Textile Science & Technology-

Fiber to Fiber (2103)

(MKT 1201)

Report Writing: Study onJune

Weaving process.
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Submission Date: 19 2021

Submitted To : Submitted By :
Name : Name :

Study on Weaving Process .

Introduction :-
Weaving is one of the processes that required in textile in terms of producing a fabric. From the fiber
then become a yarn through some other process, weaving is a process of interlacing two types of
yarn known as warp or ends and weft or filling yarn which run perpendicular to the loom to produce
a rigid fabric.Before indulging in the weaving process there are some pre-processes and pre-
treatment’s to be carried out for fabric. Different treatments of weaving are provided to both of these
yarns.

Defination:

Weaving is the process of interlacing vertical and horizontal threads threads at right angles to create
a textile. People around the world have practiced weaving for centuries, and they use it to create
many kinds of textiles. By varying the way threads are woven, different surface appearances are
created. As with any specialized activity, there are words related to the weaving process and
equipment, as well as words that relate to specific kinds of woven goods and surfaces.

The Weaving Process:

Woven cloth is normally much longer in one direction than the other. The lengthwise threads are
called the warp, and the other threads,which are combined with the warp and lie widthwise, are
called the weft. An individual thread from the warp, of indefinite length, is called an end; each
individual length of weft, extending from one edge of the cloth to the other, is called a pick, or shot.
Consecutive picks are usually consecutive lengths of one piece of weft yarn that is repeatedly folded
back on itself.

Three basic motions of weaving :

In all methods of weaving cloth,before a length of weft is inserted in the warp, the warp is separated,
over a short length extending from the cloth already formed,into two sheets.The process is called
shedding and the space between the sheets the shed. A pick of weft is then laid between the two
sheets of warp, in the operation known as picking. A new shed is then formed in accordance with the
desired weave structure, with some or all of the ends in each sheet moving over to the position
previously occupied by the other sheet. In this way the weft is clasped between two layers of warp.

Since it is not possible to lay the weft close to the junction of the warp and the cloth already woven, a
further operation called beating in, or beating up, is necessary to push the pick to the desired distance
away from the last one inserted previously. Although beating in usually takes place while the shed is
changing, it is normally completed before the new shed is fully formed.The sequence of primary
operations in one weaving cycle is thus shedding, picking, and beating in. At the end of the cycle the
geometrical relation of the pick to the warp is the same as it would have been if the pick had been
threaded through the spaces between alternate ends, first from one side of the cloth and then from the
other,as in darning.This is the reason the weaving process is considered an interlacing method.

Early development of the loom:

The word loom from Middle English lome, “tool” is applied to any set of devices permitting a warp
to be tensioned and a shed to be formed. Looms exist in great variety, from the bundles of cords and
rods of primitive peoples to enormous machines of steel and cast iron. Except on certain
experimental looms, the warp shed is formed with the aid of heddles or healds. Usually one heddle is
provided for each end, or multiple end, of warp thread, but on some primitive looms simple cloths
are produced with heddles provided only for each alternate end. A heddle consists of a short length
of cord, wire, or flat steel strip, supported in its operative position roughly perpendicular to the
unseparated sheet of warp threads and provided, in modern looms, with an eyelet at its midpoint,
through which the warp end is threaded. By pulling one end of the heddle or the other, the warp end
can be deflected to one side or the other of the main sheet of ends. The frame holding the heddles is
called a harness.

Loom devices and their functions:

Loom devices and their functions: (A) heddles, used for shedding; (B) the shuttle, used for picking;
(C) the reed, used for beating in. In most looms, the weft is supplied from a shuttle, a hollow
projectile inside which a weft package is mounted in such a way that the weft can be freely unwound
through an eyelet leading from the inside to the outside. The shuttle enters the shed and traverses the
warp, leaving a trail of weft behind.Beating in is generally effected by means of a grating of
uniformly spaced fine parallel wires, originally made of natural reeds and thus called a reed, which,
mounted at right angles to the warp, oscillates between the heddles and the junction of the warp and
the cloth. The ends pass, one or more at a time, through the spaces between consecutive reed wires,
so that the reed, in addition to beating in, controls the spacing of the ends in the cloth.
Two-bar

The earliest evidence of the use of the loom (4400 bce) is a representation of a horizontal two-bar (or
two-beamed—i.e., warp beam and cloth beam) loom pictured on a pottery dish found at Al-Badārī,
Egypt. The warp is stretched between two bars or beams, pegged to the ground at each of the four
corners. Lease (or laze) rods are used to separate the warp yarns, forming a shed and aiding the hands
in keeping the yarns separated and in order. Lease rods were found in some form on every later type
of improved loom, and their use at this very early date indicates that the loom already had been in
use long enough to have reached a stage of improvement by addition of devices to aid the
hands.Before lease rods were added, it would have been necessary for the fingers to separate each
odd from each even warp thread to create the shed through which the weft yarn was passed. A third
rod also seen in this early drawing may be a heddle rod. If so, this loom represents a still more
advanced stage of development.The heddle rod rests on top of the warps. To produce a plain weave,
alternate warp yarns are tied to the rod, and, when it is raised, the shed is formed quickly and
accurately. Some authorities consider the heddle to be the most important step in the evolution of the
loom. A shed stick is ordinarily used with the heddle, forming the second, or countershed, opening
for the return of the weft.In addition to the horizontal two-bar loom, there are two other primitive
varieties: the warp-weighted and the vertical two-bar loom. The warp-weighted loom consists of a
crossbar supported by two vertical posts. The warp threads hang from the crossbar and are held taut
by weights of clay, ceramic, or chalk tied to their free ends. Loom weights have been found at
archaeological sites dating from 3000 bce, but this type of loom may have originated even earlier.
The earliest picture of a vertical two-bar loom is from the Egyptian 18th dynasty (1567–1320 bce). It
coincides with the appearance of more intricate textile patterns, the earliest known tapestries (datable
between 1483 and 1411 bce) having been found in the tomb of Thutmose IV at Thebes. (Even today
the vertical loom is preferred for tapestry weaving.) In the vertical two-bar loom the ends of the warp
yarns are attached to a second crossbar, thus combining features of both the horizontal two-bar and
the warp-weighted looms.The heddle rods and shed sticks are used in a similar way on all three
types.Counterparts of these very early looms have been used through the ages in many cultures. The
Navajo Indians, probably the best known of the American Indian weavers, have used the simple two-
bar vertical loom for several centuries to produce their beautiful rugs and blankets. A form of the
horizontal two-bar loom was the back-strap loom, in which one bar was tied to a tree or other
stationary device, the second being attached to the weaver’s waist by a strap. The weaver could
control the tension of the warp yarns by applying pressure as necessary. The back-strap loom was
used in pre-Columbian Peru, in other cultures of Central and South America, in Asia, and elsewhere.

Drawlooms:

The shaft loom was adequate for plain and for simply patterned fabrics, but a more complex loom
was needed for the weaving of intricately figured fabrics, which might require 100 or more shafts.
This kind of weaving was accomplished on the drawloom. Its origin is unknown, but it probably was
first used in East Asia for silk weaving and was introduced into the silk-working centres of Italy
during the Middle Ages. The drawloom had two devices for shedding: in addition to the shafts,
which the weaver operated by treadles, cords were also used to raise the warp threads, gathered into
groups as required by the pattern. The cords were worked by an operator (called a drawboy) seated
on top of the loom.The drawloom was improved in Italy and France in the early 17th century by the
addition of a type of mechanical drawboy, allowing the assistant to stand on the floor at the side of
the loom and increasing the control of the cords. The continued inconvenience of employing an
assistant, however, who might also make errors, led to a search for an automatic mechanism that
would perform all the work of the drawboy. Most of the later developments in automatic
mechanisms to control the shedding operation originated in France, which had become one of the
leading countries in the weaving of figured silks.

In 1725 Basile Bouchon added to the mechanical drawboy a mechanism that selected the cords to be
drawn to form the pattern. Selection was controlled by a roll of paper, perforated according to the
pattern, which passed around a cylinder. The cylinder was pushed toward the selecting box and met
with needles carrying the warp-controlling cords; the needles that met unperforated paper slid along,
and the others passed through the holes and remained stationary. The selected cords were drawn
down by a foot-operated treadle.

The Jacquard Attachment:

The French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard, commissioned to overhaul Vaucanson’s loom, did so
without the directions, which were missing. In 1801, at the Paris Industrial Exhibition, he
demonstrated an improved drawloom. In 1804–05 he introduced the invention that ever since has
caused the loom to which it is attached to be called the Jacquard loom.

Jacquard loom:

Jacquard loom, engraving, 1874. At the top of the machine is a stack of punched cards that would be
fed into the loom to control the weaving pattern. This method of automatically issuing machine
instructions was employed by computers well into the 20th century.The Jacquard attachment is an
automatic selective shedding device, that is mounted on top of the loom and operated by a treadle
controlled by the weaver. As in the drawloom, every warp yarn runs through a loop in a controlling
cord, held taut by a weight. Each cord is suspended from a wire (“hook”) that is bent at the bottom to
hold the cord and bent at the top in order to hook around the blades or bars of the griff, the lifting
mechanism. To allow only those warp threads that are needed to form the pattern to be raised, some
hooks must be dislodged from the rising griff. This is accomplished by horizontally placed needles
connected to the hooks. As the perforated pattern card moves into place on the cylinder (which is, in
fact, a quadrangular block), the needles pass through the holes in the card, and the warps are raised;
where there are no holes, the needles are pushed back (by a spring action on the opposite end of
each), pulling the hooks away from the rising griff bar, and the warps are not raised.

The flying shuttle:

The first decisive step toward automation of the loom was the invention of the flying shuttle,
patented in 1733 by the Englishman John Kay. Kay was a weaver of broadloom fabrics, which,
because of their width, required two weavers to sit side by side, one throwing the shuttle from the
right to the centre and the other reaching between the warps and sending it on its way to the left and
then returning it to the centre. The stopping of the shuttle and the reaching between the warps caused
imperfections in the cloth. Kay devised a mechanical attachment controlled by a cord jerked by the
weaver that sent the shuttle flying through the shed. Jerking the cord in the opposite direction sent
the shuttle on its return trip. Using the flying shuttle, one weaver could weave fabrics of any width
more quickly than two could before. A more important virtue of Kay’s invention, however, lay in its
adaptability to automatic weaving.

Power-driven looms:

The first power-driven machine for weaving fabric-width goods, patented in 1785 by Edmund
Cartwright, an English clergyman, was inadequate because it considered only three motions:
shedding, picking, and winding the woven cloth onto the cloth beam. Cartwright’s second patent
(1786) proved too ambitious, but his concept of a weaving machine became the basis for the
successful power loom.One of the great obstacles to the success of the power loom was the necessity
to stop the loom frequently in order to dress the warp, an operation that, like many others, had been
done in proportionately reasonable time when the weaving was done by hand. With the power loom
a second man had to be employed continuously to do this work, so there was no saving of expense or
time. In the early 19th century a dressing machine was developed that prepared the warp after it had
been wound onto the warp beam and as it was passed to the cloth beam. Although later superseded
by an improved sizing apparatus, this device made the power loom a practical tool.Advances made
by William Horrocks of Scotland between 1803 and 1813 included an improvement in the method of
taking up the cloth and making a more compact machine of iron, requiring little space as compared
with wooden handlooms.A valuable improvement was that of the let-off and take-up motions, to
maintain uniform warp tension automatically.

Modern looms: Modern looms still weave by repeating in sequence the operations of shedding,
picking, and beating in, but within that framework there has been considerable development during
the 20th century. Several new types of loom have come into industrial use,whereas older types have
been refined and their scope extended.Two main influences have been the rising cost of labour and
the increasing use of synthetic continuous-filament yarns. The first has led to an increase in
automatic control, in automatic handling of yarn packages & in the use of larger packages; the 2nd,to
greater precision and finish in loom construction, because deficiency in these qualities is readily
reflected in the quality of the cloth made from these yarns.Modern looms can be grouped into two
classes according to whether they produce cloth in plane or tubular form. Looms of the first kind,
comprising all but a few, are called flat looms; the others are described as circular. Since the majority
are flat looms, the adjective is used only when a distinction has to be drawn. Flat looms fall into two
categories: those that employ a shuttle and those that draw the weft from a stationary supply,called
shuttleless looms.Shuttle looms fall into two groups according to whether the shuttle is replenished
by hand or automatically.The second kind is an automatic loom, but, except for shuttle
replenishment, it is no more automatic in its operation than the hand-replenished or so-called
nonautomatic loom, which, like all modern looms, is power-operated by electric motor. With both
types of loom the actual weaving operation is entirely automatic and is performed in exactly the

same manner.

Diagram of a modern handloom:

Hand-replenished, or nonautomatic, looms are used only where particular circumstances—of yarns,
fabrics, or use—make automatically replenished looms either technically unsuitable or uneconomic.
Basically, they differ little from the power looms of the latter half of the 19th century. They do not
run appreciably faster but are better engineered, making use, for example, of machine-cut instead of
cast gear wheels. Often there is no superstructure, which makes for cleanliness and improved
illumination; frequently rigid heddle connectors are employed, leading to precise and stable setting
of the shed; and usually the overpick mechanism has been replaced by the cleaner and safer
underpick.Automatically replenished flat, or automatic, looms are the most important class of
modern loom, available for a very wide range of fabrics. In virtually all such looms, the shuttle is
replenished by automatically replacing the exhausted bobbin with a full one. In principle they are
thus the same as the automatic looms introduced at the end of the 19th century. Since that time,
automatic shuttle-changing looms have also been introduced but have largely become obsolete,
because bobbin-changing looms have been developed to a point where they can deal with most of the
yarns for which it was once thought necessary to use shuttle-changing looms.Apart from the general
engineering refinements, automatic looms have advanced mainly in respect of the weft supply.
Alternatives to the hand-replenished bobbin now exist in the form of the automatic bobbin loader, the
loom being supplied with boxes of pirned (reeled) weft; and the automatic loom winder, the loom
being fed with large cones of yarn, which is wound onto pirns at the loom. These alternatives are
technically feasible and economic only with certain yarns. Therefore, all three types of weft supply
continue to be used. An alternative to the rotary battery, when weft of more than one colour is used,
is a series of vertical stacks.

The principle of shuttle replenishment is the same for all three systems. When the shuttle is
stationary in the shuttle box, and the bar carrying the reed is farthest forward, a feeler enters the
shuttle and senses whether the weft is on the point of exhaustion. Feelers may be mechanical or
electrical, relying respectively on the change in friction or the change in electrical resistance brought
about by the absence of weft. Alternatively, with delicate wefts, an optical feeler may be used that
depends for its action on the change in the amount of light reflected when the bare pirn is revealed.
When the feeler has sensed that the bobbin is nearly empty, mechanical or electrical signals are
transmitted to the transfer mechanism that, when the shuttle is appropriately positioned and
momentarily at rest, both as regards warp-way and weft-way motion, hammers a new bobbin into
position, simultaneously ejecting the empty one through the open base of the shuttle. The loom
continues to run at its normal speed throughout.

In the course of this operation, there are created unwanted lengths of weft extending from the nearer
selvage. These, if not controlled and disposed of, may find their way into the cloth and appear as
defects. Modern looms supplement the earlier mechanical methods by pneumatic suction, with the
result that the most delicate fabrics can be woven on automatic bobbin-changing looms without any
loss of quality. To make certain of removal of the remnant of weft on the old bobbin, extending to
the eye of the shuttle, a cutter moves forward into the shuttle box and cuts the weft close to the eye
just before the bobbin is ejected.

High speed, often combined with the use of large and heavy shuttles, means that these modern looms
are noisier than ever. The noise level in a typical textile mill is above the level at which deafness
occurs following prolonged exposure.

Shuttleless looms are of three kinds, of which the first predominates: dummy shuttle, rapier, and
fluid jet. The dummy-shuttle type, the most successful of the shuttleless looms, makes use of a
dummy shuttle, a projectile that contains no weft but that passes through the shed in the manner of a
shuttle and leaves a trail of yarn behind it.

The rapier type conveys a pick of weft from a stationary package through the shed by means of either
a single rapier or a pair of rapiers. Rapiers are either rigid rods or flexible steel tapes, which are
straight when in the shed but on withdrawal are wound onto a wheel, in order to save floor space.
Rapier looms are, on the whole, simpler and more versatile than dummy-shuttle looms, but they have
failed to achieve such high rates of weft insertion, the maximum being not more than 400 yards (365
metres) per minute. They differ in respect of the number of rapiers employed and the type of selvage
provided; some of them operate by gripping the free end of the weft and conveying that through the
shed rather than by starting with a loop. Fluid-jet looms, most recently developed of the shuttleless
types, are produced and used on a much smaller scale than the two other types described above. They
are of two kinds, one employing a jet of air, the other a water jet, to propel a measured length of weft
through the shed. The significance of this development is that for the first time nothing solid is
passed into the shed other than the weft, which eliminates the difficulties normally associated with
checking and warp protection and reduces the noise to an acceptable level.

In addition to those looms that have established themselves industrially, there are looms still in the
experimental stage. Loom development is always slow: some of the looms just gaining favour had
their origins in inventions made 50 or even 100 years earlier. The most intense activity is in the field
of shuttleless looms, because these offer the greatest prospect of achieving increased rates of weft
insertion and of avoiding the drawbacks of noise, danger, vibration, high power consumption, and
wear attendant on the use of a shuttle. The ultimate in direct projection is a method, still
experimental, in which the weft is projected longitudinally at high speed and traverses the warp
under its own momentum, nothing entering the shed but the pick of weft. The name inertial has been
given to this method. Another experimental loom employs multiple rapiers for weft insertion and, in
addition, eliminates the heddles and the reed.

Basic weaves: The basic weaves include plain (or tabby), twills, and satins.
Plain weave:

Plain, or tabby, weave, the simplest and most common of all weaves, requires only two harnessses
and has two warp and weft yarns in each weave unit. To produce it, the warp yarns are held parallel
under tension while a crosswise weft yarn is shot over and under alternate warps across the width of
the web. The weave unit is completed at the end of the second row, when the weft has been inserted
over and under the opposite set of warps, thus locking the previous weft in place. Fabric length is
increased with the insertion of each succeeding weft yarn. When warp and weft yarns are
approximately equal in size and quantity, the finished fabric is balanced and potentially stronger than
cloth made of the same kind and number of warp and weft yarns in any other basic weave. Tabby
woven with different-sized warp and weft yarns results in such fabrics as taffeta and poplin, in which
many fine warps are interlaced with proportionately fewer thick weft yarns to form cloths with
crosswise ridges or ribs.

Tapestry weave is a tabby in which a variety of coloured weft yarns is interlaced with the warp to
form patterns. It is usually an unbalanced weave, with wefts completely covering a proportionately
low number of warps. These cloths are sturdy and compact. Although they are flat and generally do
not drape well, they have been used for centuries to make ceremonial and decorative dress and
costumes.

Twill weave:

Twill weave is distinguished by diagonal lines. The simplest twill is that created by the weft crossing
over two warp yarns, then under one, the sequence being repeated in each succeeding shot (pick), but
stepped over, one warp either to the left or right. Twills with more warps than wefts floating on the
fabric’s face are called warp faced; those with wefts predominating, weft faced. The angle of the
twill can also vary.Twills can be varied by changing the relative number of warps and wefts in each
repeat (2:1, 2:3, 3:1, 6:2, etc.); by stepping the repeat in one direction; by breaking the direction of
the diagonals formed by the twill at regular intervals; by reversing the direction of the diagonal at
regular intervals to form chevrons or lozenges; or by combining several twills or modifying them to
create a pattern.Twills drape better than plain weaves with the same yarn count because twills have
fewer interlacings. Twill weaves have been used throughout history in many weights and textures,
from wool serges mentioned in medieval French manuscripts to English diapered (diamond
patterned) table linens, patterned bed coverlets, and Indian shawls.

Satin weave:

Satin-weave drafts superficially resemble those of twills, satin weave does not have the regular step
in each successive weft that is characteristic of twills. Thus, there is no strong diagonal line, and the
fabric is smooth faced, with an unbroken surface made up of long floating warp yarns. A true satin
must have at least five warp and weft yarns in each complete weave repeat and thus requires at least
five harnesses. Most satin fabrics are made of smooth, lightly twisted yarns that heighten the effect
of light unbroken by visible crosswise bindings. The limited number of interlacings allows the
weaver to use a proportionately large number of warp yarns and thus produce a heavy textured cloth
that can be arranged in smooth, shadowed folds. Satins, having long floats, are susceptible to the
wear caused by rubbing and snagging and are, therefore, generally regarded as luxury fabrics.Among
the variations of satin weave are damask and sateen, a weft-faced satin. Damask is the most
important variation of basic satin weave. Classic damask is a patterned solid-coloured fabric with
figures in warp-faced satin and background in weft-faced satin weave. The pattern is created by the
difference in light reflection between the warp-faced and weft-faced areas. Silk damasks probably
originated in China and came to Europe through Italy, the centre of European silk manufacture
between the 13th and 17th centuries. During this period drawloom weavers from the Netherlands and
Belgium also developed the art of linen damask weaving. Pictorial linen damasks, unlike most silk
damasks of the time, often consisted of a single large repeat, picturing biblical scenes, contemporary
events, or the arms of nobles and kings.

Complex weaves: include multiple plane, pile, inlaid, Jacquard, dobby, and gauze (or leno) weaves.

Multiple plain weave:

Reversible double-woven cloth is produced by multiple plain weaving. It is woven in two layers,
which may be completely independent, may be joined at one or both selvages, may be held together
along the edges of a pattern, or may be united by a separate binding weft. Though often tabby weave
is employed on both surfaces, any of the basic weaves may be used, depending on the intended use
of the fabric.Double-woven cloths have been used for clothing, but, though warm, they tend to be
heavy and to drape poorly. They are most often used as bedcovers or wall hangings. German 18th-
century Beiderwand is an example of antique double-woven cloth consisting of two layers of tabby
weave joined only along the edges of the pattern. A dark-coloured pattern in one layer is set against
the light-coloured ground of the other layer; the pattern is seen in negative or the reverse side of the
cloth.Nonreversible cloth with two or more sets of warp and sometimes of weft can also be
produced. These cloths have an intricately patterned face, and all warps and wefts that do not appear
on the face are carried along and bound into the web on the reverse side. This class includes
important historic textiles, such as early Persian and Byzantine figured fabrics, as well as more
recent Jacquard-woven imitation tapestries and a wide range of imitation brocaded fabrics.

Pile weave

Pile weaves have a ground fabric plus an extra set of yarns woven or tied into the ground and
projecting from it as cut ends or loops. A great range of textures is included in this binding system,
from terry pile toweling and corduroy to silk velvets and Oriental rugs.In warp-pile fabrics the pile is
formed by an extra set of warp yarns. To create such a fabric, first one set (sheet) of ground warps is
raised, and the weft makes its first interlacing with the ground warp. Next, pile warps are raised, and
a rod is inserted through the entire width of the web. The remaining ground warps are raised to form
the third shed; then the ground weft is shot across again.repeated several times; then the rods are
slipped out, leaving a warp pile. To form cut-pile velvet, a knife on the end of the rod cuts the pile
warps it passes, creating two fine rows of cut pile. Although the system has many technical
variations, the same basic process can be applied to most warp-pile weaving.If the pile is not cut
when the rod is removed, a loop pile fabric results. In weaving terry pile fabrics, the ground warp is
under tension, and the pile warp stays slack. When wefts are beaten in, the slack yarns are pushed
into loops on both sides of the cloth.

Inlaid weave

In all of the fabrics of this class, designs are created by inserting pattern warp or weft yarns between
ground warps or wefts.Brocaded fabric has a pattern of coloured or metallic threads, or both, set in
low relief against the ground weave. The ground weave can be any basic weave, since the brocaded
pattern is merely inserted between ground wefts and is bound by ground warps. Until the advent of
the Jacquard mechanism in the early 19th century, brocaded fabrics were woven by drawloom
weavers who inserted the pattern wefts by hand. These weft yarns were wound on small brocading
shuttles that travelled across the width of each pattern repeat, a separate shuttle being used for each
colour in the repeat. Generally, these extra wefts were found only in the area in which the pattern
was located and usually formed long floats on the reverse side of the fabric.A mechanical process
closely corresponding to hand brocading is called swivel, a system of figuring fabrics by using
mechanically controlled pattern shuttles. The figures, inserted between ground-weft picks, interlace
with the warp. The lappet system produces figured fabrics resembling those made by swivel figuring,
but the pattern yarns are extra warps (rather than wefts) brought into play from separate warp beams.
Lappet weaving is generally confined to coarse pattern yarns and can be distinguished from swivel
by its interlacing with weft rather than with warp yarns.

Jacquard weave:

The Jacquard weave, used to make allover figured fabrics such as brocades, tapestries, and damasks,
is woven on a loom having a Jacquard attachment to control individual warps. Fabrics of this type
are costly because of the time and skill involved in making the Jacquard cards, preparing the loom to
produce a new pattern, and the slowness of the weaving operation. The Jacquard weave usually
combines two or more basic weaves, with different weaves used for the design and the background.

Dobby weaves:

Dobby weaves also produce allover figured fabrics. They are made on looms having a dobby
attachment, with narrow strips of wood instead of Jacquard cards. Dobby weaves are limited to
simple, small geometric figures, with the design repeated frequently, and are fairly inexpensive to
produce.

Gauze or leno weave

Gauze weaving is an open weave made by twisting adjacent warps together. It is usually made by the
leno, or doup, weaving process, in which a doup attachment, a thin hairpin-like needle attached to
two healds, is used, and the adjacent warp yarns cross each other between picks. Since the crossed
warps firmly lock each weft in place, gauze weaves are often used for sheer fabrics made of smooth
fine yarns. Although gauze weaving, with its multitude of variations, has been adapted to modern
production, it is an ancient technique.

Knitted fabrics

Knitted fabrics are constructed by interlocking a series of loops made from one or more yarns, with
each row of loops caught into the preceding row. Loops running lengthwise are called wales, and
those running crosswise are courses. Hand knitting probably originated among the nomads of the
Arabian Desert about 1000 bce and spread from Egypt to Spain, France, and Italy. Knitting guilds
were established in Paris and Florence by the later Middle Ages. Austria and Germany produced
heavily cabled and knotted fabrics, embroidered with brightly coloured patterns. In the Netherlands,
naturalistic patterns were worked on fabric in reverse stocking stitch, and several Dutch knitters went
to Denmark to teach Danish women the Dutch skills. The craft of hand knitting became less
important with the invention of a frame knitting machine in 1589, although the production of yarns
for hand knitting has remained an important branch of the textile industry to the present day. Knitted
fabrics were formerly described in terms of the number of courses and wales per unit length and the
weight of the fabric per unit area. This system is limited, however, and there is a shift to use of the
dimensions and configuration of the single loop, the repeating unit determining such fabric
characteristics as area, knitting quality, and weight. The length of yarn knitted into a loop or stitch is
termed the stitch length, and in a plain knitted structure this is related to the courses per inch, wales
per inch, and stitch density. The two basic equilibrium states for knitted fabrics are the dry-relaxed
state, attained by allowing the fabric to relax freely in the air, and the wet-relaxed state, reached after
static relaxation of the fabric in water followed by drying.

Knitting machines:

The needle is the basic element of all knitting machines. The two main needle types are the
“bearded” spring needle, invented about 1589, and the more common latch needle, invented in
1847.The bearded needle, made from thin wire, has one end bent, forming an operating handle; the
other end is drawn out and bent over, forming a long flexible tipped hook resembling a beard. A
smooth groove, or eye, is cut in the stem or shank of the needle just behind the tip. In use this needle
requires two other units, a sinker to form a loop and a presser to close the needle beard, allowing the
loop to pass over the beard when a new stitch is formed. Bearded needles can be made from very fine
wire and are used to produce fine fabrics. The latch needle is composed of a curved hook, a latch, or
tumbler, that swings on a rivet just below the hook, and the stem, or butt. It is sometimes called the
self-acting needle because no presser is needed; the hook is closed by the pressure of a completed
loop on the latch as it rises on the shaft. Needles differ greatly in thickness, in gauge, and in length,
and appropriate types must be selected for specific purposes. A 4-gauge needle, for example, is used
for heavy sweaters, but an 80-gauge needle is required for fine hosiery.

Weft knitting:

The type of stitch used in weft knitting affects both the appearance and properties of the knitted
fabric. The basic stitches are plain, or jersey; rib; and purl. In the plain stitch, each loop is drawn
through others to the same side of the fabric. In the rib stitch, loops of the same course are drawn to
both sides of the fabric. The web is formed by two sets of needles, arranged opposite to each other
and fed by the same thread, with each needle in one circle taking up a position between its
counterparts in the other. In a 2:2 rib, two needles on one set alternate with two of the other. The
interlock structure is a variant of the rib form in which two threads are alternately knitted by the
opposite needles so that interlocking occurs. In the purl stitch, loops are drawn to opposite sides of
the fabric, which, on both sides, has the appearance of the back of a plain stitch fabric. Jacquard
mechanisms can be attached to knitting machines, so that individual needles can be controlled for
each course or for every two, and complicated patterns can be knitted. To form a tuck stitch, a
completed loop is not discharged from some of the needles in each course, and loops accumulating
on these needles are later discharged together. The plaited stitch is made by feeding two threads into
the same hook, so that one thread shows on the one side of the fabric and the other on the opposite
side. A float stitch is produced by missing interlooping over a series of needles so that the thread
floats over a few loops in each course.

Knitting machines can be flat or circular. Flat machines have their needles mounted in a flat plate or
needle bed or in two beds at right angles to each other and each at a 45° angle to the horizontal. The
knitted fabric passes downward through the space between the upper edges of the plates, called the
throat. In the knitting process, the needles are pushed up and down by cams attached to a carriage
with a yarn guide, which moves over the length of the machine. The width of the fabric can be
altered by increasing or decreasing the number of active needles, allowing production of shaped
fabrics, which when sewn together make fully fashioned garments. Although flatbed machines are
suited for hand operation, they are power driven in commercial use, and, by selection of colour, type
of stitch, cam design, and Jacquard device, almost unlimited variety is possible. The cotton frame,
designed to knit fine, fully fashioned goods, shaped for improved fit of such items as hosiery and
sweaters, is fitted with automatic narrowing and widening devices.
Warp knitting: The two types of warp knitting are raschel, made with latch needles, and tricot,
using bearded needles.

Raschel:

Coarser yarns are generally used for raschel knitting, and there has recently been interest in knitting
staple yarns on these machines. In the Raschel machine, the needles move in a ground steel plate,
called the trick plate. The top of this plate, the verge, defines the level of the completed loops on the
needle shank. The loops are prevented from moving upward when the needle rises by the downward
pull of the fabric and the sinkers between the needles. Guide bars feed the yarn to the needles. In a
knitting cycle, the needles start at the lowest point, when the preceding loop has just been cast off,
and the new loop joins the needle hook to the fabric. The needles rise, while the new loop opens the
latches and ends up on the shank below the latch. The guide bars then swing through the needles, and
the front bar moves one needle space sideways. When the guide bar swings back to the front of the
machine, the front bar has laid the thread on the hooks. The needles fall, the earlier loops close the
latch to trap the new loops, and the old loops are cast off. Raschels, made in a variety of forms, are
usually more open in construction and coarser in texture than are other warp knits.

Tricot:

Tricot, a warp knit made with two sets of threads, is characterized by fine ribs running vertically on
the fabric face and horizontally on its back. The tricot knitting machine makes light fabrics, weighing
less than four ounces per square yard. Its development was stimulated by the invention of the so-
called FNF compound needle, a sturdy device that later fell into disuse but that made possible
improved production speeds. Although approximately half of the tricot machines in current use make
plain fabrics on two guide bars, there is increasing interest in pattern knitting. In this type of knitting,
the warp-knitting cycle requires close control on the lateral bar motion, achieved by control chains
made of chunky metal links.

Special effects in warp knits:

The scope of warp knitting has been extended by the development of procedures for laying in
nonknitted threads for colour, density, and texture effects (or inlaying), although such threads may
also be an essential part of the structure. For example, in the form called “zigzagging across several
pillars,” the ground of most raschel fabrics, the front bar makes crochet chains, or “pillars,” which
are connected by zigzag inlays.An extension of conventional warp knitting is the Co-We-Nit warp-
knitting machine, producing fabrics with the properties of both woven and knitted fabrics. The
machines need have only two warp-forming warps and provision for up to eight interlooped warp
threads between each chain of loops. These warp threads are interlaced with a quasiweft, forming a
fabric resembling woven cloth on one side.

Other interlaced fabrics : Net and lace making :

The popularity of handmade laces led to the invention of lace-making machines. The early models
required intricate engineering mechanisms, and the development of the modern lace industry
originated when a machine was designed to produce laces identical with Brussels lace. In the
Heathcot, or bobbinet, machine, warp threads were arranged so that the threads moved downward as
the beams unwound. Other threads were wound on thin, flat spools or bobbins held in narrow
carriages that could move in a groove or comb in two rows. The carriages carrying the bobbins were
placed on one side of the vertical warp threads and given a pendulum-like motion, causing them to
pass between the warp threads. The warp threads were then moved sideways, so that on the return
swing each bobbin thread passed around one of them. Then the warp threads moved sideways in the
opposite direction, thus completing a wrapping movement. In addition, each row of bobbins was
moved by a rack-and-pinion gearing, one row to the left and one to the right. As these movements
continued, the threads were laid diagonally across the fabric as the warp was delivered.
Improvements on the Heathcot machine followed through the 19th century: Nottingham-lace
machines, used primarily for coarse-lace production, employ larger bobbins, and the pattern threads
are wound independently on section spools; in another type, the Barmens machine, threads on king
bobbins on carriers are plaited together, sometimes with warp threads.

Schiffli lace, a type of embroidery, is made by modern machines, evolved from a hand version, using
needles with points at each end. Several hundred needles are placed horizontally, often in two rows,
one above the other. The fabric to be embroidered is held vertically in a frame extending the full
width of the machine, and the needles, supplied with yarn from individual spools, move backward
and forward through the fabric. At each penetration a shuttle moves upward and interlaces yarn with
the needle loop. Movement of both fabric and needles is controlled by Jacquard systems.

Net, an open fabric having geometrically shaped, open meshes, is produced with meshes ranging
from fine to large. Formerly made by hand, the various types are now made on knitting machines.
Popular types include bobbinet, made with hexagonal-shaped mesh and used for formal gowns, veils,
and curtains, and tulle, a closely constructed fine net having similar uses. Fishnet, a coarse type with
knots in four corners forming the mesh formerly made by fishermen, is now a popular machine-made
curtain fabric.

Braiding:

Braid is made by interlacing three or more yarns or fabric strips, forming a flat or tubular narrow
fabric. It is used as trimming and for belts and is also sewn together to make hats and braided rugs.
Plaiting, usually used synonymously with braiding, may be used in a more limited sense, applying
only to a braid made from such materials as rope and straw.

Noninterlaced fabrics:

With the exception of felt, nonwoven materials are in the early stages of development. There is
controversy about the precise meaning of the term nonwoven, but one authority defines nonwoven
fabrics as textile fabrics made of a fibrous layer having randomly laid or oriented fibres or threads.

Felt

Felts are a class of fabrics or fibrous structures obtained through the interlocking of wool, fur, or
some hair fibres under conditions of heat, moisture, and pressure. Other fibres will not felt alone but
can be mixed with wool, which acts as a carrier. Three separate industries manufacture goods
through the use of these properties. The goods produced are wool felt, in rolls and sheets; hats, both
fur and wool; and woven felts, ranging from thin billiard tablecloths to heavy industrial fabrics used
for dewatering in the manufacture of paper. Felts of the nonwoven class are considered to be the first
textile goods produced, and many references may be found to felts and their uses in the histories of
ancient civilizations. The nomadic tribes of north central Asia still produce felts for clothing and
shelter, utilizing the primitive methods handed down from antiquity.
Bonding

Several methods for making nonwoven materials are now firmly established, and others are being
developed.In adhesive bonding, fabrics are made by forming a web of fibres, applying an adhesive,
then drying and curing the adhesive. The web can be produced by a garnett machine or a
conventional card, several layers being piled up to obtain the required thickness. Such webs are weak
across the width, but this does not limit their use for certain end products. A more uniform product
results from cross laying the web. Other machines, such as the Rando-Webber, lay down the fibres
by an airstream.The fibres in the web may be stuck together in various ways. The web may be
sprayed with an emulsion of an adhesive—e.g., a latex based on synthetic rubber, acrylic derivatives,
or natural rubber—or, alternatively, may be carried on a mesh screen through a bath of latex, the
excess being squeezed out by a pair of rollers. Adhesives may also be applied as a foam or a fine
powder. Thermoplastic fibres can be incorporated in the blend and on heating will bond together,
giving strength to the mass of fibres.

Three sewing-knitting machines were invented in East Germany in 1958. In the Malimo machine
process, warp yarns are placed on top of filling yarns and stitched together by a third yarn. The
Maliwatt machine interlaces a web of fibres with a sewing thread, giving the effect of parallel seams.
The Malipol machine produces a one-sided pile fabric by stitching loop pile through a backing
fabric. A new British process makes double-sided terry fabric, called Terrytuft, by inserting pile yarn
into a backing and knotting it into position.Webs made of yarns having a core of one polymer and an
outer sheath of another material having a lower softening point may be lightly pressed and then
heated to an appropriate temperature. The core yarn will “spot weld” together at the junction points,
binding the mass of fibres together. Products made in this way find uses as industrial fabrics,
coatings, and interlinings.

The joining of one fabric to another by an adhesive such as natural rubber has long been practiced in
rainwear manufacture. Composite materials were later joined by bonding a layer of polyurethane or
other foam to a conventional textile fabric. The two components were stuck together by flame
bonding or by an adhesive in the form of a continuous coating, in spots, or as a powder. This
laminating process has been extended to the joining of two layers of fabric. Each fabric layer can be
quite thin, and the amount and type of adhesive are chosen to add only minimum stiffening. Such
materials offer a variety of applications. A coating fabric, for example, may be joined to a lining;
dimensionally stable composites can be made from cloth layers that are in themselves dimensionally
unstable. Acetate knitted fabrics are frequently used as backing material in laminates.

Basic methods and processes:

The term finishing includes all the mechanical and chemical processes employed commercially to
improve the acceptability of the product, except those procedures directly concerned with colouring.
The objective of the various finishing processes is to make fabric from the loom or knitting frame
more acceptable to the consumer. Finishing processes include preparatory treatments used before
additional treatment, such as bleaching prior to dyeing; treatments, such as glazing, to enhance
appearance; sizing, affecting touch; and treatments adding properties to enhance performance, such
as preshrinking. Newly formed cloth is generally dirty, harsh, and unattractive, requiring
considerable skill for conversion into a desirable product. Before treatment, the unfinished fabrics
are referred to as gray goods, or sometimes, in the case of silks, as greige goods.Finishing formerly
involved a limited number of comparatively simple operations evolved over the years from hand
methods. The skill of English and Scottish finishers was widely recognized, and much British cloth
owed its high reputation to the expertise of the finisher. More sophisticated modern finishing
methods have been achieved through intense and imaginative research.

Preparatory treatments

It is frequently necessary to carry out some preparatory treatment before the application of other
finishing processes to the newly constructed fabric. Any remaining impurities must be removed, and
additives used to facilitate the manufacturing process must also be removed. Bleaching may be
required to increase whiteness or to prepare for colour application. Some of the most frequently used
preparatory processes are discussed below.

Burling and mending

Newly made goods, which frequently show imperfections, are carefully inspected, and defects are
usually repaired by hand operations. The first inspection of woollen and worsted fabrics is called
perching. Burling, mainly applied to woollen, worsted, spun rayon, and cotton fabrics, is the process
of removing any remaining foreign matter, such as burrs and, also, any loose threads, knots, and
undesired slubs. Mending, frequently necessary for woollens and worsteds, eliminates such defects
as holes or tears, broken yarns, and missed warp or weft yarns.

Scouring

When applied to gray goods, scouring removes substances that have adhered to the fibres during
production of the yarn or fabric, such as dirt, oils, and any sizing or lint applied to warp yarns to
facilitate weaving.

Bleaching

Bleaching, a process of whitening fabric by removal of natural colour, such as the tan of linen, is
usually carried out by means of chemicals selected according to the chemical composition of the
fibre. Chemical bleaching is usually accomplished by oxidation, destroying colour by the application
of oxygen, or by reduction, removing colour by hydrogenation. Cotton and other cellulosic fibres are
usually treated with heated alkaline hydrogen peroxide; wool and other animal fibres are subjected to
such acidic reducing agents as gaseous sulfur dioxide or to such mildly alkaline oxidizing agents as
hydrogen peroxide. Synthetic fibres, when they require bleaching, may be treated with either
oxidizing or reducing agents, depending upon their chemical composition. Cottons are frequently
scoured and bleached by a continuous system.

Mercerization

Mercerization is a process applied to cotton and sometimes to cotton blends to increase lustre (thus
also enhancing appearance), to improve strength, and to improve their affinity for dyes. The process,
which may be applied at the yarn or fabric stage, involves immersion under tension in a caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide) solution, which is later neutralized in acid. The treatment produces permanent
swelling of the fibre.

Drying

Water, used in various phases of textile processing, accumulates in fabrics, and the excess moisture
must eventually be removed. Because evaporative heating is costly, the first stage of drying uses
mechanical methods to remove as much moisture as possible. Such methods include the use of
centrifuges and a continuous method employing vacuum suction rolls. Any remaining moisture is
then removed by evaporation in heated dryers. Various types of dryers operate by conveying the
relaxed fabric through the chamber while festooned in loops, using a frame to hold the selvages taut
while the fabric travels through the chamber, and passing the fabric over a series of hot cylinders.
Because overdrying may produce a harsh hand, temperature, humidity, and drying time require
careful control.

Finishes enhancing Appearance:

Treatments enhancing appearance include such processes as napping and shearing, brushing,
singeing, beetling, decating, tentering, calendering or pressing, moiréing, embossing, creping,
glazing, polishing, and optical brightening.

Napping and shearing

Napping is a process that may be applied to woollens, cottons, spun silks, and spun rayons, including
both woven and knitted types, to raise a velvety, soft surface. The process involves passing the fabric
over revolving cylinders covered with fine wires that lift the short, loose fibres, usually from the weft
yarns, to the surface, forming a nap. The process, which increases warmth, is frequently applied to
woollens and worsteds and also to blankets.

Shearing cuts the raised nap to a uniform height and is used for the same purpose on pile fabrics.
Shearing machines operate much like rotary lawn mowers, and the amount of shearing depends upon
the desired height of the nap or pile, with such fabrics as gabardine receiving very close shearing.
Shearing may also be applied to create stripes and other patterns by varying surface height.

Brushing

This process, applied to a wide variety of fabrics, is usually accomplished by bristle-covered rollers.
The process is used to remove loose threads and short fibre ends from smooth-surfaced fabrics and is
also used to raise a nap on knits and woven fabrics. Brushing is frequently applied to fabrics after
shearing, removing the cut fibres that have fallen into the nap.

Singeing

Also called gassing, singeing is a process applied to both yarns and fabrics to produce an even
surface by burning off projecting fibres, yarn ends, and fuzz. This is accomplished by passing the
fibre or yarn over a gas flame or heated copper plates at a speed sufficient to burn away the
protruding material without scorching or burning the yarn or fabric. Singeing is usually followed by
passing the treated material over a wet surface to assure that any smoldering is halted.

Beetling

Beetling is a process applied to linen fabrics and to cotton fabrics made to resemble linen to produce
a hard, flat surface with high lustre and also to make texture less porous. In this process, the fabric,
dampened and wound around an iron cylinder, is passed through a machine in which it is pounded
with heavy wooden mallets.
Decating

Decating is a process applied to woollens and worsteds, synthetic and blended fibre fabrics, and
various types of knits. It involves the application of heat and pressure to set or develop lustre and
softer hand and to even the set and grain of certain fabrics. When applied to double knits it imparts
crisp hand and reduces shrinkage. In wet decating, which gives a subtle lustre, or bloom, fabric under
tension is steamed by passing it over perforated cylinders.

Tentering, crabbing, and heat-setting

These are final processes applied to set the warp and weft of woven fabrics at right angles to each
other, and to stretch and set the fabric to its final dimensions. Tentering stretches width under tension
by the use of a tenter frame, consisting of chains fitted with pins or clips to hold the selvages of the
fabric, and travelling on tracks. As the fabric passes through the heated chamber, creases and
wrinkles are removed, the weave is straightened, and the fabric is dried to its final size. When the
process is applied to wet wools it is called crabbing; when applied to synthetic fibres it is sometimes
called heat-setting, a term also applied to the permanent setting of pleats, creases, and special surface
effects.

Calendering

Calendering is a final process in which heat and pressure are applied to a fabric by passing it between
heated rollers, imparting a flat, glossy, smooth surface. Lustre increases when the degree of heat and
pressure is increased. Calendering is applied to fabrics in which a smooth, flat surface is desirable,
such as most cottons, many linens and silks, and various synthetic fabrics. In such fabrics as
velveteen, a flat surface is not desirable, and the cloth is steamed while in tension, without pressing.
When applied to wool, the process is called pressing and employs heavy heated metal plates to steam
and press the fabric. Calendering is not usually a permanent process.

Moiréing, embossing, glazing and ciréing, and polishing are all variations of the calendering process.
Moiré is a wavy or “watered” effect imparted by engraved rollers that press the design into the
fabric. The process, applied to cotton, acetate, rayon, and some ribbed synthetic fabrics, is only
permanent for acetates and resin-treated rayons. Embossing imparts a raised design that stands out
from the background and is achieved by passing the fabric through heated rollers engraved with a
design. Although embossing was formerly temporary, processes have now been developed to make
this effect permanent.

Glazing imparts a smooth, stiff, highly polished surface to such fabrics as chintz. It is achieved by
applying such stiffeners as starch, glue, shellac, or resin to the fabric and then passing it through
smooth, hot rollers that generate friction. Resins are now widely employed to impart permanent
glaze. Ciré (from the French word for waxed) is a similar process applied to rayons and silks by the
application of wax followed by hot calendering, producing a metallic high gloss. Ciré finishes can be
achieved without a sizing substance in acetates, which are thermoplastic (e.g., can be softened by
heat), by the application of heat. Polishing, used to impart sheen to cottons without making them as
stiff as glazed types, is usually achieved by mercerizing the fabric and then passing it through
friction rollers.
Creping

A crepe effect may be achieved by finishing. In one method, which is not permanent, the cloth is
passed, in the presence of steam, between hot rollers filled with indentations, producing waved and
puckered areas. In the more permanent caustic soda method, a caustic soda paste is rolled onto the
fabric in a patterned form, or a resist paste may be applied to areas to remain unpuckered, and the
entire fabric is then immersed in caustic soda. The treated areas shrink, and the untreated areas
pucker. If the pattern is applied in the form of stripes, the effect is called plissé; an allover design
produces blister crepe.

Optical brightening

Optical brightening, or optical bleaches, are finishes giving the effect of great whiteness and
brightness because of the way in which they reflect light. These compounds contain fluorescent
colourless dyes, causing more blue light to be reflected. Changes in colour may occur as the
fluorescent material loses energy, but new optical whiteners can be applied during the laundering
process. Finishes enhancing the feel and drape of fabrics involve the addition of sizing, weighting,
fulling, and softening agents, which may be either temporary or permanent.

Sizing

Sizing, or dressing, agents are compounds that form a film around the yarn or individual fibres,
increasing weight, crispness, and lustre. Sizing substances, including starches, gelatin, glue, casein,
and clay, are frequently applied to cottons and are not permanent.

Weighting

Weighting, in the processing of silk, involves the application of metallic salts to add body and
weight. The process is not permanent but can be repeated.

Fulling

Also called felting or milling, fulling is a process that increases the thickness and compactness of
wool by subjecting it to moisture, heat, friction, and pressure until shrinkage of 10 to 25 percent is
achieved. Shrinkage occurs in both the warp and weft, producing a smooth, tightly finished fabric
that may be so compact that it resembles felt.

Softening

Making fabrics softer and sometimes also increasing absorbency involves the addition of such agents
as dextrin, glycerin, sulfonated oils, sulfated tallow, and sulfated alcohols.

Shrinkage control

Shrinkage control processes are applied by compressive shrinkage, resin treatment, or heat-setting.
Compressive, or relaxation, shrinkage is applied to cotton and to certain cotton blends to reduce the
stretching they experience during weaving and other processing. The fabric is dampened and dried in
a relaxed state, eliminating tensions and distortions. The number of warp and weft yarns per square
inch is increased, contributing greater durability, and fabrics treated by this method are usually
smooth and have soft lustre. The process involves spraying the fabric with water and then pressing
the fabric against a steam-heated cylinder covered with a thick blanket of woollen felt or rubber. The
manufacturer is often required to specify the residual shrinkage, or percentage of shrinkage, that may
still occur after the preshrinking process.

Rayons and rayon blends may be stabilized by the use of resins, which impregnate the fibre. Such
fabrics may also be stabilized by employing acetals to produce cross-linking, a chemical reaction.
Such synthetics as polyesters and nylons, which are heat sensitive, are usually permanently stabilized
by heat-setting during finishing.Shrinkage of wools is frequently controlled by treatment with
chlorine, partially destroying the scales that occur on wool fibres and thus increasing resistance to the
natural tendency of wool to felt. Other methods employ coating with resins that attach to the scales in
order to discourage felting shrinkage.

Durable press

Durable press fabrics have such characteristics as shape retention, permanent pleating and creasing,
permanently smooth seams, and the ability to shed wrinkles, and thus retain a fresh appearance
without ironing. Such fabrics may be safely washed and dried by machine. These useful
characteristics are imparted by a curing process. Depending upon composition and desired results,
fabrics may be precured, a process in which a chemical resin is added, the fabric is dried and cured
(baked), and heat is applied by pressing after garment construction; or fabrics may be postcured, a
process in which resin is added, the fabric is dried, made into a garment, pressed, and then cured.

Wash-and-wear was an early durable press process employing chemical treatment and curing of
fabrics; at least light ironing was required to restore appearance. Later, however, processes were
developed that allowed such fabrics to regain smoothness after home machine washing at moderate
temperature, followed by tumble drying.

Crease resistance

Crease, or wrinkle, resistance is frequently achieved by application of a synthetic resin, such as

melamine or epoxy.

Soil release

Soil release finishes facilitate removal of waterborne and oil stains from fabrics such as polyester and
cotton blends and fabrics treated for durable press, which usually show some resistance to stain
removal by normal cleaning processes. Other finishes have been developed that give fabrics
resistance to water and oil stains.

Antistatic finishes

The accumulation of static electricity in such synthetic fibres as nylon, polyesters, and acrylics
produces clinging, which may be reduced by application of permanent antistatic agents during
processing. Consumers can partially reduce static electricity by adding commercial fabric softeners
during laundering.

Antibacterial and antifungus finishes

Antibacterial finishes are germicides applied to fabrics to prevent odours produced by bacterial
decomposition, such as perspiration odours, and also to reduce the possibility of infection by contact
with contaminated textiles. Fabrics may also be treated with germicides to prevent mildew, a
parasitic fungus that may grow on fabrics that are not thoroughly dried. Both mildew and rot, another
form of decay, may also be controlled by treatment with resins.

Waterproofing and water repellence

Waterproofing is a process applied to such items as raincoats and umbrellas, closing the pores of the
fabric by application of such substances as insoluble metallic compounds, paraffin, bituminous
materials, and drying oils. Water-repellent finishes are surface finishes imparting some degree of
resistance to water but are more comfortable to wear because the fabric pores remain open. Such
finishes include wax and resin mixtures, aluminum salts, silicones, and fluorochemicals.

Flameproof, fireproof, and fire-resistant finishes

Flameproof fabrics are able to withstand exposure to flame or high temperature. This is achieved by
application of various finishes, depending upon the fabric treated, that cause burning to stop as soon
as the source of heat is removed. Fireproofing is achieved by the application of a finish that will cut
off the oxygen supply around the flame. Fire-resistant finishes cause fabrics to resist the spread of
flame.

Dyeing and printing : are processes employed in the conversion of raw textile fibres into finished
goods that add much to the appearance of textile fabrics.

Dyeing

Most forms of textile materials can be dyed at almost any stage. Quality woollen goods are
frequently dyed in the form of loose fibre, but top dyeing or cheese dyeing is favoured in treating
worsteds. Manufacturers prefer piece dyeing, which allows stocking of white goods, reducing the
risk of being overstocked with cloth dyed in colours that have not been ordered.The dye used
depends on the type of material and the specific requirements to be met. For some purposes, high
lightfastness is essential; but for others it may be inconsequential. Factors considered in dye selection
include fastness to light, reaction to washing and rubbing (crocking), and the cost of the dyeing
process. Effective preparation of the material for dyeing is essential.

Types of dyes

Textile dyes include acid dyes, used mainly for dyeing wool, silk, and nylon; and direct or
substantive dyes, which have a strong affinity for cellulose fibres (see table). Mordant dyes require
the addition of chemical substances, such as salts, to give them an affinity for the material being
dyed. They are applied to cellulosic fibres, wool, or silk after such materials have been treated with
metal salts. Sulfur dyes, used to dye cellulose, are inexpensive but produce colours lacking brilliance.
Azoic dyes are insoluble pigments formed within the fibre by padding, first with a soluble coupling
compound and then with a diazotized base. Vat dyes, insoluble in water, are converted into soluble
colourless compounds by means of alkaline sodium hydrosulfite. Cellulose absorbs these colourless
compounds, which are subsequently oxidized to an insoluble pigment. Such dyes are colourfast.
Disperse dyes are suspensions of finely divided insoluble, organic pigments used to dye such
hydrophobic fibres as polyesters, nylon, and cellulose acetates.
Application process

The dyeing of a textile fibre is carried out in a solution, generally aqueous, known as the dye liquor
or dyebath. For true dyeing (as opposed to mere staining) to have taken place, the coloration must be
relatively permanent—that is, not readily removed by rinsing in water or by normal washing
procedures. Moreover, the dyeing must not fade rapidly on exposure to light. The process of
attachment of the dye molecule to the fibre is one of absorption; that is, the dye molecules
concentrate on the fibre surface.

There are four kinds of forces by which dye molecules are bound to fibre: (1) ionic forces, (2)
hydrogen bonding, (3) van der Waals forces, and (4) covalent chemical linkages. In the dyeing of
wool, which is a complex protein containing about 20 different α-amino acids, the sulfuric acid
added to the dyebath forms ionic linkages with the amino groups of the protein. In the process of
dyeing, the sulfate anion (negative ion) is replaced by a dye anion. In the dyeing of wool, silk, and
synthetic fibres, hydrogen bonds are probably set up between the azo, amino, alkylamino, and other
groups, and the amido -CO-NH-, groups. Van der Waals forces (the attractive forces between the
atoms or molecules of all substances) are thought to act in the dyeing of cotton between the
molecular units of the fibre and the linear, extended molecules of direct dyes. Covalent chemical
links are brought about in the dyebath by chemical reaction between a fibre-reactive dye molecule,
one containing a chemically reactive centre, and a hydroxy group of a cotton fibre, in the presence of
alkali.

Dyes are generally used in combination to achieve a desired hue or fashion shade. If the substance to
be dyed consists of only one type of fibre, such as wool, the dye mixture will be made up solely of
wool dyes. But if the fabric contains more than one kind of fibre and they differ in dyeing properties,
then mixtures of different application classes of dyes are used.

Forms in which textiles are dyed

Loose stock consists of randomly distributed wool or cotton fibres; tow is the corresponding term for
synthetic fibres. Sliver is a more orderly arrangement of fibres in a loosely connected, continuous
form suitable for spinning. It is wound into either hanks or tops, loose balls about one foot in
diameter. After spinning, the yarn is either made up into hanks or into packages weighing about two
pounds each, by winding the yarn round perforated metal tubes. The packages are curiously named,
some according to their shapes; for example, cones, cheeses, cakes, beams, and rockets. Piece goods,
woven cloth or textiles knitted in rope form, and garments, a term that includes stockings, tights,
hose, and half hose, are also dyed as such.

Machinery and equipment

Modern dyeing machines are made from stainless steels. Steels containing up to 4 percent
molybdenum are favoured to withstand the acid conditions that are common. A dyeing machine
consists essentially of a vessel to contain the dye liquor, provided with equipment for heating,
cooling, and circulating the liquor into and around the goods to be dyed or moving the goods through
the dye liquor. The kind of machine employed depends on the nature of the goods to be dyed. Labour
and energy costs are high in relation to total dyeing costs; the dyer’s aim is to shorten dyeing times to
save steam and electrical power and to avoid spoilage of goods.A widely used machine is the
conical-pan loose-stock machine; fibres are held in an inner truncated-conical vessel while the hot
dye liquor is mechanically pumped through. The fibre mass tends to become compressed in the upper
narrow half of the cone, assisting efficient circulation. Levelling problems are less important because
uniformity may be achieved by blending the dyed fibres prior to spinning.

The Hussong machine is the traditional apparatus; it has a long, square-ended tank as dyebath into
which a framework of poles carrying hanks can be lowered. The dye liquor is circulated by an
impeller and moves through a perforated false bottom that also houses the open steam pipe for
heating. In modern machines, circulation is improved especially at the point of contact between hank
and pole. This leads to better levelling and elimination of irregularities caused by uneven cooling.In
package-dyeing machines dye liquor may be pumped in either of two directions: (1) through the
perforated central spindle and outward through the package, or (2) by the reverse path into the outer
layers of the package and out of the spindle. In either case levelness is important. In the case of
soluble dyes the dye liquor must be free of suspended matter. In the case of disperse dyes, in which
particles of dye are dispersed in, rather than dissolved in, the solution, no gross aggregates can be
allowed; otherwise the packages would retain undesirable solids on the outer and inner surfaces.
Some package-dyeing machines are capable of working under pressure at temperatures up to 130 °C.

The winch is the oldest piece-dyeing machine and takes its name from the slatted roller that moves
an endless rope of cloth or endless belt of cloth at full width through the dye liquor. Pressurized-
winch machines have been developed in the United States. In an entirely new concept, the Gaston
County jet machine circulates fabric in rope form through a pipe by means of a high-pressure jet of
dye liquor. The jet machine is increasingly important in high-temperature dyeing of synthetic fibres,
especially polyester fabrics.Another machine, the jig, has a V-shaped trough holding the dye liquor
and guide rollers to carry the cloth at full width between two external, powered rollers. The cloth is
wound onto each roller alternately; that is, the cloth is first moved forward, then backward, through
the dye liquor until dyeing is complete. Modern machines, automatically controlled and
programmed, can be built to work under pressure.

Solutions or suspensions of colorants or their precursors may be padded onto piece goods by passing
the cloth through a trough containing the liquor and then between rollers under pressure.
Development and fixation processes such as steaming or dry-heat treatment can be carried out in
other apparatus. The method is used in semicontinuous and continuous operations.

Printing :

is a process of decorating textile fabrics by application of pigments, dyes, or other related materials
in the form of patterns. Although apparently developed from the hand painting of fabrics, such
methods are also of great antiquity. There is evidence of printing being carried out in India during the
4th century bce, and a printing block dated at about 300 ce has been unearthed in the burial grounds
of Akhmīn in Upper Egypt. Pre-Columbian printed textiles have been found in Peru and Mexico.
Textile printing has become highly sophisticated and has involved the skills of many artists and
designers.The four main methods of textile printing are block, roller, screen, and heat transfer
printing. In each of these methods, the application of the colour, usually as a thickened paste, is
followed by fixation, usually by steaming or heating, and then removal of excess colour by washing.
Printing styles are classified as direct, discharge, or resist. In direct printing, coloured pastes are
printed directly on the cloth. For discharge printing, the cloth is first dyed with a background colour,
which is destroyed by reagents, or reducing agents, carried in a print paste. This action may leave the
discharged design white on a coloured background, although print pastes may also contain colouring
matters not destroyed by the discharging agent, producing a coloured design. In the resist process,
the cloth is first printed with a substance called a resist, protecting these printed areas from accepting
colour. When the cloth is dyed or pigment padded only those parts not printed with the resist are
dyed. A special application of this technique, imparting plissé effects, is the printing of the fabric
with a resist, followed by treatment with caustic soda.

Block printing

Wooden blocks, carved with a design standing out in relief, are made from solid pieces of wood or
by bonding closely grained woods with cheaper ones. When designs include large areas, these are
recessed and the space filled with hard wool felt. Fine lines are usually built up with copper strips,
and other effects are obtained with copper strips interleaved with felt. To facilitate registration of
successive prints, or lays, each block has several pitch pins arranged to coincide with well-defined
points in the pattern. Cloth is printed on a table covered with several thicknesses of fabric or blanket,
the whole covered with a thick sheet of tightly stretched synthetic rubber. The cloth to be printed is
spread on the rubber, either gummed in position or pinned to a backcloth attached to the table.
Colour is applied evenly to the block, and the pattern is stamped on the fabric to be printed, using the
handle of a small heavy hammer, or maul, to aid penetration of the paste. More colour is then applied
to the block and the process is repeated using the pitch pin to obtain true registration. After the fabric
has been entirely printed with one colour, other colours are applied in the same way until the design
is complete. Although block printing is becoming too laborious and costly for commercial use, some
of the most beautiful prints have been made in this way.

Roller printing

This technique is used whenever long runs of fabric are to be printed with the same design. The
modern machine, based on one originally devised in 1783, consists of a large central cast-iron
cylinder over which passes a thick endless blanket providing a resilient support for the fabric.
Backing fabrics, called back grays, are placed between the blanket and the fabric to prevent undue
staining of the blanket. Although formerly made of cotton fabric, most modern back grays are
continuous belts of nylon. The blanket and back gray are appropriately tensioned, so that the fabric
moves through the machine as the central cylinder rotates. Engraved printing rollers, one for each
colour, press against the fabric and the central cylinder. The pattern on the roller is etched on the
surface of a copper shell supported on a mandrel. High-quality engraving is essential for good
printing. Each printing roller is provided with a rotating colour-furnishing roller, partially immersed
in a trough of printing paste. Finely ground blades (doctor blades) remove excess colour paste from
the unengraved areas of these rollers, and each also has a lint blade. The printed fabric passes from
the main cylinder and through a drying and steaming chamber to fix the colour. Although this
machine prints only one side of the fabric, the Duplex roller machine, essentially a combination of
two roller machines, prints both sides. Modern printing machines are smooth-running precision
machines fitted with carefully designed roller bearings and hydraulic or pneumatic mechanisms to
ensure uniform pressure and flexibility. Pressure is regulated from an instrument panel, and each
roller is controlled independently. Automatic registration is effected by electromagnetic push-button
control, and modern electric motors provide smooth-running, variable-speed drives. The washing of
back grays and printer’s blankets has also been automated.

Screen printing

Screen printing may be a hand operation or an automatic machine process. The cloth is first laid on a
printing table, gummed in position or pinned to a back gray, and then the design is applied through a
screen made of silk or nylon gauze stretched over a wooden or metal frame, on which the design for
one colour has been reproduced. This is usually a photographic process, although hand painting with
a suitably resistant blocking paint is an alternative. A screen is placed over the fabric on the table
against registration stops, ensuring accurate pattern fitting. Print paste is poured on to the screen edge
nearest the operator and is spread with a squeegee over the surface of the screen so that colour is
pushed through the open parts. The screen is moved until one colour has been applied to the cloth.
For application of other colours, the process is repeated with different screens.

Heat transfer printing

The popularity of polyester fabrics led to the development of a completely new form of printing: heat
transfer printing, which prints the pattern on paper with carefully selected dyes. The paper is then
applied to the fabric by passing the two together through a type of hot calender, and the pattern is
transferred from one to the other. This method opens up new possibilities, such as the production of
halftone effects.In all textile printing, the nature and, particularly, the viscosity of the print paste are
important, and the thickeners employed must be compatible with all the other components. For
conventional methods the thickeners are such reagents as starch, gum tragacanth, alginates, methyl
cellulose ethers, and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. Many types of dye can be applied, including
direct cotton, vat, mordant, and reactive dyes, as well as pigment colours. Most dyes are fixed by
steaming or aging, by a batch or continuous method, and more rapid fixation is effected by flash
aging—e.g., allowing a shorter steaming period by employing smaller machines. After steaming, the
fabric must be thoroughly washed to remove loose dye and thickener, ensuring fastness to rubbing.

Textile Consumption:

Textiles are commonly associated with clothing and soft furnishings, an association that accounts for
the great emphasis on style and design in textiles. These consume a large portion of total industry
production.

Changing uses of fabric in apparel

Great changes have occurred in the fabrics used for clothing, with heavy woollen and worsted
suitings being replaced by lighter materials, often made from blends of natural and synthetic fibres,
possibly owing to improved indoor heating. Warp-knitted fabrics made from bulked yarns are
replacing woven fabrics, and there is a trend away from formality in both day and evening dress to
more casual wear, for which knitted garments are especially appropriate. The use of synthetic fibre
fabrics has established the easy-care concept and made formerly fragile light and diaphanous fabrics
more durable. The introduction of elastomeric fibres has revolutionized the foundation-garment
trade, and the use of stretch yarns of all types has produced outerwear that is close-fitting but
comfortable.Manufacturers of tailored garments formerly used interlinings made of horsehair, which
was later replaced by goat hair and then by resin-treated viscose rayon. Today fusible interlinings
and various washable synthetics are widely used. The performance of a garment is greatly influenced
by such factors as the interlining used and the sewing threads employed.
Household textiles

Household textiles, frequently referred to as soft furnishings, are fabrics used in the home. They
include items frequently classified as linens, such as bath and dish towels, table linens, shower
curtains, and bathroom ensembles. Related items include sheets, pillowcases, mattresses, blankets,
comforters, and bedspreads. In addition, textile products contributing to the atmosphere and comfort
of the home include rugs and carpeting, draperies, curtains, and upholstery fabrics.

Industrial fabrics

This class of fabrics includes composition products, processing fabrics, and direct-use types.

Composition products

In composition products, the fabrics are used as reinforcements in compositions with other materials,
such as rubber and plastics. These products—prepared by such processes as coating, impregnating,
and laminating—include tires, belting, hoses, inflatable items, and typewriter-ribbon fabrics.

Processing fabrics

Processing fabrics are used by various manufacturers for such purposes as filtration, for bolting
cloths used for various types of sifting and screening, and in commercial laundering as press covers
and as nets segregating lots during washing. In textile finishing, back grays are used as backing for
fabrics that are being printed.

Direct-use fabrics

Direct-use fabrics are manufactured or incorporated into finished products, such as awnings and
canopies, tarpaulins, tents, outdoor furniture, luggage, and footwear.

Fabrics for protective clothing

Fabrics for military purposes must frequently withstand severe conditions. Among their uses are
Arctic and cold-weather clothing, tropical wear, rot-resistant material, webbing, inflated life vests,
tent fabrics, safety belts, and parachute cloth and harnesses. Parachute cloth, for example, must meet
exacting specifications, air porosity being a vital factor. New fabrics are also being developed for
garments used in space travel. In protective clothing a subtle balance between protection and comfort
is required.The many uses of textiles enter into almost every aspect of modern life. For some
purposes, however, the role of textiles is being challenged by developments in plastic and paper
products. Although many of these currently have certain limitations, it is likely that they will be
improved, presenting a greater challenge to textile manufacturers, who must be concerned with both
retaining present markets and expanding into completely new areas.

Conclusion:

weaving is a necessary process in fabric manufacturing. Weaving process known as the process of
forming a rigid fabric by interlacing the warp and weft yarn. It also can produce a good end products
with smoothness,less hairiness and strength characteristics of fabric because it has weaving
preparation process. While learning weaving, we could know how the fabric produced and there are
some weave structures that we can create. So, enjoying study this subject in you will know more
about it and beside that exploring the textile world. Textiles and their production were deeply
embedded in the daily life, the economy and the religious life of ancient Greece. Loom weights were
an essential part of the warp weighted loom, which was commonly used to produce these textiles.
Loom weights survive in the archaeological record when the looms themselves and the textiles they
produced do not. A careful study of these artefacts, which are often found in archaeological sites
throughout ancient Greece and its colonies, can tell us much about ancient Greek technology, but
also behaviour and beliefs.