Magnet

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field.

This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most
notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other
ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, etc. and
attracts or repels other magnets.

A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is

magnetized and creates its own persistent magnetic field. An
everyday example is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a
refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also
the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called
ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). These include the elements iron,
nickel and cobalt and their alloys, some alloys of rare-earth metals,
and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. Although A "horseshoe magnet" made of
ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones alnico, an iron alloy. The magnet,
made in the shape of a horseshoe,
attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered
has the two magnetic poles close
magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field,
together. This shape creates a strong
by one of several other types of magnetism.
magnetic field between the poles,
allowing the magnet to pick up a
Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft"
heavy piece of iron.
materials like annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not
tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials, which
do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic
materials such as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to special
processing in a strong magnetic field during manufacture to align
their internal microcrystalline structure, making them very hard to
demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain
magnetic field must be applied, and this threshold depends on
Magnetic field lines of a solenoid
coercivity of the respective material. "Hard" materials have high
electromagnet, which are similar to a
coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity. The
bar magnet as illustrated below with
overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment
the iron filings
or, alternatively, the total magnetic flux it produces. The local
strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its
magnetization.

An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through
it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of "soft"
ferromagnetic material such as mild steel, which greatly enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.

Contents
Discovery and development
Physics
Magnetic field
 Magnetic moment
Magnetization
Modelling magnets
Polarity
Magnetic materials
Common uses
Medical issues and safety
Magnetizing ferromagnets
Demagnetizing ferromagnets
Types of permanent magnets
Magnetic metallic elements
Composites
Rare-earth magnets
Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs)
Nano-structured magnets
Rare-earth-free permanent magnets
Costs
Temperature
Electromagnets
Units and calculations
Fields of a magnet
Calculating the magnetic force
Pull force of a single magnet
Force between two magnetic poles
Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area A
Force between two bar magnets
Force between two cylindrical magnets
See also
Notes
References
External links

Discovery and development

Ancient people learned about magnetism from lodestones (or magnetite) which are naturally magnetized
pieces of iron ore. The word magnet was adopted in Middle English from Latin magnetum "lodestone",
ultimately from Greek μαγνῆτις [λίθος] (magnētis [lithos])[1] meaning "[stone] from Magnesia",[2] a part of
ancient Greece where lodestones were found. Lodestones, suspended so they could turn, were the first
magnetic compasses. The earliest known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from
Greece, India, and China around 2500 years ago.[3][4][5] The properties of lodestones and their affinity for
iron were written of by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia.[6]

By the 12th to 13th centuries AD, magnetic compasses were used in navigation in China, Europe, the
Arabian Peninsula and elsewhere.[7]
Physics

Magnetic field

The magnetic flux density (also called magnetic B field or just

magnetic field, usually denoted B) is a vector field. The magnetic
B field vector at a given point in space is specified by two
properties:

1. Its direction, which is along the orientation of a compass

needle.
2. Its magnitude (also called strength), which is
proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients Iron filings that have oriented in the
along that direction. magnetic field produced by a bar
magnet
In SI units, the strength of the magnetic B field is given in teslas.[8]

Magnetic moment

A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment

and usually denoted μ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's
overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the
magnetic moment points from the magnet's south pole to its north
Play media
pole,[9] and the magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart
Detecting magnetic field with
these poles are. In SI units, the magnetic moment is specified in
compass and with iron filings
terms of A·m2 (amperes times meters squared).

A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and responds to

magnetic fields. The strength of the magnetic field it produces is at any given point proportional to the
magnitude of its magnetic moment. In addition, when the magnet is put into an external magnetic field,
produced by a different source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient the magnetic moment parallel to the
field.[10] The amount of this torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment and the external field. A
magnet may also be subject to a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and
orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space, the magnet is subject to no net force,
although it is subject to a torque.[11]

A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I has a magnetic moment of magnitude
equal to IA.

Magnetization

The magnetization of a magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit volume,
usually denoted M, with units A/m.[12] It is a vector field, rather than just a vector (like the magnetic
moment), because different areas in a magnet can be magnetized with different directions and strengths (for
example, because of domains, see below). A good bar magnet may have a magnetic moment of magnitude
0.1 A·m2 and a volume of 1 cm3 , or 1×10−6 m3 , and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is
100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million amperes per meter. Such a large value
explains why iron magnets are so effective at producing magnetic fields.
Modelling magnets

Two different models exist for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic
currents.

Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet

as having distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of
poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to
the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have
distinct north or south particles on opposing sides. If a bar magnet
is broken into two pieces, in an attempt to separate the north and
south poles, the result will be two bar magnets, each of which has Field of a cylindrical bar magnet
both a north and south pole. However, a version of the magnetic- computed accurately
pole approach is used by professional magneticians to design
permanent magnets.

In this approach, the divergence of the magnetization ∇·M inside a magnet and the surface normal
component M·n are treated as a distribution of magnetic monopoles. This is a mathematical convenience
and does not imply that there are actually monopoles in the magnet. If the magnetic-pole distribution is
known, then the pole model gives the magnetic field H. Outside the magnet, the field B is proportional to
H, while inside the magnetization must be added to H. An extension of this method that allows for internal
magnetic charges is used in theories of ferromagnetism.

Another model is the Ampère model, where all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic,
circular bound currents, also called Ampèrian currents, throughout the material. For a uniformly magnetized
cylindrical bar magnet, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if
there is a macroscopic sheet of electric current flowing around the surface, with local flow direction normal
to the cylinder axis.[13] Microscopic currents in atoms inside the material are generally canceled by currents
in neighboring atoms, so only the surface makes a net contribution; shaving off the outer layer of a magnet
will not destroy its magnetic field, but will leave a new surface of uncancelled currents from the circular
currents throughout the material.[14] The right-hand rule tells which direction positively-charged current
flows. However, current due to negatively-charged electricity is far more prevalent in practice.

Polarity

The north pole of a magnet is defined as the pole that, when the magnet is freely suspended, points towards
the Earth's North Magnetic Pole in the Arctic (the magnetic and geographic poles do not coincide, see
magnetic declination). Since opposite poles (north and south) attract, the North Magnetic Pole is actually
the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field.[15][16][17][18] As a practical matter, to tell which pole of a
magnet is north and which is south, it is not necessary to use the Earth's magnetic field at all. For example,
one method would be to compare it to an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified by the right-hand
rule. The magnetic field lines of a magnet are considered by convention to emerge from the magnet's north
pole and reenter at the south pole.[18]

Magnetic materials

The term magnet is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent magnetic field even in
the absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of materials can do this. Most materials,
however, produce a magnetic field in response to an applied magnetic field – a phenomenon known as
magnetism. There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them.
The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material,
particularly on its electron configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in
different materials, including:

Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as magnetic;
they are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials
are the only ones that can retain magnetization and become magnets; a common example is
a traditional refrigerator magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and the
oldest magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar to but weaker than
ferromagnetics. The difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their
microscopic structure, as explained in Magnetism.
Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen, are weakly attracted to
either pole of a magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that of
ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using
extremely strong magnets. Magnetic ferrofluids, although they are made of tiny ferromagnetic
particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic since they cannot be
magnetized.
Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
substances, diamagnetic substances, such as carbon, copper, water, and plastic, are even
more weakly repelled by a magnet. The permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than
the permeability of a vacuum. All substances not possessing one of the other types of
magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force on a
diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely strong
superconducting magnets, diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead and even mice[19]
can be levitated, so they float in mid-air. Superconductors repel magnetic fields from their
interior and are strongly diamagnetic.

There are various other types of magnetism, such as spin glass, superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism,
and metamagnetism.

Common uses
Magnetic recording
media: VHS tapes
contain a reel of
magnetic tape. The
information that makes
up the video and sound
is encoded on the
magnetic coating on
the tape. Common
audio cassettes also
rely on magnetic tape. Hard disk drives record data on a
Magnetic hand separator for heavy Similarly, in computers, thin magnetic coating
minerals floppy disks and hard
disks record data on a
thin magnetic coating.[20]
Credit, debit, and automatic teller machine cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip on
one side. This strip encodes the information to contact an individual's financial institution
and connect with their account(s).[21]
Older types of televisions (non flat screen) and older large computer monitors: TV and
computer screens containing a cathode ray tube employ an electromagnet to guide
electrons to the screen.[22]
Speakers and microphones: Most speakers employ a permanent magnet and a current-
carrying coil to convert electric energy (the signal) into mechanical energy (movement that
creates the sound). The coil is wrapped around a bobbin attached to the speaker cone and
carries the signal as changing current that interacts with the field of the permanent magnet.
The voice coil feels a magnetic force and in response, moves the cone and pressurizes the
neighboring air, thus generating sound. Dynamic microphones employ the same concept,
but in reverse. A microphone has a diaphragm or membrane attached to a coil of wire. The
coil rests inside a specially shaped magnet. When sound vibrates the membrane, the coil is
vibrated as well. As the coil moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is induced across
the coil. This voltage drives a current in the wire that is characteristic of the original sound.
Electric guitars use magnetic pickups to transduce the vibration of guitar strings into electric
current that can then be amplified. This is different from the principle behind the speaker and
dynamic microphone because the vibrations are sensed directly by the magnet, and a
diaphragm is not employed. The Hammond organ used a similar principle, with rotating
tonewheels instead of strings.
Electric motors and generators: Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an
electromagnet and a permanent magnet, and, much like loudspeakers, they convert electric
energy into mechanical energy. A generator is the reverse: it converts mechanical energy
into electric energy by moving a conductor through a magnetic field.
Medicine: Hospitals use magnetic resonance imaging to spot problems in a patient's organs
without invasive surgery.
Chemistry: Chemists use nuclear magnetic resonance to characterize synthesized
compounds.
Chucks are used in the metalworking field to hold objects. Magnets are also used in other
types of fastening devices, such as the magnetic base, the magnetic clamp and the
refrigerator magnet.
Compasses: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer free to align itself
with a magnetic field, most commonly Earth's magnetic field.
Art: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs, and other ornamental
articles, allowing them to be attached to refrigerators and other metal surfaces. Objects and
paint can be applied directly to the magnet surface to create collage pieces of art. Magnetic
art is portable, inexpensive and easy to create. Vinyl magnetic art is not for the refrigerator
anymore. Colorful metal magnetic boards, strips, doors, microwave ovens, dishwashers,
cars, metal I beams, and any metal surface can be receptive of magnetic vinyl art. Being a
relatively new media for art, the creative uses for this material is just beginning.
Science projects: Many topic questions are based on magnets, including the repulsion of
current-carrying wires, the effect of temperature, and motors involving magnets.[23]
Toys: Given their ability to counteract the force of gravity at close range, magnets are often
employed in children's toys, such as the Magnet Space Wheel and Levitron, to amusing
effect.
Refrigerator magnets are used to adorn kitchens, as a souvenir, or simply to hold a note or
photo to the refrigerator door.
Magnets can be used to make jewelry. Necklaces and bracelets can have a magnetic clasp,
or may be constructed entirely from a linked series of magnets and ferrous beads.
Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper clips) that are either
too small, too hard to reach, or too thin for fingers to hold. Some screwdrivers are
magnetized for this purpose.
Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate magnetic metals (iron,
cobalt, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals (aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same
idea can be used in the so-called "magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected with a
magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty.
 Magnets are found in process industries, food
manufacturing especially, in order to remove metal
foreign bodies from materials entering the process (raw
materials) or to detect a possible contamination at the
end of the process and prior to packaging. They
constitute an important layer of protection for the
process equipment and for the final consumer.[24]
Magnetic levitation transport, or maglev, is a form of
transportation that suspends, guides and propels
vehicles (especially trains) through electromagnetic
force. Eliminating rolling resistance increases efficiency.
The maximum recorded speed of a maglev train is 581
kilometers per hour (361 mph). Magnets have many uses in toys. M-
Magnets may be used to serve as a fail-safe device for tic uses magnetic rods connected to
some cable connections. For example, the power cords metal spheres for construction. Note
of some laptops are magnetic to prevent accidental the geodesic tetrahedron
damage to the port when tripped over. The MagSafe
power connection to the Apple MacBook is one such
example.

Medical issues and safety

Because human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is little
mainstream scientific evidence showing a health effect associated with exposure to static fields. Dynamic
magnetic fields may be a different issue, however; correlations between electromagnetic radiation and
cancer rates have been postulated due to demographic correlations (see Electromagnetic radiation and
health).

If a ferromagnetic foreign body is present in human tissue, an external magnetic field interacting with it can
pose a serious safety risk.[25]

A different type of indirect magnetic health risk exists involving pacemakers. If a pacemaker has been
embedded in a patient's chest (usually for the purpose of monitoring and regulating the heart for steady
electrically induced beats), care should be taken to keep it away from magnetic fields. It is for this reason
that a patient with the device installed cannot be tested with the use of a magnetic resonance imaging
device.

Children sometimes swallow small magnets from toys, and this can be hazardous if two or more magnets
are swallowed, as the magnets can pinch or puncture internal tissues.[26]

Magnetic imaging devices (e.g. MRIs) generate enormous magnetic fields, and therefore rooms intended to
hold them exclude ferrous metals. Bringing objects made of ferrous metals (such as oxygen canisters) into
such a room creates a severe safety risk, as those objects may be powerfully thrown about by the intense
magnetic fields.

Magnetizing ferromagnets
Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:

Heating the object higher than its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field
and hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method and is similar to the industrial
processes used to create permanent magnets.
 Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the
magnetism on removal. Vibration has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials
aligned with the Earth's magnetic field that are subject to vibration (e.g., frame of a conveyor)
have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism. Likewise, striking a steel nail
held by fingers in a N-S direction with a hammer will temporarily magnetize the nail.
Stroking: An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly in the
same direction (single touch method) or two magnets are moved outwards from the center of
a third (double touch method).[27]
Electric Current: The magnetic field produced by passing an electric current through a coil
can get domains to line up. Once all of the domains are lined up, increasing the current will
not increase the magnetization.[28]

Demagnetizing ferromagnets
Magnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways:

Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys the alignment of
the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization.
Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the material's
coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the magnetic
field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial demagnetizers to demagnetize tools,
erase credit cards, hard disks, and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs.
Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the magnet is
subjected to a reverse field above the magnetic material's coercivity.
Demagnetization progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic fields sufficient to
move the magnet away from the linear part on the second quadrant of the B–H curve of the
magnetic material (the demagnetization curve).
Hammering or jarring: mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic domains
and reduce magnetization of an object, but may cause unacceptable damage.

Types of permanent magnets

Magnetic metallic elements

Many materials have unpaired electron spins, and the majority of

these materials are paramagnetic. When the spins interact with
each other in such a way that the spins align spontaneously, the
materials are called ferromagnetic (what is often loosely termed as
magnetic). Because of the way their regular crystalline atomic
structure causes their spins to interact, some metals are
ferromagnetic when found in their natural states, as ores. These
include iron ore (magnetite or lodestone), cobalt and nickel, as well
as the rare earth metals gadolinium and dysprosium (when at a A stack of ferrite magnets
very low temperature). Such naturally occurring ferromagnets
were used in the first experiments with magnetism. Technology
has since expanded the availability of magnetic materials to include various man-made products, all based,
however, on naturally magnetic elements.

Composites
Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium
carbonate ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets
(or non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic components such as portable AM radio
antennas) of various shapes can be easily mass-produced. The resulting magnets are non-corroding but
brittle and must be treated like other ceramics.

Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron
and small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers
superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the
design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than
ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: Alni, Alcomax,
Hycomax, Columax, and Ticonal.[29]

Injection-molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and magnetic powders, allowing parts
of complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding. The physical and magnetic properties of the
product depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in magnetic strength and resemble plastics in
their physical properties.

Flexible magnets are composed of a high-coercivity ferromagnetic compound (usually ferric oxide) mixed
with a plastic binder. This is extruded as a sheet and passed over a line of powerful cylindrical permanent
magnets. These magnets are arranged in a stack with alternating magnetic poles facing up (N, S, N, S...) on
a rotating shaft. This impresses the plastic sheet with the magnetic poles in an alternating line format. No
electromagnetism is used to generate the magnets. The pole-to-pole distance is on the order of 5 mm, but
varies with manufacturer. These magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible, depending
on the binder used.[30]

Rare-earth magnets

Rare earth (lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied f

electron shell (which can accommodate up to 14 electrons). The
spin of these electrons can be aligned, resulting in very strong
magnetic fields, and therefore, these elements are used in compact
high-strength magnets where their higher price is not a concern.
The most common types of rare-earth magnets are samarium–
cobalt and neodymium–iron–boron (NIB) magnets.

Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-

chain magnets (SCMs)

In the 1990s, it was discovered that certain molecules containing

paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment
at very low temperatures. These are very different from
conventional magnets that store information at a magnetic domain Ovoid-shaped magnets (possibly
level and theoretically could provide a far denser storage medium Hematine), one hanging from another
than conventional magnets. In this direction, research on
monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two
main attributes of an SMM are:

1. a large ground state spin value (S), which is provided by ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
coupling between the paramagnetic metal centres
2. a negative value of the anisotropy of the zero field splitting (D)
Most SMMs contain manganese but can also be found with vanadium, iron, nickel and cobalt clusters.
More recently, it has been found that some chain systems can also display a magnetization that persists for
long times at higher temperatures. These systems have been called single-chain magnets.

Nano-structured magnets

Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves, called magnons, that coalesce into a common ground
state in the manner of a Bose–Einstein condensate.[31][32]

Rare-earth-free permanent magnets

The United States Department of Energy has identified a need to find substitutes for rare-earth metals in
permanent-magnet technology, and has begun funding such research. The Advanced Research Projects
Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) has sponsored a Rare Earth Alternatives in Critical Technologies (REACT)
program to develop alternative materials. In 2011, ARPA-E awarded 31.6 million dollars to fund Rare-
Earth Substitute projects.[33]

Costs

The current cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are flexible and ceramic magnets, but
these are also among the weakest types. The ferrite magnets are mainly low-cost magnets since they are
made from cheap raw materials: iron oxide and Ba- or Sr-carbonate. However, a new low cost magnet,
Mn–Al alloy,[34] has been developed and is now dominating the low-cost magnets field. It has a higher
saturation magnetization than the ferrite magnets. It also has more favorable temperature coefficients,
although it can be thermally unstable. Neodymium–iron–boron (NIB) magnets are among the strongest.
These cost more per kilogram than most other magnetic materials but, owing to their intense field, are
smaller and cheaper in many applications.[35]

Temperature

Temperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature known as the Curie point, it
loses all of its magnetism, even after cooling below that temperature. The magnets can often be
remagnetized, however.

Additionally, some magnets are brittle and can fracture at high temperatures.

The maximum usable temperature is highest for alnico magnets at over 540 °C (1,000 °F), around 300 °C
(570 °F) for ferrite and SmCo, about 140 °C (280 °F) for NIB and lower for flexible ceramics, but the exact
numbers depend on the grade of material.

Electromagnets
An electromagnet, in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into one or more loops, known as a
solenoid. When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is concentrated near
(and especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those of a magnet. The orientation of
this effective magnet is determined by the right hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of
the electromagnet are proportional to the number of loops of wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to
the current passing through the wire.[36]
If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g., cardboard), it will
tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a soft ferromagnetic material, such as
an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to thousandfold increase of field
strength.

Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors, junkyard cranes, and magnetic
resonance imaging machines. Some applications involve configurations more than a simple magnetic
dipole; for example, quadrupole and sextupole magnets are used to focus particle beams.

Units and calculations

For most engineering applications, MKS (rationalized) or SI (Système International) units are commonly
used. Two other sets of units, Gaussian and CGS-EMU, are the same for magnetic properties and are
commonly used in physics.

In all units, it is convenient to employ two types of magnetic field, B and H, as well as the magnetization
M, defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.

1. The magnetic induction field B is given in SI units of teslas (T). B is the magnetic field
whose time variation produces, by Faraday's Law, circulating electric fields (which the power
companies sell). B also produces a deflection force on moving charged particles (as in TV
tubes). The tesla is equivalent to the magnetic flux (in webers) per unit area (in meters
squared), thus giving B the unit of a flux density. In CGS, the unit of B is the gauss (G). One
tesla equals 104 G.
2. The magnetic field H is given in SI units of ampere-turns per meter (A-turn/m). The turns
appear because when H is produced by a current-carrying wire, its value is proportional to
the number of turns of that wire. In CGS, the unit of H is the oersted (Oe). One A-turn/m
equals 4π×10−3 Oe.
3. The magnetization M is given in SI units of amperes per meter (A/m). In CGS, the unit of M is
the oersted (Oe). One A/m equals 10−3 emu/cm3. A good permanent magnet can have a
magnetization as large as a million amperes per meter.
4. In SI units, the relation B = μ0(H + M) holds, where μ0 is the permeability of space, which
equals 4π×10−7 T•m/A. In CGS, it is written as B = H + 4πM. (The pole approach gives μ0H
in SI units. A μ0M term in SI must then supplement this μ0H to give the correct field within B,
the magnet. It will agree with the field B calculated using Ampèrian currents).

Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the relation M = χH in SI, where χ is the
(dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility. Most non-magnetic materials have a relatively small χ (on the order
of a millionth), but soft magnets can have χ on the order of hundreds or thousands. For materials satisfying
M = χH, we can also write B = μ0 (1 + χ)H = μ0 μrH = μH, where μr = 1 + χ is the (dimensionless) relative
permeability and μ =μ0 μr is the magnetic permeability. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex,
history-dependent, behavior described by what are called hysteresis loops, which give either B vs. H or M
vs. H. In CGS, M = χH, but χSI = 4πχCGS, and μ = μr.

Caution: in part because there are not enough Roman and Greek symbols, there is no commonly agreed-
upon symbol for magnetic pole strength and magnetic moment. The symbol m has been used for both pole
strength (unit A•m, where here the upright m is for meter) and for magnetic moment (unit A•m2 ). The
symbol μ has been used in some texts for magnetic permeability and in other texts for magnetic moment.
We will use μ for magnetic permeability and m for magnetic moment. For pole strength, we will employ
qm. For a bar magnet of cross-section A with uniform magnetization M along its axis, the pole strength is
given by qm = MA, so that M can be thought of as a pole strength per unit area.
Fields of a magnet

Far away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet
is almost always described (to a good approximation) by a dipole
field characterized by its total magnetic moment. This is true
regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic
moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the
strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance
from the magnet's center.

Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more

complicated and more dependent on the detailed shape and
magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed
as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field,
Field lines of cylindrical magnets
plus an octupole field, etc.
with various aspect ratios
At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for
a long, skinny bar magnet with its north pole at one end and south
pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the distance from
that pole.

Calculating the magnetic force

Pull force of a single magnet

The strength of a given magnet is sometimes given in terms of its pull force — its ability to pull
ferromagnetic objects.[37] The pull force exerted by either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet with no
air gap (i.e., the ferromagnetic object is in direct contact with the pole of the magnet[38]) is given by the
Maxwell equation:[39]

where

F is force (SI unit: newton)

A is the cross section of the area of the pole in square meters
B is the magnetic induction exerted by the magnet

This result can be easily derived using Gilbert model, which assumes that the pole of magnet is charged
with magnetic monopoles that induces the same in the ferromagnetic object.

If a magnet is acting vertically, it can lift a mass m in kilograms given by the simple equation:

where g is the gravitational acceleration.

Force between two magnetic poles

Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:[40]

where

F is force (SI unit: newton)

qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: ampere-meter)
μ is the permeability of the intervening medium (SI unit: tesla meter per ampere, henry per
meter or newton per ampere squared)
r is the separation (SI unit: meter).

The pole description is useful to the engineers designing real-world magnets, but real magnets have a pole
distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not
simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will be more useful.

Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area A

The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following
equation. The equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of fringing is negligible and the volume of
the air gap is much smaller than that of the magnetized material:[41][42]

where:

A is the area of each surface, in m2

H is their magnetizing field, in A/m
μ0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4π×10−7 T•m/A
B is the flux density, in T.

Force between two bar magnets

The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end to end at large distance is
approximately:,[41]

where:

B0 is the magnetic flux density very close to each pole, in T,

A is the area of each pole, in m2,
L is the length of each magnet, in m,
R is the radius of each magnet, in m, and
z is the separation between the two magnets, in m.

relates the flux density at the pole to the magnetization of the magnet.
Note that all these formulations are based on Gilbert's model, which is usable in relatively great distances.
In other models (e.g., Ampère's model), a more complicated formulation is used that sometimes cannot be
solved analytically. In these cases, numerical methods must be used.

Force between two cylindrical magnets

For two cylindrical magnets with radius and length , with their magnetic dipole aligned, the force can
be asymptotically approximated at large distance by,[43]

where is the magnetization of the magnets and is the gap between the magnets. A measurement of the
magnetic flux density very close to the magnet is related to approximately by the formula

The effective magnetic dipole can be written as

Where is the volume of the magnet. For a cylinder, this is .

When , the point dipole approximation is obtained,

which matches the expression of the force between two magnetic dipoles.

See also
Dipole magnet Magnetic switch
Earnshaw's theorem Magneto
Electret Magnetochemistry
Electromagnetic field Molecule-based magnets
Electromagnetism Single-molecule magnet
Halbach array Supermagnet
Magnetic nanoparticles

Notes
1. Platonis Opera (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BkS2KW7u76MC) Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20180114235807/https://books.google.com/books?id=BkS2KW7u76MC&d
q=) 2018-01-14 at the Wayback Machine, Meyer and Zeller, 1839, p. 989.
2. The location of Magnesia is debated; it could be the region in mainland Greece or Magnesia
ad Sipylum. See, for example, "Magnet"
(http://www.languagehat.com/archives/001914.php). Language Hat blog. 28 May 2005.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120519140810/http://www.languagehat.com/archiv
es/001914.php) from the original on 19 May 2012. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
 3. Fowler, Michael (1997). "Historical Beginnings of Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20080315042431/http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/mo
re_stuff/E%26M_Hist.html). Archived from the original (http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virgi
nia.edu/more_stuff/E&M_Hist.html) on 2008-03-15. Retrieved 2008-04-02.
4. Vowles, Hugh P. (1932). "Early Evolution of Power Engineering". Isis. 17 (2): 412–420 [419–
20]. doi:10.1086/346662 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F346662). S2CID 143949193 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143949193).
5. Li Shu-hua (1954). "Origine de la Boussole II. Aimant et Boussole". Isis. 45 (2): 175–196.
doi:10.1086/348315 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348315). JSTOR 227361 (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/227361). S2CID 143585290 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14358529
0).
6. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF
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References
"The Early History of the Permanent Magnet". Edward Neville Da Costa Andrade,
Endeavour, Volume 17, Number 65, January 1958. Contains an excellent description of
early methods of producing permanent magnets.
"positive pole n". The Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Catherine Soanes and Angus
Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University
Press.
Wayne M. Saslow, Electricity, Magnetism, and Light, Academic (2002). ISBN 0-12-619455-6.
Chapter 9 discusses magnets and their magnetic fields using the concept of magnetic poles,
but it also gives evidence that magnetic poles do not really exist in ordinary matter. Chapters
10 and 11, following what appears to be a 19th-century approach, use the pole concept to
obtain the laws describing the magnetism of electric currents.
Edward P. Furlani, Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices:Materials, Analysis
and Applications, Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism (2001). ISBN 0-12-269951-3.

External links
How magnets are made (http://science.discovery.com/tv-shows/how-its-made/videos/how-its
-made-mini-episodes-magnets.htm) (video)
Floating Ring Magnets (https://web.archive.org/web/20190625040725/http://indapt.org/imag
es/stories/bulletin2012/bulletin_jun_2012.pdf), Bulletin of the IAPT, Volume 4, No. 6, 145
(June 2012). (Publication of the Indian Association of Physics Teachers).
A brief history of electricity and magnetism (http://www.first4magnets.com/downloads/13801
81562HistoryOfElectricityMagnetism-Infographic.pdf)

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