PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Aranvoyalkuppam, Poonamalle-Tiruvallur Road, Tiruvallur Dist – 602 025

(ISO 9001-2000)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

2017/EEE/LM/ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY

LAB MANUAL

GE6162 Engineering Practices Laboratory

(AS PER ANNA UNIVERSITY REGULATIONS -2013)

GROUP B

I SEMESTER - B.E./B.TECH
(COMMON TO ALL BRANCHES)

PREPARED

BY

EEE & ECE FACULTY

STUDENT NAME :___________________________________________

REG NO :----------------------------------------------------------------
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

INDEX

S.NO. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE NO.

ELECTRICAL (GROUP B)

STUDY OF ACCESSORIES, TOOLS USED IN WIRING & SAFETY

1. PRECAUTIONS 8
RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES, FUSE, INDICATOR,
2. LAMP AND ENERGY METER. 12

3. FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING 16

4. STAIRCASE WIRING 18
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
5. VOLTAGE,CURRENT, POWER & POWER FACTOR IN RLC 22
CIRCUIT.
MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY
6. METER 26
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF AN ELECTRICAL
7. EQUIPMENT 30

8. MEASUREMENT OF POWER USING WATTMETER 34

ELECTRONICS (GROUP-B)

9. STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT 36

10. SOLDERING AND CHECKING CONTINUITY 44

11. ASSEMBLING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ON A PCB AND TESTING 48

12. STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES 52

13. GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL 59

MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF-WAVE AND FULL-
14. WAVE RECTIFIER 64
PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

STUDY OF SYMBOLS

AIM:
To study the various symbols used in electric circuits.

COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL DESCRIPTION

WIRE CONNECTIONS

To pass current very easily from one part

Wire
of a circuit to another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are
connected (joined), but it is sometimes
Wires joined omitted. Wires connected at 'crossroads'
should be staggered slightly to form two T-
junctions, as shown on the right.
In complex diagrams it is often necessary
to draw wires crossing even though they
are not connected. I prefer the 'bridge'
Wires not joined symbol shown on the right because the
simple crossing on the left may be misread
as a join where you have forgotten to add a
'blob'!
POWER SUPPLIES

Supplies electrical energy.

The larger terminal (on the left) is positive
(+).
Cell
A single cell is often called a battery, but
strictly a battery is two or more cells joined
together.
Supplies electrical energy. A battery is
more than one cell. The larger terminal (on
Battery
the left) is positive (+). The smaller
terminal (on theright)is negative (-).
Supplies electrical energy.
DC supply DC = Direct Current, always flowing
in one direction.
Supplies electrical energy.
AC supply AC = Alternating Current, continually
changing direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if
Fuse the current flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.

Transformers are used to step up (increase)
and step down (decrease) AC voltages.
Transformer
Energy is transferred between the coils by
the magnetic field in the core. There is no
electrical connection between the coils.
A connection to earth. For many electronic
circuits this is the 0V (zero volts) of the
Earth
power supply, but for mains electricity and
(Ground)
some radio circuits it really means the
earth. It is also known as ground.
OUTPUT DEVICES: LAMPS, HEATER, MOTOR, etc.
A transducer which converts electrical
energy to light. This symbol is used for a
Lamp (lighting)
lamp providing illumination, for example a
car headlamp or torch bulb.
A transducer which converts electrical
Lamp (indicator) energy to light. This symbol is used for a
lamp which is an indicator, for example a
warning light on a car dashboard.
A transducer which converts electrical
Heater
energy to heat.

A transducer which converts electrical

Motor
energy to kinetic energy (motion).

A transducer which converts electrical

Bell
energy to sound.

A transducer which converts electrical

Buzzer
energyto sound.

A coil of wire which creates a magnetic

field when current passes through it. It may
Inductor have an iron core inside the coil. It can be
(Coil, Solenoid) used as a transducer converting electrical
energy to mechanical energy by pulling on
something.
Switches
A push switch allows current to flow only
Push Switch
when the button is pressed. This is the
(push-to-make)
switch used to operate a doorbell.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

This type of push switch is normally closed

Push-to-Break
(on), it is open (off) only when the button
Switch
is pressed.
SPSTS = Single Pole Single Throw Switch.
On-Off Switch An on-off switch allows current to flow
(SPSTS) only when it is in the closed (on) position.

SPDTS = Single Pole Double Throw

Switch. A 2-way changeover switch directs
2-way Switch the flow of current to one of two routes
(SPDTS) according to its position. Some SPDT
switches have a central off position and are
described as 'on-off-on'.
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw
Dual On-Off Switch. A dual on-off switch which is often
Switch used to switch mains electricity because it
(DPSTS) can isolate both the live and neutral
connections.

DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw

Reversing Switch Switch. This switch can be wired up as a
(DPDTS) reversing switch for a motor. Some DPDT
switches have a central off position.

An electrically operated switch, for

example a 9V battery circuit connected to
the coil can switch a 230V AC mains
Relay
circuit.
NO=NormallyOpen, COM =Common, NC
=Normally Closed.
Resistors

Resistor A resistor restricts the flow of current, for

example to limit the current passing
through an LED. A resistor is used with a
capacitor in a timing circuit. Some
publications still use the old resistor
symbol:
This type of variable resistor with 2
contacts (a rheostat) is usually used to
VariableResistor control current. Examples include:
(Rheostat) adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor
speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of
charge into a capacitor in a timing circuit.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

This type of variable resistor with 3

contacts (a potentiometer) is usually used
VariableResistor to control voltage. It can be used like this
(Potentiometer) as a transducer converting position (angle
of the control spindle) to an electrical
signal.
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is
operated with a small screwdriver or
similar tool. It is designed to be set when
VariableResistor
(Preset) the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment. Presets are cheaper than
normal variable resistors so they are often
used in projects to reduce the cost.
CAPACITORS
A capacitor stores electric charge. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
Capacitor
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to
block DC signals but pass AC signals.
A capacitor stores electric charge. This
type must be connected the correct way
Capacitor round. A capacitor is used with a resistor in
polarized a timing circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, to block DC signals but pass AC
signals.

A variable capacitor is used in a radio

VariableCapacitor
tuner.

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer)

is operated with a small screwdriver or
Trimmer Capacitor similar tool. It is designed to be set when
the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment.
DIODES

A device which only allows current to flow

Diode
in one direction.
LED
A transducer which converts electrical
Light Emitting
energy to light.
Diode

A special diode which is used to maintain a

Zener Diode
fixed voltage across its terminals.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.

TRANSISTORS

A transistor amplifies current. It can be

Transistor NPN used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

A transistor amplifies current. It can be

Transistor PNP used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.

AUDIO AND RADIO DEVICES

A transducer which converts sound to

Microphone
electrical energy.

A transducer which converts electrical

Earphone
energy to sound.

A transducer which converts electrical

Loudspeaker
energy to sound.

A transducer which converts electrical

Piezo Transducer
energy to sound.

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really

Amplifier it is a block diagram symbol because it
(general symbol) represents a circuit rather than just one
component.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

A device which is designed to receive or

Aerial
transmit radio signals. It is also known as
(Antenna)
an antenna.

METERS AND OSCILLOSCOPE

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.

Voltmeter Voltmeter must be connected across the
terminal.
An ammeter is used to measure current. It
Ammeter is always connected in series with the
circuit.
A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter
Galvanometer which is used to measure tiny currents,
usually 1mA or less.
An ohmmeter is used to measure
Ohmmeter resistance. Most multimeters have an
ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to display the
shape of electrical signals and it can be
Oscilloscope
used to measure their voltage and time
period.
SENSORS (INPUT DEVICES)
A transducer which converts brightness
(light) to resistance (an electrical property).
LDR
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor
A transducer which converts temperature
Thermistor
(heat) to resistance (an electrical property).
LOGIC GATES
A NOT gate can only have one input. The
'o' on the output means 'not'. The output of
a NOT gate is the inverse (opposite) of its
NOT
input, so the output is true when the input
is false. A NOT gate is also called an
inverter.

An AND gate can have two or more inputs.

AND The output of an AND gate is true when all
its inputs are true.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

A NAND gate can have two or more

inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not'
NAND showing that it is a Not ANDgate. The
output of a NAND gate is true unless all its
inputs are true.

An OR gate can have two or more inputs.

OR The output of an OR gate is true when at
least one of its inputs is true.

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs.

The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
NOR that it is a Not OR gate. The output of a
NOR gate is true when none of its inputs
are true.

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs.

EX-OR The output of an EX-OR gate is true when
its inputs are different (one true, one false).

An EX-NOR gate can only have two

inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not'
EX-NOR showing that it is a Not EX-OR gate. The
output of an EX-NOR gate is true when its
inputs are the same (both true or both
false).

RESULT:
Thus the various symbols in electric circuits were studied and drawn.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
STUDY OF ACCESSORIES, TOOLS USED IN WIRING &
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS [R]
AIM:

To study the various types of accessories and tools used in house

wiring. To study safety precautions for electrical engineering
practice

ACCESSORIES REQUIRED:

Switch, Lamp Holder, Lamp holder adopter, Ceiling roses, mounting

blocks, Socket outlets, Plugs, Main switch, Distribution fuses boards.

TOOLS REQUIRED:

Cutting pliers, Flat nose pliers, Screwdriver, Neon tester,

Hammer, knife, Poker, Pincer, Center punch, twist drill,
Soldering rod.

ACCESSORIES:

1. Switch
a. A switch is used to make or break an electric circuit. Under some
abnormal conditions it must retain its rigidity and keep its
alignment between switchblades and contacts correct to a fraction
of centimeter.

2. Lamp Holders
a. A lamp holder is used to hold the lamp required for lighting
purposes.

3. Lamp Holder Adopter

a. It is used for tapping temporary power for small portable electric
appliances from lamp holders. Such a practice is not advised.

4. Ceiling Roses
a. It is an end point of an electrical wire, which provides a cover to
the wire end. These are used to provide a tapping to the lamp
holder through the flexible wire or a connection to a fluorescent
tube or a ceiling fan. It consists of a circular base and a cover made
of bakelite. One end of the plates is connected to supply and the
other end to a flexible wire connected to appliances.
5. Mounting Blocks
a. These are nothing but wooden round blocks. They are used in
conjunction with ceiling roses, batten holder, surface switches,
ceiling switches, etc.
6. Socket Outlets
a. It is a wiring accessory to which electrical appliances are
connected for power supply. These have insulated base with
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
molded or socket base having three terminal sleeves. The two thin
terminal sleeves are meant for making connection to the load
circuit wires and the third terminal sleeve, larger in cross section,
is used for an earth connection.

7. Plugs
a. These are used for tapping power from socket outlets. Two-pin
plugs and three-pin plugs are commonly available.

8. Main Switch
a. This is used at the consumer’s premises so that he may have self-
control of the entire distribution circuit. This switch is a master
control of all the wiring circuit made in the building. The different
classifications are double poled and triple poled switches.
9. Distribution Fuse Boards
i. In industries or in very big buildings, where a number of
circuits are to be wired, and distribution fuse boards are
used. They are usually iron clad and are designed with a
large space for wiring and splitting the circuits. The fuse
bank in the distribution board can easily be removed
10. Fuse
a. A fuse is a protective device, which is connected such that the
current flowing through the protected circuit also flows through the
fuse. There is a resistive link inside the fuse body that heats or
melts up when current flows through it. If the current is beyond the
permissible limit, the resistive link burns open, which stops all
current to flow in the circuit. At this condition we say that the fuse
is blown.
11. Earthing
a. When a wire is connected from the ground to the outer metal
casing of the electrical appliances, then it attain zero potential and
the appliance is said to be earthed and this process is known as
earthing.
12. Purpose of Earthing
a. Under normal condition, there is no electrical potential is available
in the outer metal casing of the electrical appliances. When some
fault develops in the appliances, then electrical potential leaked to
the metal casing causes heavy current flow due to earthing. This
heavy current blows the fuse and cutoff electrical supply to the
appliances.
b. Thus earthing provides protection to human being and
electrical appliances.
TOOLS:

1. Cutting Pliers
They are used to cut the wires, nipping by hand and twisting the wires and
also to hold them. Long nose pliers are used to hold the wires in small
space and also to tighten and loosen small nuts.

2. Nose Pliers
Long nose pliers are used to hold the wires in small space and also to
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
tighten and loosen small nuts.

3. Screw Driver
They are used to drive and tighten screws into pointed holes in the
switches and electrical machines. They are generally insulated
4. Hammer
Ball peen and claw hammers are commonly used in electrical work where
greater power is required in striking. It is best suited for riveting purposes
in sheet metal works.

5. Line Tester
It is used to check the electric supply in the line or phase wire. It has a
small neon bulb,
which indicates the presence of power supply. It can also be used as a
screw driver.

6. Knife
It is generally used for removing the insulation from the wire. The
closing type knife is always preferred.

7. Poker
It is a long sharp tool used for making pilot holes in wood before fixing
and tightening wood screws.

8. Pincer
The pincer is used for extracting nails from the wood

9. Center Punch
When a hole is to be drilled in a material, the center punch is always used
for making the starting hole.

10. Twist Drill

It is used for drilling holes into metals and woods.

11. Soldering Rod

It is used for soldering wires to small joints with solder. It consists of
pointed oval Cu bit fixed to an iron rod, which is heated by an electric
element only.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1. While work on electrical installations, wear always rubber shoes

and avoid loose shirting.

2. Do not work on live circuits, if unavoidable use rubber gloves,

rubber mats etc
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
14. First restore the normal breathing to the victim and ensure that the patient
can breathe normally unaided. Then we can render other first aids.

RESULT:

Thus a study on the various types of accessories, tools used in house

wiring and safety precautions for electrical engineering practice was performed
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX.NO.1 RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES,

FUSE, INDICATOR, LAMP AND ENERGY METER.

Aim:
To construct residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp & energy
meter.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

S.No Components Description Quantity

1 Lamps loads 5A 3
2 Bulb holder 3
3 Fuses 3
4 One way switches 3
5 Wires required

TOOLS REQUIRED:

S.No Components Quantity

1 Plier 1
2 Knife 1
3 Side cutter 1
4 Screw driver 1

PRECAUTIONS:

 The metal covering of all appliances are to be properly earthed in order to

avoid electrical shock due to leakage or failure of insulation.
 Every line has to be protected by a fuse of suitable rating as per
the requirement.

PROCEDURE:

 Collect the materials required for this experiment.

 Draw the layout of the given circuit diagram in the circuit board.
 Fix the necessary materials, by using drilling machine in the layout board.
 The lamps are fixed on the lamp holders.
 Connections are checked and supply is given.
 Switches are operated to see the output of the lamp.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

RESULT:
Thus the single-phase wiring has been constructed& checked.
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[LS]
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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EX.NO. FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING

AIM:
To construct and test a fluorescent lamp wiring.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
S.No Components Quantity
1 Tube light 1
2 Tube light Starter 1
3 Tube light Choke 1
4 Tube light frame 1
5 5A-SPST Switch 1
6 1.5mm2 Connecting Wires As required

TOOLS REQUIRED:
S.No Components Quantity
1 Wire Stripper 1
2 Screw driver 1
THEORY:
The fluorescent tubes are usually available in lengths of 0.61 m & 1.22 m. The
various parts of fluorescent tube include. Glass tube, Starter, Choke. The tubes are
coated from inside with phosphorus, which is used to convert ultra violet
radiations into visible light and to give the required colour sensation. The tube also
contains low pressure argon gas and one or two drops of mercury. The two
filaments are coated with electron emissive material. The starter (initially in closed
position) puts the filaments directly across the supply mains at the time of starting,
there by initiating emission of electrons. After 1 or 2 seconds the starter switch
gets opened. The interruption of current makes the choke to act like ballast
providing a voltage impulse across the filaments. Due to this, ionization of argon
takes place. Mercury vapor arc provides a conducting path between the filaments.
The function of starter is to complete the circuit initially for preheating the
filaments (to initiate emission of electrons) and then to open the circuit for high
voltage across choke for initiating ionization. A capacitor is placed across the
supply of a fluorescent lamp circuit to correct the power factor. To prevent the
lamp from taking too much current a fluorescent lamp has to have a choke, which
has magnetic inductance. The inductance has a negative impact on the power
factor so a capacitor is used to compensate for the inductance by improving the
power factor.
PROCEDURE:
 The tube light wiring is made as per circuit diagram
 Supply is given & circuit is checked.

RESULT:
Thus the fluorescent tube wiring has been constructed and the working is
tested.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

LAYOUT DIAGRAM
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EX.NO.2 STAIRCASE WIRING

Aim:

To setup a staircase wiring using the given lamps, controlled by switches.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

S.No Components Quantity

1 PVC pipes
2 Junction boxes 1
3 Bulb holder 1
4 PVC plates 1
5 Drilling machine 1
6 Connecting Wires As required
7 Two-way switch 2

TOOLS REQUIRED:

S.No Components Quantity

1 Neon tester 1
2 cutting pliers 1
3 Screwdriver 1

THEORY:

In this wiring a single lamp is controlled from two places. For this purpose two
numbers of two-way switches are used.

PROCEDURE:

 Collect the materials required for this experiment.

 Draw the layout of the given circuit diagram in the circuit board.
 Fix the necessary materials, by using drilling machine in the layout board.
 One end of the lamp holder is connected to neutral point and another point
is connected at the center of the two-way switch B.
 The center of the switch A is connected to the phase line.
 The connection of the other two ends of two-way switch is connected as
follows. The point 1 of switch A is connected to point 1 of switch B and
point 2 of A is connected to 2 of B.
 The given lamp is fixed on the lamp holders.
 Controlling the switches, the circuit is checked and results are tabulated.
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[LS]
TABLULATION:

Sl.no Switch A Switch B Output-Lamp

4
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

RESULT:

Thus the staircase wiring has been constructed, tested and the results are tabulated.
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[LS]

Tabular Column:
M.F.=

S.N VOLTAGE CURRENT WATTMETER READING(W) POWER

V(V) I(A) OBSERVED(obs) ACTUAL=obs*M.F. FACTOR
COS φ=P/VI
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
EX.NO. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
VOLTAGE,
CURRENT, POWER & POWER FACTOR IN RLC
CIRCUIT.

Aim:
To measure power, power factor and impedance of RLC circuit using
voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter and to calculate reactive power & apparent
power.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

1 1 ф Auto transformer (0-300)V/8A - 1

2 Decade resistance box(DRB (0-1)KΩ - 1
3 Decade capacitance box(DCB) (0-0.01)mF - 1
4 Decade inductance box(DIB) (0-10)H - 1
5 Voltmeter (0-300) V MI 1
6 Ammeter (0-10)A MI 1
7 2.5mm2Connecting wires - - As required

PROCEDURE:

• Connect the RLC circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

• After verification of circuit close the DPST switch.
• Precaution set the auto transformer to minimum position.
• Vary the auto transformer such that 200 mA of current flows
through ammeter.
• Note down drop across R, R-L and C also current in the circuit.
• Readings are tabulated.
• Bring the auto transformer to original position before opening
DPSTS. Calculate power factor (cos), impedance (Z), real power
(P), reactive power (Q), and total power(S).

Formulae:

Real power (P) in watts

Power factor (cos ф) =P/VI
Reactive power (Q) =VI sin ф VAR
Apparent power(S) =P+jQ

S=√ (P2 + Q2 VA
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[LS]

MODEL CALCULATION:
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

RESULT:

The voltage, current, power and power factor of the series RLC circuit are
determined.
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[LS]
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX.NO.5 MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE

PHASE
ENERGY METER

AIM:

To measure the energy using phase energy meter for domestic loads.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Equipment Range Quantity

230 V,1 ph,
1 Energy meter kit 50HZ,20 A 1
2Lamp holder - 1
230 V,50 HZ, incandescent 40 W,100
3 bulb W,200 W 1 Each
4 Connecting wires As required
5 Stop clock 1
PRECAUTIONS:
• There should be no load at the time of starting.
PROCEDURE:

• The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

• The DPST switch is closed and the supply is affected and load is
adjusted to full load value.
• The time taken for 10 revolutions of the aluminum disc in
the energy meter is noted.
• The error is calculated if it is more than +3% the brake magnet is
adjusted such that the error is within +3%.
• The load is reduced in steps and for each step, step #. 3 is
repeated and the %error is calculated.
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[LS]

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.N VOLTAGE CURRENT ENERGY

(V) (A) (w/s)
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

RESULT:

Thus the energy is measured using single phase energy meter and the %error is
calculated.
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[LS]
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

L=0.52D
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX.NO.6 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF

AN
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
AIM:
To measure the resistance of earthing.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
S.N Components Quantity
1 4 Point earth resistance tester 1
2 Spikes 3
3 Hammer 1
4 2.5 mm2 connecting wires 1

THEORY:
When an electrode system has been designed and installed, it is usually
necessary to measure and confirm the earth resistance between the
electrode and “true earth”. The most commonly used method of measuring
the earth resistance of an earth electrode is the 3-point measuring
techniques shown in figure. The 3-point method, called the “fall of
potential” method, comprises the Earth electrode to be measured and two
other electrically independent test electrodes, usually labeled P
(potential) & C (current). These test electrodes must be electrically
independent of the electrode to be measured. An alternating current (I) is
passed through outer electrode C and the voltage is measured, by means of
an inner electrode P, at some intermediary point between them. Other more
complex methods, such as slope method or the four pole method, have been
developed to overcome specific problems associated with this simpler
procedure, mainly for measurements of the resistance of large earthing
systems or at sites where space for locating test electrodes is restricted.
Regardless of the measurement method employed, it should be remembered
that the measurement of earth resistance is as much an art as it is a science,
and resistance measurements can be affected by many parameters, some of
which may be difficult to quantify. As such, it is best to take a number of
separate readings and average them, rather than rely on the results of a
single measurement.

PROCEDURE:

 Collect the materials required for this experiment.

 The terminals C1 and P1 of earth resistance tester is first shorted and then
connected to earth electrode.
 The current electrode (C2) is fixed at a distance D (say 60m) from the earth
electrode.
 The potential electrode (P2) is fixed at a distance ‘L’ from the earth
electrode.
 The wires are connected to each rod and the earth tester terminals as shown
 The earth tester is ranked and the reading is taken.
 For two more readings, step-4 is repeated with L=42% of D and 62% of D.
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[LS]
TABULAR COLUMN:

Distance Between
S.No Electrode(Feet) Resistance(Ohms)

Average earth resistance=…………….. Ω

 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

RESULT:

Thus the resistance of the earthing was measured.

Average earth resistance= …………Ω

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[LS]
Circuit diagram:

TABULATION:
Multiplication Factor = …………….

Voltage Current Wattmeter Reading (Watts)

S.No.
(Volts) (Ampere) Observed value Actual value
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX.No.7 MEASUREMENT OF POWER USING WATTMETER

Aim:
To measure the Power consumed by a Single Phase Resistive Load

by using Wattmeter.
Apparatus required:
S.N Apparatus Type/Range Quantity
1. Ammeter (0 – 10A) MI 1
2. Voltmeter (0 – 300V) MI 1
3. Wattmeter 300V, 10A, UPF 1
4 1 phase resistive load - 1
5 Connecting wires - As required

Theory:
A wattmeter is an instrument specially designed to measure average power
consumed by a load. It has two coils:A current coil that measures the current and a
voltage coil that measures the voltage. The wattmeter takes into account the phase
shift, if there is any between the current sensed by its current coil and the voltage
sensed by its voltage coil. If the voltage drop across as measured the voltage coil
is Vm cos(ωt + Ф) A, then the average power P measured by the wattmeter in
watts is ½ Vm Im Cos Ф,where Ф = is the power factor angle. The voltage coil of
the wattmeter, its reading will be 0.707 Vm.
Precautions:
 Single phase variac should be kept at minimum position, during starting
period.
 No load should be connected when the DPSTS is closed or opened.

Procedure:
 The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
 Rated Voltage is set in the voltmeter, by gradually varying the single phase
variac.
 Resistive load is switch ON.
 Load is gradually increased and the ammeter, voltmeter & wattmeter
readings are noted.

RESULT:

Thus the power consumed by a single phase resistive load was measured.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]
Resistance Colour Coding:
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX.NO. STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND

EQUIPMENT

Aim:
To study electronic components and equipment such as resistor colour coding,
usage of CRO and Multimeter

Components Required:
1. Resistors

2. CRO

3. Multimeter

4. AFO

Theory:
Resistor colour coding is used to indicate the values or ratings of resistors. It
is also used in capacitors and inductors. The advantage of colour coding is that
essential information can be marked on small components of cylindrical shape
without the need to read tiny printing. Resistor values are always coded in ohms.

Band A is the first significant digit of component value. Band B is the second
significant digit.
Band C is the decimal multiplier.
Band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no colour means 20%).
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red and gold will have first
digit 4(yellow), second digit 7(violet), followed by 2(red) zeros: 4,700 ohms.
Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%, silver specifies a 10% tolerance;
Actual resistor value = 4700 ±5% Ω.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Tabulation [LS]
S.N Resistance value by colour coding(Ohms) Resistance value by Multimeter(ohms)

Signal Measurement using CRO

Maximum voltage , Peak- to- RMS

Time in Seconds
Vm in Volts Peak Voltage Frequency
Sl.
Voltage Vrms f = 1/T
No Per No of Actual Vpp= 2V m = Vm / Per No of Actual in Hz

division divisions Value in Volts In Volts division divisions Value

 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope (sometimes abbreviated CRO for cathode-ray
oscilloscope) is electronic test equipment that allows signal voltages to be
viewed, usually as a two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential
differences (vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or some other voltage
(horizontal axis).
A typical oscilloscope is a rectangular box with a small screen, numerous
input connectors and control knobs and buttons on the front panel. To aid
measurement, a grid called the graticule is drawn on the face of the screen. Each
square in the graticule is known as a division. The signal to be measured is fed to
one of the input connectors, which is usually a coaxial connector such as a BNC or
N type.
In the simplest mode, the oscilloscope repeatedly draws a horizontal line
called the trace across the middle of the screen from left to right. One of the
controls, the time base control, sets the speed at which the line is drawn, and is
calibrated in seconds per division. If the input voltage departs from zero, the trace
is deflected either upwards or downwards. Another control, the vertical control,
sets the scale of the vertical deflection, and is calibrated in volts per division. The
resulting trace is a graph of voltage against time.
If the input signal is periodic, a nearly stable trace can be obtained just by
setting the time base to match the frequency of the input signal. For example, if
the input signal is a 50 Hz sine wave, then its period is 20 ms, so the time base
should be adjusted so that the time between successive horizontal sweeps is 20ms.
This mode is called continual sweep. To provide a more stable trace, modern
oscilloscopes have a function called the trigger. When using triggering, the scope
will pause each time the sweep reaches the extreme right side of the screen. The
scope then waits for a specified event before drawing the next trace. The trigger
event is usually the input waveform reaching some user-specified threshold
voltage in the specified direction (going positive or going negative).
The effect is to resynchronise the time base to the input signal, preventing
horizontal drift of the trace. In this way, triggering allows the display of periodic
signals such as sine waves and square waves. Trigger circuits also allow the
display of no periodic signals such as a single pulses or pulses that don‟t recur at
a fixed rate.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Measurement of AC Voltage amplitude and frequency

AFO

CRO

MODEL GRAPH: (Using CRO)

AC input Voltage:
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Most oscilloscopes allow the user to bypass the time base and feed an external
signal into the horizontal amplifier. This is called X-Y mode, and is useful for
viewing the phase relationship between tow signals, which is commonly done in
radio and television engineering. When the two signals are sinusoids of varying
frequency and phase, the resulting trace is called a Lissajous curve.
Oscilloscopes may have two or more input channels, allowing them to
display more than one input signal on the screen. Usually, the oscilloscope has a
separate set of vertical controls for each channel, but only one triggering system
and time base.
Usage of CRO:
One of the most frequent uses of oscilloscopes is troubleshooting
malfunctioning electronic equipments. An oscilloscope can graphically show
signals: whereas a voltmeter can show totally unexpected voltage, a scope may
reveal that the circuit is oscillating. In other cases, the precise shape of pulse is
important.
In electronic equipment, for example, the connections between stages (e.g.
electronic mixers, electronic oscillators, amplifiers) may be „probed‟ for the
expected signal, using the scope as a simple signal tracer. If the expected signal is
absent or incorrect, some preceding stage of the electronics circuit is not operating
correctly. Since most failures occur because of a single faculty component, each
measurement can prove that half of the stages of a complex piece of equipment
either work or probably did not cause the fault.
Once the faulty stage is discovered, further probing can usually tell a
skilled technician exactly which component has failed. Once the component is
replaced, the unit can be restored to service, or at least the next fault can be
isolated.Another use is to check newly designed circuitry. Often a newly designed
circuit will suffer from design errors, bad voltage levels, electrical noise etc.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Multimeter:
A Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that contributes
several functions in one unit. The most basic instruments include ammeter,
voltmeter, and ohmmeter. Analog multimeters are sometimes referred to as “volt-
ohmmeters”, abbreviated as VOM.A multimeter is a handheld device and used to
find basic fault and for field service work. It can measure to seven or eight and a
half digit of accuracy. Current, voltage and resistance measurements are
considered standard features for multimeter.A multimeter may be implemented
with an analog meter deflected by an electromagnet, as a classic galvanometer; or
with a digital display such as an LCD or vacuum fluorescent display
Modern multimeters are, exclusively digital and identified by the term
DMM or digital multimeter. In such an instrument, the signal under test is
converted to a digital voltage and an amplifier with an electronically controlled
gain preconditions the signal. Since the digital display directly indicates a quantity
as a number, there is no risk of error when viewing a reading. Similarly, better
circuitry and electronics have improved the meter accuracy. Older analog meters
might have basic accuracies of ±5%. Modern potable DMMs have accuracies as
good as ±0.025%

Result:
Thus the resistor colour coding, usage of CRO and multimeter are studied.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]

Integrated Circuit(IC)
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX.NO SOLDERING AND CHECKING CONTINUITY

Aim:
To practice soldering of plates and wires.

Tools Required:
1. Soldering iron
2. Solder
3. Flux

Theory:
Soldering:
Soldering is the process of joining thin metal plates or wires made of steel,
copper or brass. It is very commonly used to join wires in electrical work and
mount electronic components on a circuit board. The joining material used in
soldering is called as solder or filler rod. An alloy of tin and lead is commonly
used as the solder. The flux is used to clean the surface of the plates/wires to be
soldered. Aluminum chloride or zinc chloride is commonly used as flux. A good
soldering iron is a variable temperature setting type with interchangeable irons
and tips. The tip should be removed regularly to prevent oxidation scale from
accumulating between the heating element and the tip.
Procedure:
 The surface to be soldered is cleaned and flux applied.
 The soldering iron is heated to the required temperature.

 The soldering iron melts the solder rod and a thin film of solder spreads
over the surface to join the plates/wires.

Soldering Simple Electronic Components:

A printed circuit board (PCB) consists of copper strips and pads bonded to a
plastic board. The copper strip is the network of interconnecting conductive path.
Leads of components mounted on the board are inserted through holes on the
board and the conductive copper. These leads are soldered to the copper at the end
of the hole. If excessive heat is applied to copper, it may get lifted from the board
or the components on the board get damaged. Soldering pencil gun of about 30
Watts is used to heat the junction. The surface of copper bonded to the board
should be properly prepared and cleaned before soldering. Flux is applied on
circuits and component leads. Check the conductive strips and pads on the board
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
before soldering. Avoid excess solder to prevent two copper paths from bridging.
When solder globules form on the junction area, remove them by cleaning the
soldering tip using a cloth.

Checking Continuity:

The continuity of a wire conductor without a break has practically zero

ohms of resistance. Therefore, an ohmmeter may be used to test continuity. To
test continuity, select the lowest ohm range. A wire may have an internal break,
which is not visible due to insulation, or the wire may have a bad connection at
the terminals. Checking for zero ohms between any two points tests the
continuity. A break in the conducting path is evident from the reading of infinite
resistance. In a cable of wires, individual wires are identified with colours.
Consider the figure, where the individual wires are not seen, but you wish to find
the wire that connects to terminal A. This is done by, checking continuity of each
wire to terminal A. The wire that has zero ohms is the one connected to this
terminal. Continuity of a long cable may be tested by temporarily short-circuiting
the other ends of the wires. The continuity of both wires may be checked for zero
ohms. In a digital multimeter, a beep mode is available to check continuity. The
connectivity between the terminals is identified by the beep sound.

Result:
The electronic components are soldered and continuity of a circuit or wire
is checked.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX.NO. ASSEMBLING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ON A PCB

AND TESTING
Aim:
To assemble electronic components on a PCB and test it

Tools Required:
1. Soldering iron
2. Solder and
3. Flux
Components Required:
1. PCB and
2. Electronic Components
Procedure:
The electronic components are carefully assembled as per the circuit
design. The assembling of electronic components on a PCB involves the
following steps.
Component Lead Preparation:
Components such as capacitors have leads and are bent carefully to mount
on PCB. The lead bending radius should be approximately two times the diameter
of the lead. The bent leads should fit into the holes perpendicular to the board, so
that the stress on the component lead junction is minimized. Suitable bending
tools may be used for perfect bending. Leads are bent and assembled on board in
such a way that the polarity symbols are seen after mounting the component.
Component Mounting:
Components are mounted on one side of the board and leads are soldered
on the other side of the board. The components are oriented both horizontally and
vertically but uniformity in reading directions must be maintained. The uniformity
in orientation of diodes, capacitors, transistors, IC‟s etc. is determined at the time
of PCB design. Components dissipating more heat should be separated from the
board surface.
Manual Assembly of Components:
The components to be assembled on a PCB are arranged conveniently. The board
to be assembled is held in a suitable frame and the components are kept in trays or
bins. The insertion tools, if required, must be kept in the easy reach of the worker.
The work is divided depending on number of parts to be assembled and the size of
each part. The number of different components to be assembled for one worker
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
should not be more than 20.

Soldering and Lead Cutting:

The components are soldered on the PCB. The excess lead is cut after
soldering. The performance and reliability of the solder joints are best if lead
cutting is carried before soldering so that the lead end gets protected. However,
this is not practiced in hand soldering.

PCB Cleaning:

The soldered PCB may have contaminants that could cause trouble during
the functioning of the circuit. The contaminants include flux and chips of plastics,
metals, and other materials. Hence, the PCB must be cleaned before use. A wide
range of cleaning media is available; usually chemicals such as acetone and
alcohols are used.

Result:
The electronic components are assembled on PCB and are tested.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]
Pin Diagrams:
AND Gate:

OR GATE:

NOT GATE:

EX-OR GATE
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX.NO. STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES

Aim:
To verify the truth table of the logic gates AND, OR, NOT, NAND &
NOR using 74XX ICs.
Components Required:
IC 7432(OR Gate)
IC 7408(AND Gate)
IC 7404(NOT Gate)
IC 7486(EXOR Gate)
Digital IC trainer kit

Theory:
Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one
output signal. Gates are digital circuits because the input and output signals
are either low or high voltages. Gates are often called logic circuits because
they can be analysed using Boolean algebra
AND Gate:
An AND gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output
can go to logic 1 if all its inputs are at the high state.
The Boolean expression for a two input AND gate is: F=x.y

OR Gate:

An OR gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output
will be at logic 1 if any or both of its inputs are at the high state.

INPUT OUTPUT
S.No
X Y F
1. 0 0 0
2. 0 1 1
3. 1 0 1
4. 1 1 0
The Boolean expression for a two input OR
gate is: F = x + y
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

NOT Gate:
A NOT gate has a single input and a single output. It is also called as an
inverter.
The output will be at logic 1 if its input is at low state, otherwise its output will be
at
logic 0. Thus its output is the complement of its input.

Boolean expression F=x’

Ex OR Gate:

An Ex-OR gate performs the following Boolean function,

A B F= (A. B’) + (A’. B)

It is similar to OR gate but excludes the combination of both A and B

being equal to one. The exclusive OR is a function that give an output

signal ‘0’ when the two input signals are equal either ‘0’ or ‘1’.

INPUT OUTPUT
S.No
A B Y=A B
1. 0 0 0
2. 0 1 1
3. 1 0 1
4. 1 1 0
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Procedure:
1. Connections are given as per the logic diagrams and the pin-out
diagrams of the individual ICs.
2. Supply and ground connections are given to the ICs.
3. Inputs are applied by using the switches that provide the logic
High and Low levels.
4. The outputs are observed by using the LED’s.

Result:
Thus the logic gates AND, OR, NOT and EOR and are studied and their truth
tables verified.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]

IC 555 PIN DIAGRAM:

 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
EX.NO. Generation of Clock Signal

AIM:

To generate a clock signal of 1 KHz (square waveform) by an

astable multivibrator using IC555 timer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Equipments & Range Quantity

Components

1. Power Supply (0-15) V,1A 1

2.Resistors 10K,1K 2,1

3.Capacitors 0.01µF 2

4.CRO (0-100)MHZ 1

5.IC555 1

DESIGN:

Case (I)

Given f = 1 KHz and D =0.5

1.45
Frequency of astable multivibrator, f = (R A + R B )C
1.45
Then C = (R A + R B )f
RB
D = (R A + R B ) = 0.5
0.5RA +0.5RB = RB RA = RB
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]
TABULAR COLUMN:

Let C = 0.1µF, RA =RB =R

1.45
f = (R A + R B )C
1.45 1.45

f = 2RC =>1KHz = 2 * 0.1*10 -6 * R

R = 7.2Kohm
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Case (ii)

Given f = 1KHz and D =0.25

Frequency of astable multivibrator,

1.45
f
(R A + 2R B )C 1.45
(R A + 2R B) f
=
RA +2RB = 4RB
Then C = RA = 2RB

Let C=0.1µF, RA = 2RB

Rb=3.62KΩ

Ra=7.25 KΩ

1.45
f = (R A + 2R B )C
1.45 1.45
f = 4R B C =>1KHz = 4 * 0.1*10 -6 * R B
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

THEORY:

The 555 timers is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delay or
oscillation. A single 555 timer can provide time delay ranging from microseconds to hours
whereas counter timer can have a maximum timing range of days.
An astable multi vibrator is a square waveform generator. Forcing the Op-amp to
operate in the saturation region generates square waveform. It is a free running symmetrical
multivibrator because it does not require any external trigger

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The square waveform is obtained at output pin of Op-amp.
3. Note the amplitude & Time period of the waveform & Plot it in the graph.
4. Duty cycle is calculated using the formula given.

RESULT:

Thus IC555 timer was operated in astable mode to generate square wave.

Theoretical Duty cycle: 25%

Practical Duty cycle : -----------.

 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

EX: NO: MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF-WAVE

AND FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
Aim:
To study half-wave and full-wave rectifiers and measure the ripple factors with
and without capacitor filter.
Apparatus Required:

Sl. No. Component Name Range Quantity Required

i) CRO (0 – 20 MHz) 1
ii) Multimeter 1
iii) PN Junction Diode 1N 4007 1
iv) Transformer 230 Volts / 1
12 – 0 –12 Volts,
200 mA
v) Resistor 470Ω,1/2W 1
vi) Capacitor 470 µF / 25 V 1
vii) Breadboard - 1
viii) Connecting Wires - As required

Theory:

The process of converting AC voltage and current to Direct current is called

rectification. An electronic device that offers a low resistance to current in one direction
and a high resistance in the other direction is capable of converting a sinusoidal waveform
into a unidirectional waveform. Diodes have this characteristic, which makes it a useful
component in the design of rectifiers. In order to achieve a constant/pure DC voltage at the
output, filtering should be done to the pulsating DC output of the rectifier. The output
varies with the variation in AC mains. Hence a voltage regulator is used to maintain the
output voltage at the same value.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

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Tabular Column:

Rectifier Without filter With filter

Vm(V) T(ms) Vm(V) T(ms)

Charging Discharging
Half wave rectifier

Full wave rectifier

 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Diodes are used in a rectifier circuit to convert AC into DC. When only one half of the AC
cycle is rectified, it is known as half-wave rectification. When both the half cycles are rectified,
it is known as full-wave rectification.
Procedure:
Half Wave Rectifier:
(i) Without Capacitor filter:

1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer and
observe the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the
transformer.

2. Connect the half wave rectifier as shown in figure.

3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the Ripple factor. R=Vp-p/VDC
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.

(ii) With capacitor:

1. Connect the half wave rectifier with filter circuit as shown in fig.

2. Assume r= 10% of ripple peak-to-peak voltage for R= 500Ω. Calculate C using the
formula r = 1/2√ 3fRC.
3. Connect CRO across load.

4. Keep the CRO switch in ground mode and observe the horizontal line and adjust it to
the X-axis.
5. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform.

Full wave Rectifier:

(i) Without Capacitor:

1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer
and observe the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of
the transformer.
2. Connect the full wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the Ripple factor
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[LS]
Model Graph:
 PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

With capacitor:
1. To plot ripple peak-to-peak voltage Vs. Idc to choose C a ripple factor of 0.15 is
assumed.
2. To get a variable load resistance a number of 500Ω, 5W of resistance are to be connected

in parallel. Hence Idc = Vdc / (N X 500). Where N is number of 500Ω resistances

connected in parallel.

3. Plot the graph Idc Vs ripple peak to peak.

4. The above steps are repeated for the various values of capacitance

Result:
Thus the Half-wave and Full-wave rectifiers, with and without filters are constructed
and their ripple factors are obtained.
PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE