
g g g
P'
total head at point 4 shall be H4 = z4 + 4 . By Bernoulli’s equation H1 = H2 =
g
H3 = H4.

If the tap is open at the household, then the velocity will not be zero. The
magnitude of pressure at point 2, 3, and 4 shall be lower based Bernoulli’s

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 u 22 P2
principle. The total head at point 2 shall be H2 = z2 + / , at point 3 shall be
2g g
u2 P u2 P
H3 = z3 + 3 / 3 , and at point 4 shall be H4 = z4 + 4 / 4 .
2g g 2g g

Take note that according to continuity equation, velocity head should be

equal if the diameter of the pipe is the same. The velocity head shall be smaller
like the case at point 3 if the diameter of the pipe is large than that at other
points.

If there is friction, which true in real case, the total head H shall not be the
same at the reservoir point 1 and household end point. The total head at
household end shall be H4 = H1 – Hf, where Hf is the head due to friction.

6.6.1 Application of Bernoulli’s Equation and Continuity

Equation

A number of applications of Bernoulli’s equation such as pitot tube, venturi

meter, flow through orifice, and etc. shall be discussed here.

Pitot Tube
A pitot tube has a streamline flow into a blunt body as shown in Fig. 6.22. Point
1 and point 2 has same level. This implies that the potential head of both points
are the same.

Figure 6.22: A pitot tube

u12
The velocity head at point 1 shall be , whilst the velocity head at point 2 is
2g
zero since the velocity at point 2 is zero. The pressure head at point 1 and 2
P1 P
shall be and 2 respectively. From Bernoulli’s equation, this shall mean
g g

Fluid Mechanics 84
u12 P1 P 1
+ = 2 . This implies that the pressure at point P2 is equal to P1 + u12 .
2g g g 2
Note that the increase of pressure to bring the fluid to rest is termed dynamic
1 2
pressure. The increase of pressure is u1 is dynamic pressure. The total
2
pressure P2 is termed stagnation pressure.

Venturi Meter
Venturi meter is a device used for measuring discharge in a pipe. It consists of a
rapidly converging section, which increases the velocity of flow and hence
reduces the pressure. It then returns to the original dimension of the pipe by a
gently diverging 'diffuser' section. By measuring the pressure difference, the
discharge rate can be calculated. This method is a particularly accurate for flow
measurement because the energy loss is very small. The meter is shown in Fig.
6.23.

Figure 6.23: The Venturi meter

u12 P1
Applying Bernoulli’s equation for point 1 and 2, it yields z1 + / = z2 +
2g g
u 22 P2
/ . Using continuity equation (6.7), the volume rate Q = u1A2 = u2A2. This
2g g
uA
shall mean u2 = 1 1 . Substituting this equation into the earlier equation shall
A2
u12 8. A1 + 5
2
P1 ! P2
yield / z1 ! z 2 " 6,, )) ! 13 . Rearrange this equation for velocity u1
g 2g 6- A 2 * 34
7

Fluid Mechanics 85
 8 P ! P2 5
2g 6 1 / z1 ! z 2 3
shall be u1 " 7 g 4 . From manometer reading at datum line, P
2 1
. A1 +
,, )) ! 1
- A2 *
P1 ! P2 . +
+z1 g = P2 +(z2 – h) g + h mang. This implies that / z1 ! z 2 " h,, man
! 1)) .
g - *
. +
2gh ,, man
! 1))
Substituting this equation into u1 velocity equation, u1 " - * . Since
2
. A1 +
,, )) ! 1
- A2 *
. +
2gh ,, man
! 1))
the volume rate Q is equal to u1A1, therefore, Q = A 1 - * . If there is
2
. A1 +
,, )) ! 1
- A2 *
loss due to friction, then the coefficient of volume rate Cd can be added. The
volume rate, which is also the discharge rate Q shall be

. +
2gh,, man ! 1))
Q = C d A1A 2 - * (6.14)
A1 !A 2
2 2

Note equation (6.14) is independent of height z1 and z2.

Flow through a Small Orifice

Let’s now consider the flow through a small orifice, where the flow of fluid
through a hole at the side closed to the base of the tank as shown in Fig. 6.24.

Figure 6.24: Flow through a small orifice

Fluid Mechanics 86
The shape of the hole edge is sharp to minimize the frictional loss. The fluid
contracts after the orifice to a minimum value such that it becomes parallel,
which streamline flow. At this point, the velocity and pressure are uniform
across the jet. This convergence is called the vena contracta meaning contracted
vein. In order to accurate calculate the flow, is necessary to know the amount of
contraction.

Using Bernoulli equation, at point 1 the velocity u1 is zero, the pressure P1

is equal to zero, whist the potential head is equal to h1.

At the orifice, the jet is open to the air. Thus, the pressure P2 is equal to
zero. The potential head is equal to zero. Thus, equating the total head yields h
u 22
= . This shall mean the velocity u2 at orifice is u2 = 2gh 1 .
2g

The volume discharge rate Q at point 2 shall be A2u2. To include the

frictional force, the coefficient of velocity Cv shall be used such the uact = Cvu2.
The cross sectional area Aact shall be CAAorifice after taking vena contraction into
consideration, where CA is the coefficient of contraction. The actual volume rate
Q shall then equal to

Q = Cvu2 CAAorifice (6.15)

The time taken for the tank to drop from height h1 to h2 through the flow of fluid
via the orifice can be calculated based on the continuity equation.

The volume rate is equal to Q = AV, where A is the cross sectional area of
the tank and V is the velocity of the flow. The velocity V is also equal to dh/dt.
h2
dh
Thus, the volume rate is Q = ! = A . Negative sign denotes that the level is
h1
dt
decreasing. Substituting equation (6.15) into this equation, the time t taken for
the height of tank to fall from h1 to h2 shall be
h1
A dh
t= != > (6.16)
h2
C v C A A orifice 2gh

=!
2A
C v C A A orifice 2g
? > h 2 ! h1 @

Fluid Mechanics 87
Flow through Submerged Orifice
If there are two tanks next to each other and are connected by an orifice as
shown in Fig. 6.25, then the orifice is considered as submerged orifice.

Figure 6.25: Two tanks joined by an orifice

At point one, the total head is h1. At point 2, the total head is consist of pressure
P2 u2
head , where P2 is equal to gh2, and velocity head 2 . This shall mean that
g 2g
the velocity u2 at point 2 is

u 2 " 2g(h 1 ! h 2 ) (6.17)

The rate of discharge Q shall be Q = CAAorifice 2g(h 1 ! h 2 ) .

The time taken for two tanks of different height to be equalized shall be
calculated based on continuity equation. The volume rate is Q =
dh 1 dh
! A1 " A 2 2 . Rewrite this equation as Qdt = -A1dh1 = A2dh2. Letting dh =
dt dt
A dh
dh2-dh1, -A1dh1 = A2d(h + h1), this implies that dh 1 " 2 . Since volume Qdt
A1 / A 2
= -A1dh1 and discharge rate is Q = CAAorifice 2g(h 1 ! h 2 ) , the volume is also
A1 A 2 dh
equal to CAAoriffice 2g(h 1 ! h 2 ) dt = . For equalizing the tank, the height
A1 / A 2
shall be from (h1 – h2) to zero. The time taken for not equalizing the thank shall
be
h3
A 1 A 2 dh
t= =
h1 ! h 2 ( A 1 / A 2 )C d A orifice 2gh
(6.18)

Fluid Mechanics 88
 =
2A 1 A 2 dh
(A 1 / A 2 )C d A orifice 2g
> ? h1 ! h 2 ! h 3 @
where h3 is any value greater than 0 and less than (h1– h2). For equalization the
time taken shall be t =
2A 1 A 2 dh
(A 1 / A 2 )C d A orifice 2g
> ? @
h 1 ! h 2 by setting h3 equals to

zero.

Flow through Weir

A notch, a device for measuring the discharge of fluid, is an opening in the side
of a tank or reservoir, which extends above the surface of the liquid. A weir is a
large version of a notch usually found in river. It can be a sharp crested type
with a substantial width in the direction of flow, which used both as a flow
measuring device and water level control.

In deriving the equation for weir, the velocity of the fluid approaching the
weir is said to be small so that kinetic energy is assumed to be zero. However,
for fast moving river, it is not true. The velocity through any elemental strip of
fluid is dependent on the depth below the free surface. The assumptions are
acceptable for tank with notch or reservoir with weir. Consider a horizontal strip
of width b and depth h below the free surface, as shown in the Fig. 6.26.

Figure 6.26: Elemental strip of fluid through the notch

The velocity u through the strip is u " 2gh and the discharge rate through the
strip is dQ = uA = b 2gh dh. The discharge rate Q shall be the integration of the
equation for height limit from 0 to H. Thus,
H
Q = = b 2gh dh (6.19)
0

Fluid Mechanics 89
Equation (6.19) shall be the general equation for the flow rate or discharge rate
via the notch or weir.

For rectangular tank, the width of the strip shall be constant said B, the
H
2
flow rate shall be equal to Q = = B 2gh dh = B 2g H 3 / 2 .
0
3

For the “V” shaped notch, which is shown in Fig. 6.27, the width b of the
strip is not a constant.

Figure 6.27: “V” shaped notch

b/2
From the figure, tan (9/2) = , implying that b is equal to b =
(H ! h )
. 9+
H
.9+
2(h ! h ) tan , ) . The discharge rate Q shall be Q =
- 2*
= 2(H ! h ) tan,- 2 )*
0
2gh dh =

8 .9+
tan , ) 2g H 5 / 2 .
15 - 2 *

6.7 The Momentum Equation and Its Applications

As it has been mentioned earlier, the analysis of fluid motion is performed in the
same way as in solid mechanics by using Newton's laws of motion with account
for the special properties of fluids when in motion.

In fluid mechanic, the mass of moving fluid is not clear like the case of
solid. Thus, net force net Fnet = ma for Newton’s second law may not be suitable
to describe the motion of fluid. Instead, the rate change of momentum equals to
the resultant force acting on the fluid in the direction of force is a more
appropriate way to describe the motion of fluid.

A steady and non-uniform flow of fluid flowed in the same direction is

shown in Fig. 6.28. The entrance inlet and exit have the parameters as shown in

Fluid Mechanics 90
the figure. In time $t the volume of fluid that enters the entrance is u1A1$t. The
mass of fluid in this time interval is u1A1 1$t. The momentum of fluid at this
inlet shall be u12 A1 1$t. Similarly, the momentum of fluid leaving the exit is
u 22 A2 2$t. From Newton’s second law, the net force Fnet is equal to

u 22 A 2 $t ! u12 A 1 1$t
Fnet = 2u2- 1u1)
2
= Q( (6.20)
$t

Figure 6.28: A steady and non-uniform one-direction flow of fluid

For fluid that has uniform density , then 1 = 2. Equation (6.20) will also be
2
u A2 $t ! u A 1 1$t dm
2
equal to Fnet = 2 2 1
= (u2- u1).
$t dt

Let’s extend the analysis to the case where the direction of the flow is not
the same for the entrance and exit points as shown in Fig. 6.29.

Figure 6.29: A steady and non-uniform two directions flow of fluid

Fluid Mechanics 91
Let’s begin the analysis by resolving the force in x direction. The x-direction
velocity component at entrance is u1cos 91, whilst at exit point is u2cos 92. The
net force in x-direction shall be
Fnet-x = Q (u2cos 92- u1cos 91) (6.21)

Similar analysis goes for the net force acting on y-direction is

Fnet-y = Q (u2sin 92- u1sin 91) (6.22)

! y / Fnet ! x .
2 2
The resultant net force Fnet-resultant shall be equal to Fnet-resultant = Fnet
The force at a bend is equal to – Fnet-resultant. The angle & that the force acts with
. Fnet ! y +
-1 , )
respect to x-axis is & = tan ,- Fnet ! x )* .

From conservation of energy standpoint, the total force FTotal = Fnet-resultant of

the fluid system is made of the force FR exerted by the fluid at the bend, the
force exerted by weight of fluid FB, and the force exerted by the pressure
outside the control volume FP, which is

FTotal = FR + FB + FP (6.23)

6.7.1 Force around the Pipe Bend

Let’s study the force acting on a bend as it is shown in Fig. 6.30, when fluid
changes its direction of flow. If the bend is not fixed, eventually it breaks due to
large force. Owing to this one need to know how much force a support or thrust
block would withstand.

Figure 6.30: Flow around a pipe bend of constant cross-section

Fluid Mechanics 92
Along the x-direction, the total force FT-x is FT-x = Q (u2cos 9- u1cos 0) = Q (u2
cos 9- u1) and the force FT-y at y-direction shall be FT-y = Q (u2sin 9- u1sin 0) =
Q u2sin 9.

Along x-direction, the force due to pressure at different at inlet 1 and exit 2
is Fp-x = A1P1cos 0 – A2P2cos 9 = A1P1 – A2P2cos 9 and along y-direction is Fp-y
= A1P1sin 0 – A2p2sin 9 = - A2P2sin 9.

There are no body forces in the x or y directions. The only body force is
that exerted by gravity is acted perpendicular to the page.

Based on the above results, the x-direction force acts the bend is FR-x =
Q (u2cos 9 - u1) – (A1P1 – A2P2cos 9), whilst the force acting in y-direction is
FR-y = Q u2sin 9 + A2P2cos 9.

The resultant force shall be FR = FR2 ! x / FR2 ! y and the force acting on the
. FR ! y +
bend shall be – FR. The angle of acting shall be & = tan-1 ,, )
)
- FR ! x *

6.7.2 Force on a Pipe Nozzle

Owing to the fluid is contracted at the nozzle; forces are induced in the nozzle.
Anything holding the nozzle like a fireman must be strong enough to withstand
these forces. Let’ analyze these forces from the Fig. 6.31.

Figure 6.31: Force on pipe nozzle

The total force FT is acting along x-direction is equal to FT = FT-x = Q (u2- u1).
After considering the continuity equation, the total force is FT = FT-x =
. 1 1 +
Q2 ,, ! )) .
- A 2 A1 *
Fluid Mechanics 93
 The force due to pressure FP is P1A1 – P2A2. The opening of the nozzle is at
atmospheric pressure. Thus, the gauge pressure is zero. The force due to
pressure shall be P1A1. The pressure P1 can be calculated based on Bernoulli’s
u12 P1 u2 P
equation z1 + / = z2 + 2 / 2 for condition z1 = z2, P2 = 0. The pressure
2g g 2g g
Q2 . 1 1 +
P1 shall be P1 "
2
:u 2
2 ;
! u12 =
2
,, 2 ! 2 )) . The force due pressure FP = FP-x =
- A 2 A1 *
Q 2 A1 . 1 1 +
,, 2 ! 2 )) . The force due to weight is zero because it is acting in y-
2 - A2 Aa *
direction. The resultant for FR = FR-x shall be FR-x =
. 1 1 + Q A1 . 12
1 +
Q2 ,, ! )) ! ,, 2 ! 2 )) .
- A 2 A1 * 2 - A2 Aa *

6.7.3 Impact of Fluid Jet on a Plane

Consider the case where fluid is ejected horizontally on a vertical plane as

shown in Fig, 6.32.

Figure 6.32: Jet impact on vertical plane

The total force acting in x-direction is FT = FT-x = Q(u2x – u1) = - Qu1. The
total force in y- direction FT-y = 0 since there are two streams of same velocity
on opposite direction.

The force due to pressure is zero since at point 1 and point 2 are at
atmospheric pressure.
Fluid Mechanics 94
 The weight is considered negligible. Thus, it is zero. The resultant FR = FR-x
is then equal to - Qu1.

6.8 Real Fluid

The flow of real fluids exhibits viscous effect due to shearing force that follows
du
equation (6.7), # " ( . The flow of fluid can be classified into laminar and
dy
turbulent flow. In laminar flow, the motion of the particles of fluid flows orderly
in straight lines parallel to the pipe wall. For turbulent flow, the flow of particles
is not in straight line. In 1880, Osbourne Reynolds did many experiments with
the set-up shown in Fig. 6.33 to determine the type of flow. He found an
ud
expression named after Re = , where u is the mean velocity, d is the
(
diameter that determine the type of flow.

Figure 6.33: Experiment of Osbourne Reynold

He found that Reynolds number Re < 2000 the flow is laminar. Re number in
between 2000 and 4000 is transitional flow, and Re > 4000 is turbulent flow.

In the real fluid there is friction. Thus, the pressure upstream is usually
higher than down stream even though it may be placed parallel as shown in Fig.
6.34. If the pressure at the upstream end is P, and at the downstream end the
pressure has fallen by <P to (p - <P), then the driving force due to pressure,
which is F = Pressure x Area, can then be written as driving force is equal to
pressure force at upstream minus pressure force at downstream.
Fluid Mechanics 95
 Figure 6.34: Pressure difference between upstream and downstream

d2
Thus, the force is <PA = <P 2 . This force is balanced by the shearing force at
4
d
the wall of the pipe, which is 22 L# = 2dL#. <P is also equal to <P = hf g,
2
where hf is the lost height due to friction. From the above equations, the
<Pd
shearing force shall be # " . Since the flow is laminar type, therefore, the
4L
< Pr
shearing force can be generalized as equal to # " for any cylindrical flow of
2L
radius r as it is shown in Fig. 6.35.

Figure 6.35: Cylindrical laminar flow of radius r

< Pr du
Shearing force # " is also equal to ! ( . Negative shall mean the
2L dr
reference is from the center of pipe instead of at the wall of the pipe. From the
Fluid Mechanics 96
 < Pr du
equation # " " !( , the distribution of velocity of laminar flow across the
2L dr
pipe can be calculated by integrating for u = umax when r = 0 and u = 0 for r = R.
< Pr
2L =
This shall mean that dr " !( = du . The result of the integration shall be

< Pr 2 <PR 2
u" + C, where C = . Thus, the distribution of velocity of laminar
4L( 4L(
flow across the pipe of radius R is

<P(R 2 ! r 2 )
u" (6.24)
4L(

The equation has the parabolic result, which is what have been shown in Fig.
6.5.

< Pr <PR 2
R
The mean velocity um is u m " = dr = . The flow rate Q shall be
0
4L( 8L(
equal to

<PR 4 <Pd 4
Q = Aum = 2 =2 (6.25)
8L( 128L(

Equation (6.25) is also called Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in a

pipe.

As it has been mentioned earlier, <P is also equal to <P = hf g, where hf is

the loss of pressure head caused by friction, therefore the discharge rate is Q
gh f d 4 h f gR 2
=2 and the mean velocity um = .
128L( 8L(

Fluid Mechanics 97
Tutorials
1. Explain why the viscosity of a liquid decreases while for a gas increases with
a temperature rise.

2. The following is a table of measurement for a fluid at constant temperature.

Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

3. The velocity distribution of a viscous liquid (dynamic viscosity ( = 0.9

Ns/m2) flowing over a fixed plate is given by u = 0.68y - y2 (u is velocity in
m/s and y is the distance from the plate in m).
What are the shear stresses at the plate surface and at y = 0.34 m?

4. Derive an expression for the total force acting on the wall of dam that has
water height H and width W.

5. Air is a compressible fluid and assuming that the pressure p is direction

proportional to the density of air. Derive an expression for pressure of air
at altitude H above sea level.

6. In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 75mm from the boundary is

1.125m/s. The fluid has absolute viscosity 0.048 Pa-s. What is the velocity
gradient and shear stress at the boundary assuming a linear velocity
distribution?

7. A concrete dam has the cross-sectional profile and width b as shown in the
figure. Calculate the magnitude, direction and position of action of the
resultant force exerted by the water per unit width of dam?

Fluid Mechanics 98
8. A design for a dam has the cross-sectional profile composed of a vertical
face with a circular curved section at the base as shown in figure. Calculate
the resultant force and its direction of application per unit width of this dam.

9. At the end of a channel is a sharp edged rectangular weir with a width of

400mm and a coefficient of discharge of 0.65. The water is flowing at a
depth 0.16m above the base of the weir. If this weir is replaced by a 90o V-
notch weir with the same coefficient of discharge, what will be the necessary
upstream depth of water to achieve the same discharge as the rectangular
weir?

10.A venturimeter with an entrance diameter of 0.3m and a throat diameter of

0.2m is used to measure the volume of gas flowing through a pipe. The
discharge coefficient of the meter is 0.96. Assuming the specific weight of
the gas to be constant at 19.62 N/m3, calculate the volume flowing when the
pressure difference between the entrance and the throat is measured as 0.06m
on a water U-tube manometer.

11.Water flows along a circular pipe and is turned vertically through 180° by a
bend as shown in the figure. The rate of flow in the pipe is 20litres/s, the
pressure measured at the entrance to the bend is 120 kN/m2 and the volume
of fluid in the bend is 0.1m3. What is the magnitude and direction of the
force exerted by the fluid on the bend? Ignore any friction losses.

Fluid Mechanics 99
Fluid Mechanics 100