1) Loader loads programs from executable files into memory,

preparing them for execution and then executing them. The

loader is usually a part of the operating system's kernel and
usually is loaded at system boot time and stays in memory
until the system is rebooted, shut down, or powered off. Some
operating systems that have a pageable kernel may have the
loader in the pageable part of memory and thus the loader
sometimes may be swapped out of memory.
Linker is one which link the hard ware to software installed in a
computer.
EX-
source code(.c) is compiled and converted into object
code(.obj) in C.
After this Linker comes into the act, linker resolve all the
references in .obj file via linking them to their respectives
codes and resources.In short linker performs the final step to
convert .obj into executable or machine readable file(.exe).
eg:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("ashwin");
return 0;
}

here,compiler first searches the declaration for "printf()"

function,finds it in "#include<stdio.h>" and creates a (.obj) file
successfully.
A symbol table is created in (.obj) file which contains all the
references to be resolved,linkers resolves them by providing
respective code or resource,
here code referred by "printf" also gets executed after
successful creation of( .exe) file by linker.
2) When the timeshare system has more resources available to you than the workstation. For
instance if you compare 8 people having their own workstation but only utilising them 3 hours
a day then each could have a 3 hour slot on an 8 processor machine instead and get their
 work done 8 times more quickly ( assuming the application can utilise more than one
processor ).

The benefits to this are the same as you are using right now reading this page. A time-
sharing system (what we call a server nowdays) provides many many people the opportunity to use
the system. Technically, even a standard PC is a time-sharing system, because you can run many
different programs on it at a time (think Browser, iTunes, Anti-Virus, etc.).

The old mainframe systems had a card reader and an output. Only one set of cards could be run
through at a time. So, if payroll was running through all 14000 employee's paycheck calculations, you
had to wait until they were done. Modern mainframe systems have some time-sharing capabilities by
allowing multiple processes to run on the system, but those processes are virtualized, rather than a
true sharing system. However, the details of that can be left to others.

There are benefits and downsides to every type of system. In a mainframe-style system, all resources
are available to the process being run, which benefits large data crunching operations (like payroll).
The downside to a mainframe-style system is that only one process can run at a time in each virtual
machine.

In a server-style system, all resources are shared among all processes. If a process "runs away" by
using more processes than it should, then the other processes suffer, which the end-user sees as a
server responding very slowly and/or "timing out". The upside to a server-style system is that you can
serve web pages to thousands of people, while at the same time handling thousands of pieces of
email.

3) A Process Control Block (PCB, also called Task Controlling Block or Task Struct) is a data
structure in the operating system kernel containing the information needed to manage a
particular process. The PCB is "the manifestation of a process in an operating system".

Implementations differ, but in general a PCB will include, directly or indirectly:

 The identifier of the process (a process identifier, or PID)

 Register values for the process including, notably, the program counter and stack pointer

values for the process.

 The address space for the process

 Priority (in which higher priority process gets first preference. eg., nice value on Unix

operating systems)

 Process accounting information, such as when the process was last run, how much CPU time it

has accumulated, etc.

 Pointer to the next PCB i.e. pointer to the PCB of the next process to run

 I/O Information (i.e. I/O devices allocated to this process, list of opened files, etc)
During context switch, the running process is stopped and another process is given a chance to run.

The kernel must stop the execution of the running process, copy out the values in hardware registers

to its PCB, and update the hardware registers with the values from the PCB of the new process.

Location of the PCB

Since PCB contains the critical information for the process, it must be kept in an area of memory

protected from normal user access. In some operating systems the PCB is placed in the beginning of

the kernel stack of the process since that is a convenient protected location.

4) a) cp - copy a directory

5) mkdir - to make a directory

6) rmdir - to remove a directory

7) pwd - to show the path of work directory

8) ps - processor status

9) cat - view the contents of a file

10) ls - to view the list of file of directory

11) touch - to make a file

12) rm - to delete a file

13) mv - to move any file

14) b) grep - it is used to search files or standard input globally for lines matching a given
regular expression.

15) pipelining - it is a set of processor chained by standard terms, so that the output of each
process feeds directly as input.

5) In the book entitled Computing Essentials by O'Leary (2008), the definition of connectivity is,

"Capability of the microcomputer to use information from the world beyond one's desk. Data and

information can be sent over telephone or cable lines and through the air so that computers can

talk to each other and share information. " That being said these networks can be LANs, or local

area networks and a networks gateway allows one LAN to be linked to other LANs. The Internet is

one of many computer networks, but since it is a very large network it is of extreme importance to
users. (O'Leary 2008) "Central to the concept of connectivity is the network... The largest network

in the world is the Internet" (p16).

6) The distinction between LAN and WAN (wide area networking) protocols
is beginning to blur. Ethernet was once considered to be a LAN protocol.
As time has passed, other technologies, such as Token-Ring, have
become minor players in the LAN world. Yet the opposite is true of
Ethernet. It has grown from a modest specification endorsed by Intel, DEC,
and other vendors, such that it now can be considered a WAN protocol.
The capabilities introduced by current LAN technologies are beginning to
erode the differences between a LAN and a MAN (metropolitan area
network). When the fourth edition of this book was published, Gigabit
Ethernet was starting to fall into the inexpensive range of network
topologies. That trend has continued and now 10Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE)
is frequently being used in enterprise data centers. Today you may be
using 100BASE-T for connecting client computers to the network, and
Gigabit Ethernet to connect network segments via the network backbone.
In some cases your network might even be exclusively based on 10GbE.
So we choose wide area network(WAN) connection.