DIGESTED NOTES ON FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. Ballistics – study of the motion of the projectiles.

Origin of the Term “Ballistics”

a. Greek word Ballo or Ballein which means “to throw.”
b. Roman war machine Ballista, a “gigantic bow or catapult”
2. Science - systematized body of knowledge.
3. Projectile refers to the bullet/slug/ball/pellet/flechette that passes through the barrel of FA.
4. Forensic Ballistics – is the science of firearms identification by means of the ammunition fired through them.
5. Forensic – as applied to ballistics or to any other subjects suggests a relationship to a court of justice and legal proceedings. Derived from the
Latin word Forensis which means “Forum,” that means “a public place, wherein people gathered for discussion of a subject in issue.
6. Motion - movement of projectile inside and outside barrel.
Kinds of Motion:
1. Direct motion
2. Rotary motion
3. Translational motion

Branches of Ballistics
1. Interior Ballistics
• Also called Internal Ballistics
• Study of projectile while still inside the barrel
• From Breech to the Muzzle of barrel

Processes included in the study of Interior Ballistics:

1. Firing pin hits the primer
2. Ignition of priming mixture
3. Combustion of gun powder
4. Expansion of the heated gas in the chamber
5. Pressure will be developed (pounds per square inch)
6. Energy generated (foot pound)
7. Recoil of the firearm
8. Velocity of bullet inside the barrel (feet per second)
9. Rotating of the bullet inside the barrel.
10. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of bullet

2. Exterior Ballistics (External )- from after leaving the muzzle to before immediately hitting the target.

It involves the following:

1. Muzzle blast – noise or sound created at the muzzle
2. Muzzle energy – the energy generated at the muzzle
3. Trajectory – the actual curve path of the bullet

Stages of trajectory:
A. Straight horizontal line
B. Parabola like flight
C. Vertical drop
4. Range – between muzzle and target.

Kinds of Range:
A. Effective / accurate range - distance at which the bullet is expected to be lethal.
B. Maximum range - maximum distance a projectile can reach.

5. Velocity – rate of the speed of the bullet (feet per second)

6. Air resistance – the capacity of the bullet to resist air during its flight from the muzzle of the gun.

A. Aerodynamic drag – the dragging of the bullet downward due to air resistance.

B. Ballistic pendulum - the deceleration of bullet on flight due to gravity.

C. Inertia - allows a body at rest to remain at rest or body in motion to remain in motion.

D. Yawing - the unstable movement of bullet on flight such as wobbling or tumbling of bullet before hitting target.

E. Keyhole shot – caused by yawing of bullet resulting to hitting of target sideways resulting to oval-like entry of bullet.

1 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
 7. Pull of gravity – the downward movement of the bullet after reaching its maximum range.

8. Penetration – the entry of the bullet in the target.

9. Ricochet – the bouncing of a projectile after hitting a surface.

3. Terminal Ballistics - the study of effects/impact of projectile to the target.

A. Terminal accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on the target
B. Terminal energy – energy of the projectile upon striking the target.
C. Terminal penetration – depth of the bullet penetration on the target.
D. Terminal velocity – speed of the bullet inside the target.

4. Forensic Ballistics – science of FA identification by means of the ammunition fired through them.
A. Field investigation – refers to the work of an investigator in the field.
B. Technical Examination – refers to the examination/comparison conducted by Firearm examiner.
C. Legal proceedings – the presentation of the “Ballistics Report” on firearms, bullet, shells and allied exhibits in court.

Special branches under Terminal Ballistics

Shot Ballistics – focused with the study of shots/pellets from smoothbore firearms like shotguns and muskets.
Shotguns discharge single but usually multiple shots/pellets in single fire.
Musket is another smoothbore firearm that discharges single ball in one firing.
Shot wads - can be found at a distance of 5-8 yards .
These wads are very important in the identification of:
1. Gauge of weapon
2. Make of ammunition

Range Between Shotgun and Target:

1. 1-3 feet – wound is about 1.5 - 2 inches in diameter. Scorching, tattoing, singering maybe observed.
2. Beyond 3 feet - shot begins to spread out.
3. 4 feet - wound will appear as a central hole with small perforations around.
4. Beyond 4 feet - shots continue to spread out and produces a mass of small perforations with no central wound.

Approximation of Range

Measure the diameter of the wound (in inches) including the outermost perforations and then subtract 1 to arrive at the range of yards. 10 inches
diameter, the range is 9 yards. (Note: 1m=1.09 Yards)
 
Note:

Contact wounds with the use of shotgun appear externally with a circular defect approximating the bore of the weapon used.

Muzzle imprint – appears with smudges of gunpowder with cherry-red discoloration.

Computations: mm-Cal. and Cal. to mm

1. Cal to mm (x 25.4)
Cal .38 – mm
.38 x 25.4 = 9.642 or 9 mm
2. mm to Caliber (x .03937)
5.56 mm – Cal
5.56 x .03937 = .2178972 or .22 Caliber

NOTE: After computing, always go to the nearest Caliber (Just like no. 1)

Equivalents of Calibers

inches millimeters
1. Caliber .45 = 11 mm
2. Caliber . 38 = 9 mm
3. Caliber .32 = 7.65 mm
4. Caliber .320 = 7.63 mm
5. Caliber .25 = 6.35 mm
6. Caliber .22 = 5.59 mm
Different Systems of Caliber Measurements

1. American System (2 digits)

Expressed in hundredths of an inch
such as Cal .45, .38, .25, .30.

2. English System (3 digits)

Expressed in thousandths of an inch

2 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
 such as Cal .357, .380, .223.

3. Continental/ European System

Expressed in millimeters
such as Cal 9mm, 5.56mm, 7.62mm.

The 8 Problems:

1. Evidence Bullet
Determine the:
1. Caliber
2. Type/make of firearm used
3. Type of propellant used

2. Fired cartridge case (empty shell)

Determine the:
1. Make
2. Caliber
3. Type of FA used
4. Type of propellant used

3. Two or more Fired bullets

Determine the:
1. Note: Determine if bullets were fired one or two different firearms.
2. Caliber
3. Type/make of firearm used
4. Type of propellant used

4. Two or more fired cartridge cases or shot shells

1. Determine whether two or all werere fired in the same FA
2. Make
3. Caliber
4. Type of FA used
5. Type of propellant used

5. Evidence bullet and suspected firearm

Identify whether the bullet was fired from the firearm,
in addition with requirements in No. 1 (make, caliber, type of FA, type of propellant)
.
6. Cartridge case (shell) and suspected firearm.
Determine whether the spent shell was fired from the said firearm, in addition with requirements in No. 2. (Make, Caliber, Type of FA used, type of
propellant used)

7. Firearms, Ammunition, Shot pattern, Victims clothings.

Approximate distance at which shot was discharged.

8. Shot pellets and wads

1. Size of shots
2. Gauge

Origin of the word “GUN”

1. Gunne – an engine of war that throws rocks, arrows or missiles.
2. Gunilda
3. Gon
4. Gun

Definition of terms

1. Firearms (Legal) – includes all rifles, revolvers, pistols, muskets, shotguns, carbines and all other deadly weapons from which a projectile
maybe discharged.
2. Firearms (Technical) – used in the propulsion of projectile by means of expansive force of gases from burning gunpowder.
3. Rifle – designed to be fired from the shoulder.
4. Musket – smoothbore FA designed to shoot single pellet.
5. Shotgun – smoothbore FA designed to shoot several pellets.
6. Revolver – a handgun with rotating cyclinder. Kinds are Solid Frame (S.Colt), Swing-out (US), and Breaktop (UK). As to firing mechanism, it
could be single or double action.
7. Pistol – a handgun that could be semi-auto or auto/full auto. Processes include: loading, cocking and firing.

Kolibri auto pistol - (Cal 2.7mm, 5 shots) is the smallest pistol in the World, made in 1914.

Caliber .50 – now, considered the most powerful handgun in the world. It replaced Magnum .44.
3 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
8. Carbine – a caliber .30 smooth-bore FA invented by David “Carbine” William having a barrel of not more than 22 inches.

Single Action vs. Double Action

1. Single action – a FA that requires manually cocking the hammer before pressure upon the trigger when firing.
2. Double action – a FA in which pressure upon the trigger automatically releases the hammer. This cycle is done every time the trigger is
depressed.

General Types of FA

According to Internal Barrel Construction

1. Smooth-bore FA – no rifling (lands and groove) such as Shotguns, muskets and liberator.

2. Rifled-bore FA – contain rifling inside the barrel such as pistols, revolvers and rifles.

Main Types of FA

1. Small Arms – include FA with one inch or less bore diameter.

Examples: Shoulder arms, Handguns & Machine Guns.

2. Artillery – more than one inch bore diameter. Examples: Cannons, Mortars, etc.

Characteristics of FAs
1. Class Characteristics – these were set even before the manufacture of FAs. These are factory specifications.
2. Individual Characteristics – are determined after the manufacture of FA.

Significant Features of Class Characteristics

1. Caliber or Bore Diameter – determined with a bullet, shell, or bore of the gun.
2. No. of Lands and Grooves – always the same in number.
3. Width of Lands and Grooves – how wide the lands and grooves. NOT always the same.
4. Twist of Rifling – either RIGHT or LEFT.
5. Pitch of Rifling – one complete turn of bullet inside the barrel.
6. Depth of Grooves – how deep the groove or the height of every land.

TWIST OF RIFLINGS OF HANDGUNS/SHORT ARMS

1. Steyr Type - - - 4 Rifling, RHT
2. Army type - - - 4 Rifling, RHT
3. Smith and Wesson Type - 5 Rifling, RHT
4. Colt type - - - 6 Rifling, LHT
5. Browning Type - - - 6 Rifling, RHT
6. Webley type - - - 7 Rifling, RHT

TWIST OF RIFLINGS OF RIFLES

1. Browning Machine Gun Cal .50 = 8R, RHT
2. Equibman Rifle Cal .22 = 6R, RHT
3. Marlin Rifle Cal .22 = 6R, RHT
4. Thompson Sub-Machine Gun = 6R, RHT
5. Remington Rifle Cal .30 = 6R, RHT
6. Armalite Cal .22 = 6R, RHT
7. Grease Gun Cal .45 = 4R, RHT
8. Browning Auto Rifle Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
9. Garand Rifle Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
10. Enfield Rifle Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
11. Springfield Rifle Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
12. Winchester Rifle Cal .22 = 4R, RHT
13. Japanese Rifle Cal .25 = 4R, RHT
14. Savage Rifle Cal .22 = 4R, RHT
15. Winchester Rifle Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
16. Mossberge Rifle Cal .22 = 4R, RHT
17. Browning Machine Gun Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
18. Remington Rifle Cal .30 = 2R, RHT

Causes of Individual Characteristics

1. Tools used in the manufacture of FAs are subject to wear and tear.
2. The action of weather and/or oxidation
3. Manner of storage
4. Manner and Frequency of Use
Types of Firearms According to Mechanical Construction

4 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
1. Single shot firearms – shoot only one shot
2. Repeating arms – loaded with more than one cartridge in the chamber.
3. Bolt action type – breech closure is in line with the bore at all times.
4. Lever action type – the breech mechanism is cycled by an external lever below the receiver
5. Slide/Pump Action - a movable forearms is actuated which is parallel to the barrel.
6. Semi-automatic type – requires a separate pull of trigger for each shot fired
7. Automatic action type – feeds cartridges, fires and ejects as long as trigger is depressed.
8. Machine gun type – (Heavy Machine Gun) used by military on combat. This is seldom encountered by firearms examiner. The largest gun ever
used in combat was Gustav Gun.
9. Sub-machine gun type (Light Machine Gun) - A light and portable machine gun
10. Shotguns Types
A. Single barreled shotgun - Loads, closes, fires and deloads single cartridge.
B. Double barreled shotgun - Side by side barrel or over and under.
C. Pump action type Shotgun/ Slide Action - The operated by means of sliding lever under the barrel.
D. Auto-loading shotguns - The same as auto loading rifles, the recoil action reloads the gun from the magazine.
E. Paradox gun (can be a rifle or shotgun) - A muzzle-rifled at the last 2-3 inches of the barrel, used to spin the paradox bullet. Invented by
Holland and Holland

Miscellaneous Guns
1. Gas guns – fire tear gas and other forms of disabling gases.
2. Traps – designed for wild animals. It could be with the use of bullet of poison charge.
3. Cane gun & Knife pistol - These are known as Freakish Devices
4. Tools – maybe used to drive stud, punch holes, and which are also capable of accidentally firing live ammunition.
5. Zip guns (US) Paltik (Phils) – homemade guns in various designs.
6. Multi-barreled guns Have 2 or more barrels in one firearm.
It could be:
1. over and under,
2. side to side,
3. triangular,
4. square,
5. circular.
7. Liberator - made by the US Govt. fires .45 cartridges
8. Flare guns - used in sending signals and used in seeing enemies in the dark
9. Harpoon Guns are used in hunting large fish.

Process of Making Gun Barrel

1. Drilling – making of hole of barrel with the use of barrel blank.
2. Reaming – with the drilled hole, it is being reamed from breech end to muzzle to remove imperfections, scratches and irregularities. This
operation undergoes 1) Roughing, 2) Finishing 3) Burnishing.
3. Broaching - the construction of rifling inside the barrel. Tools used are: 1) Cutter 2) Scraper 3) Broach 4) Button.
4. Lapping - smoothening/polishing of the inner surface of the barrel.

Corrosion – the mechanical wear and tear barrel due to rust caused by gunpowder residues during firing.
Erosion - the mechanical wear and tear of barrel due to abrasion/friction caused by INcorrect bullets.

FIREARM LAWS

Sec 1. PD 1866 as amended

PD 1866 - Firearm law of the Philippines

Low Powered FA – includes rim-fire handguns, cal .380 or cal .32 and other FA of similar firepower. Illegal possession/manufacture of such is
penalized by correctional in its maximum period and a fine of 15,000.

High Powered FA – includes those with bores of bigger in diameter than cal .38 and 9mm such as .40, .41, .44, .45.

BUT take note: Cal .357 > Cal .45 (has bigger bore)
M16 > Cal .38 (has bigger bore)

POWDER CHARGE is the one that is considered NOT the BORE

RA 8294 – amended PD 1886 (Approved June 6, 1997)

Complete Title: “Codifying the laws on illegal/unlawful possession, manufacture, dealing in, acquisition or disposition of firearms, ammunition or
explosives or instruments used in the manufacture of firearms, ammunition and explosives, and imposing stiffer penalties for certain violation
thereof”

4 years and 1 day to 6 years imprisonment

Unlawful manufacture, deal in, acquire, dispose or possess any Low Powered firearm such as Rimfire Handgun, Cal .38, Cal .32 and other firearm of
similar firepower provided no other crime was committed.

5 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
6 years and 1 day to 8 years imprisonment and a fine of Php30,000

Coverage of “Unlicensed firearm”

1. firearm which is unlicensed;
2. firearm with expired license; and
3. use of licensed firearm in the commission of crime.

RA 10591 – The NEWEST law on firearms in the Philippines. This is known as the “Comprehensive Firearm Law .“

Legal sources of firearms

 
1. Firearms may be procured/purchased from any of the following sources:
A. License Firearm from dealer, through purchase; or
B. Licensed Firearm from holder through transfer or sale.
General Policies on Possession of Firearms by Diplomats.

1. Sections 887 and 888, Revised Administrative Code and G. O. 7-B, SOP dated Jan 17, 1973.
2. Diplomats shall include ambassadors, consuls, ministers, attaches and secretaries of foreign mission in the Philippines including
representatives of the United Nations.
3. Under our present laws, the possession of firearms by foreigners shall be in accordance with pertinent rules and regulations promulgated by
competent authority.

Kinds of Firearms License

1. Regular license (RL) – is issued to private individuals for their personal firearm and to security agencies/company guard forces for firearms
to be used by their security guards;
2. Special permit (SP) – issued to government officials and employees for privately owned firearms;
3. Long regular license (LRL) – issued to private firms, establishment, or corporations for firearms to be used and being used by their
employees, excluding security guards;
4. Short regular License (SRL) – issued to private employee who was issued by his employer a firearm covered by LRL.
5. Long certificate of registration (LCR) – issued to government agencies or offices and government owned and controlled corporations for
firearms to be used by their officials and employees, excluding security guards; and
6. Short certificate of registration (SCR) – issued to government official or employee who was issued by his employer a firearm covered by
LCR.
• Note: Firearm Licenses are valid for 2 years.
• Notify the PNPFED of any change on names, addresses.
• Make sure that you have the necessary transport permit for your firearm if you are moving domicile.

Carry and transport of firearms

1. Transport permit (TP) – a written authority granted to licensees or their authorized representatives to move firearms from sources to
residence, firing ranges and other authorized destinations.
2. Transport permits for gun club members – a written authority issued by PNPFED to accredited gun club members for the purpose of
transporting unloaded firearms and ammunition from residence to firing ranges and vice-versa. A maximum duration of 90 days is granted
to gun club members.
3. License to possess firearm and ammunition – a written authority for a person to possess in his residence a licensed firearm and an
authorized quantity of ammunition.
 4. Permit to carry firearm outside residence (PTCFOR) – a written authority issued to any person by the PNP Chief for the duration and purpose
specified therein. Residence - where the firearm and ammunition are being permanently kept. It includes - office or house and premises of the house
enclosed by walls and gate separating said premises from adjacent properties. Any vehicle is not an extension of a residence.
 5. Hunting permit (HP) – issued for lawful hunting
6. Duty detail order (DDO) – serves as FA license for Security Guards.
 
7. Acknowledgement Receipt (Are) – is a document that proves receipt of issued FA to PNP Personnel. This shall serve as FA License to members
of PNP.

8. Mission order (MO) - issued to PNP personnel when intending to carry FA outside residence. This shall serve as “PTC.”

Manner of carrying firearms

1. The sidearm carried by a person in uniform shall be placed in a holster securely attached to the belt, EXCEPT Military Pilots in flying
uniform and the Crew of an armored vehicle who may carry their firearm in shoulder holster.
2. The personnel in uniform but without holster and those in civilian clothes who are authorized to carry firearm outside residence shall
ensure that their firearm is concealed unless in actual use for a legitimate purpose.
3. The practice of flagrantly displaying a firearm of tucking it at the waist while in uniform or civilian clothes is prohibited.
4. Only the firearm specifically described in the permit shall be carried by the person named therein.

Key terms and Personalities on Cartridge

6 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
Ammunition – is a loaded shell for any firearm such as revolver, pistol and rifles. Cartridge – a complete unfired ammo consisting of bullet, shell,
gunpowder and primer.
King Gustavus Adolphus (Sweden) – invented the 1st cartridge in 1635.
Houller – a French who invented another cartridge in 1846.
Lefaucheux – another French, invented the 1st pin fire cartridge, and 1st pin fire gun.
Flobert (Paris, France) – developed one of the earliest cartridges known as Flobert Cartridges, this became the forerunner of American Rim Fire
Ammo.

Type of Cartridge: Location of Primer

1. Pin-Fire Cartridge (Obsolete) – external pin is used near the head of the cartridge.
2. Rim-Fire Cartridge – priming mixture is place around the rim.
3. Center-Fire Cartridge – priming mixture is placed in the center of the head of cartridge.
4. Percussion – needs mechanical blow against the percussion cap.
Level of Propellant Charges
1. Low powder – cartridge is giving a muzzle velocity of less than 1850 ft/sec.
2. High powder – 1925 to 2500 ft/sec.
3. High Intensity – Over 2500 ft/sec.

Head Stamps of Ammunition

NORMA = Sweden GB = England

FIOCCHI = Italy HL = Denmark
DA / DAQ / RRCB = Canada HB = France
CF = France KC = Austria
CBC = Brazil LM = Massachusetts(Lower Ordnance Plant)
CP = England N° = Norway
DEN = Denver, Colorado PMH = Cuba
DM /GECO/RMS= Germany RA = Norway
ENK = Greece
RHA = Vermont

Parts of Shotgun Ammunition

1. Shot Cup (Stirrup) – a plastic cap that holds the shots.
2. Tube (Shell/ Case/ Hull) – comparable to shell/casing of ammunition of long/short arms. Prior to 1960, paper is used as casing for shotgun
ammo.
3. Crimp – being bent inward to hold the shot in place.
4. Gunpowder – the thing that is being ignited that causes the tremendous pushing of bullet.
5. Primer – collective term for chemical priming compound, primer cup, anvil, and battery cup that is being struck to ignite the powder.

6. Wad - a disk made of paper, used to hold the powder or shot.

Kinds of Wad:
1. Over powder wad
2. Under/Filler pwder wad
3. Base wad
7. Lead shot - small steel or lead pellets of different sizes.

Kinds of Lead Shot: (Provide illustrations below):

1. Drop or soft shot – pure lead
2. Chilled or hard shot – hardened by antimony
3. Plated shot – coated with cupronicke or 70% copper and 30% nickle or steel shot.

Kinds of Shots/ Pellets

1. Buckshot – consists of lead balls
2. Slug – single slug with angled grooves cut into its side to spin it. This refers to Sabot slug.
3. Tungsten-iron Shot – formed from powdered tungsten and iron, blended together and pressed into a pellet.
4. Flechette shot – a cluster of sturdy steel needles with tiny fins at their base to stabilize them in flight.

Shelf Life of Cartridge

More than 20 years – if components or parts used are commercially virgins. If proper storage is done, an ammunition may reach up to 40 years.

Igloo – the process of military storage of ammunition or arms. Done by making a concrete bunker with walls about a foot thick and then covered.
Ammo may reach 40 years with no degradation.

Marking Ammunition as Evidence

• Marking Ammunitions
• Cylinder Direction must be Noted

Cartridge Case – refers to the tubular casing or shell of an ammunition that holds the bullet and contains the gunpowder.
7 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
Functions of Shell
1. Houses the bullet, gunpowder and primer.
2. Serves as waterproof container of gunpowder.
3. Prevents escape of gases despite of pressure

Parts of Cartridge Case

1. Mouth – the edge of shell’s opening.
2. Crimp – part of mouth that is turned in upon the bullet.
3. Shell Cannelures - are the serrated groves around the neck
4. Neck - occupied by the bullet.
5. Shoulder - supports the neck.
6. Body – contains gunpowder
7. Extracting groove - the circular groove near the base of the shell designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case after firing.
8. Rim - limits the forward travel of cartridges into the chamber.
9. Primer – located at central base that contains the priming mixture.
10. Shell Head – the base portion that contains the head stamp

Types of Crimp (Provide illustrations below)

Crimp – is used secure the bullet in the shell to avoid being moved or loosened from its gripped.

1. Stab or Ring Crimp – used only on jacketed ammo that consists of dimples or grooves pressed into the mouth.
2. Taper Crimp – used in the cartridge with headspace on the cartridge case mouth with lead bullets.
3. Roll Crimp – located at the neck that is rolled into the groove of the bullet.
Kinds of Shell According to Rim (Illustrate below)
1. Rimmed – rim diameter is greater than the body (Cal .38 and Cal .22)
2. Semi-rimmed – rim diameter is SLIGHTLY greater than the body (Cal .25, Cal .32 auto, Cal .38 Super)
3. Rimless – rim is equal with the body (Cal 5.56mm, Cal .30, 9mm, Cal .45)
4. Rebated – rim is smaller than the body (Cal 8mm x 59)
5. Belted – a protruding metal is belted around the shell (Cal .338 magnum, 13.9 x 99)
Types of Shell According to Type of Firearms
1. Revolver Shell
2. Pistol Shell
3. Rifle Shell
4. Shotgun Shell

Marks on Shell
1. Firing Pin Marks – found on the primer (particularly on the primer cup). Note: Glock Pistols have rectangular firing pin marks.
2. Breechface Marks – found on the base of shell. Caused by the breechface.
3. Extractor Marks – found on the extracting groove.
4. Ejector Marks – located at the rim at the base of shell fired from automatic FAs.
5. Shearing Marks (Secondary Firing Pin Marks) – found on the primer near the firing pin mark. It is just a rebound or duplication of firing pin
mark.
6. Magazine Marks – found on the body of shell. Caused by the magazine lips during loading.
7. Chamber Marks – found on the body of the shell. Caused by the irregularities inside the chamber.
8. Pivotal Marks – found on the base of rimmed type shell. Caused by Break Type Revolver during loading.
9. Ejector Port Marks – found on the side of the rim. Caused by the contact between the shell and ejection port of the FA (Pistol).

Bullet – part of cartridge consisting of lead or jacketed projectile projected from FA. Bullets in the crime scene are also called Slugs.

The word bullet came from the French word “boulette” which means “small ball.”
Shot/ Pellets/ Balls – are spherical projectiles used in smoothbore FAs.

Note: The general term for bullets, shots/pellets/ balls is Projectile.

Origin of the term “Bullet”

French word “boulette” – means a Small ball.

In police parlance, bullet is called Slug.
In gov’t parlance, a cartridge containing bullet is called Ball Cartridge.
In small arms ammunition, bullet refers to the projectile which is Cylindrical or Cylo-conoidal.

Classification of Bullet According to Mechanical Construction:

1. Lead Bullets – made of lead or alloy of metals, tin and antimony.
2. Jacketed Bullets – made of lead core covered with jacket of harder material, such as gilding metal, copper alloy approximately 90% and
zinc 10%.
Purpose of Jacket of Bullet:
1. To prevent adherence of lead or metal inside the gun barrel
2. To have better penetration of the bullet to the target.

8 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
Principal Types of Bullet
1. Ball Bullets – have soft lead core inside a jacket.
2. Armor Piercing Bullets – contains tungsten chrome steel and are fired at vehicles and other armored targets.
3. Tracer Bullets – contains compound at the base, usually similar to barium nitrates which set fire when bullet is projected.
4. Incendiary Bullets – contains phosphorous or other materials that can set fire. These are used for targets such as aircrafts and/or gasoline
depot.
5. Explosive (Fragmentary Bullets) – contain a high charge of explosive usually limited to 20mm and above.

Parts of Bullet
1. Base – receives the thrust and heat from the burning gunpowder. Sometimes Gas Check is placed to prevent melting of bullet.
2. Bearing Surface – body of the bullet that contacts the lands and grooves in the barrel. This should fit the bore.
3. Bullet Cannelure – serrated groove or depression around the body of bullet, usually used in bottle neck shell.
4. Core – a mass of lead in a bullet covered with jacket. This sometimes, contains other metals for other purposes.
5. Head height – length in the portion of the bullet from the shoulder to the tip.
6. Heel – the edge of the base
7. Jacket – covers the entire lead core, usually copper, brass, steel and aluminum.
8. Meplat diameter– the diameter of the nose/ogive.
9. Ogive/ Nose – the tapered or curved part of the bullet towards the tip of a bullet.
10. Point – the forward portion or tip of bullet.
11. Shoulder – the end portion of the body of bullet. Bullets Designed for Handgun

Other Kinds of Bullet

1. Jacketed Hallow Point – has an exposed lead and has cavity at the tip.
2. Semi-jacketed Hallow Point – with more exposed lead at the tip that expand more than a hallow point bullet.
3. Full Metal Cone (Truncated Cone) – the lead core is enclosed by a light copper jacket, with cone shape and flat point.
4. Lead Round Nose – a solid lead bullet with rounded ogive for downrange accuracy, hard hitting, economical, generally designed bullet for
revolvers.
5. Lead Full-Wadcutter – a solid lead bullet, cuts clean in paper targets for precise scoring.
5. Lead Semi-wadcutter – solid lead bullet with semi pointed nose, with sharp shoulder for clean hole punching in paper target.
Bullets Designed for Rifles
1. Full Metal Jacket – lead core is covered with jacket except the base, results to little expansion but with deep penetration.
2. Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail – the lead core is enclosed by heavy copper jacket results to little or no expansion BUT deep penetration.
3. Hallow Point Boat Tail – extremely accurate designed aerodynamically.
4. Soft Point - exposed lead on the tip of the bullet with broader point diameter. The bullet may expand and may result to more or less 200% of
the original bullet diameter.

Other Types of Bullet

1. Hardball Bullet - having a copper sheath with full metal jacket.

2. Depleted Uranium Bullet – designed for armored penetration at a greater distance.
3. Silver Tip Bullet - the lead core is jacketed by copper-alloy or aluminum. The jacket is designed to be disintegrated into small pieces to cause
hemorrhage.
4. Fragmentation Bullet - upon reaching target, splits into fragments when hitting soft tissue creating bigger wound. It may have stress lines
around the bullet.
5. Spitzer Bullets – have sharp pointed nose, more effective than the round ball of the same weight. These have more velocity. It may travel
sideways inside the target upon hitting bones/hard object. Spitz means pointed.
6. Dumdum Bullets – include all soft point bullets, split nose bullets, hallow point bullets and jacketed bullets with exposed lead core. These bullets
are designed for expansion.
7. Mushroom Bullet (Soft Point Bullet) – designed to expand upon striking the target, thus leaving a smaller entry but larger/bigger exit.
8. Hallow Point Bullet (Express Bullet)– has open ogive/nose designed to increase the expansion upon hitting the target.
9. Steel Jacketed Bullet – is plated with gilding metal to prevent rusting and to reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
10. X-Bullet – a solid copper with no lead core, no jacket and is heat treated for extra toughness. Upon hitting hard target, nose peels to four razor-
edge petals. Designed by Barne in 1989 and owned by Randy Brooks.
11. Glaser Safety Slug – uses a special jacket and compressed shot core with plastic tip. It has a high performance ammunition that gives superior
penetration to solid targets.

MARKS FOUND ON BULLET

1. Rifling Marks – caused by the land and grooves
2. Skid Marks – caused by the initial forward movement of bullet before the rifling get the bullet.
3. Slippage Marks – caused by worn-out, oversized and oily barrel.
4. Shaving/Stripping Marks (Tapyas sa bala) – found on the nose or ogive of a bullet, done when the bullet and the barrel are not aligned.
5. Miscellaneous Marks – caused by various parts or external objects other than the firing pin, rifling & magazine.

3 Points of Positive Identification

1. Prominent (kitang kita)
2. Significant (ang marka ay mahalaga)
3. Consistent (tuloy tuloy, parehas)

9 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
Bullets are Classified by any of the Following:
1. Diameter
2. Weight
3. Length
4. Shape
5. Type of construction
6. Material content
7. Method of manufacture

Test Bullets

3 Test Bullets – to be used for conclusiveness of findings:

1st Bullet – for comparison or preliminary examination;
2nd Bullet – for confirmation
3rd Bullet – for conclusion

What is Primer
1. It is a small container or wafer of explosive material used to ignite the gunpowder.
2. The upper portion of the primer cup which is the complete assembly of priming composition, paper disk, anvil and vent.
3. Contains a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound which when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such reaction is
called percussion.

Two Sizes and Types of Primers

1. Large Rifle .210 inches
2. Small Rifle .175 inches
3. Large Pistol .210 inches
4. Small Pistol .175 inches

Composition of Priming Mixture

1. Potassium Chlorate – 45 %
2. Antimony Sulfite – 23%
3. Fulminate Mercury – 32%

Origin of Primer

Alexander John Forsyth – the first to conceive an idea of using a detonating compound for igniting powder charge in small arms by percussion, and
obtained a patent for this idea. He was then considered as the Father of Percussion.

Types of Primer
1. Boxer Primer – has ONE vent/flash hole invented by Colonel Edward M. Boxer, a British Army.
2. Berdan Primer – has TWO vents/ flash holes, invented by Colonel Hiram Berdan, a US Army.
3. Berdan-Boxer Primer – has THREE vents/flash holes.
4. Battery Cup type – used for shotgun shells, a variation of Berdan.
Two Classes of Priming Compound
1. Corrosive – early primers
2. Non-corrosive – mostly used at present

Parts of Primer
1. Anvil – where the priming mixture is crushed by blow from the firing pin.
2. Priming Mixture – is a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound contained in the primer cup.
3. Disc – piece of small paper or disk of tin foil that contains the priming mixture that is being pressed over the anvil. It has 2 purposes: 1) To
hold priming mixture in place and 2) To exclude moisture.
4. Primer Cup – container of the anvil, disc and priming mixture. This is made of brass, gilding metal or copper.

Major Components Inside the Primer

1. Initiator (Lead Styphnate) – set off with a sharp blow, as when the firing pin strikes the primer cup.
2. Oxidizer (Barium Nitrate) – gives up its oxygen readily. The oxygen is needed to burn the fuel.
3. Fuel (Antimony Sulfide) – burns the gunpowder in very high rate that results to the propulsion of bullet.

Priming Methods

Igniting the Propellant – in order to fire before, the gunpowder must have to be ignited.
Cannons were the earliest firearms which use closed tubes, that needs manual ignition of its gunpowder. Touchhole - a small aperture
drilled in the closed end of the tube, leading to the main powder charge. This hole was filled with finely ground powder, which was then ignited with a
hot ember or torch.

Internal Priming
1. Rimfire – around the rim
2. Pinfire – external pin is used in igniting the priming mixture
3. Peripheral primer – combination of rim and pinfire, uses a pin that strikes a ring of a priming compound.

10 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
 4. Centerfire – primer is located at the center.
5. Teat-fire – no rim. rounded at the rear, with a small "teat" that would protrude through a tiny opening in the rear of the cylinder.

6. Electric-primed - Used by larger military gun and cannon rounds (such as the M50 20mm) utilize an internal electric primer that is activated
by an externally-provided electric charge.

Gunpowder (powder charge, propellant, saltpeter, cordite, etc)

The powder that is used in ammunition in the propulsion of projectile.

Gunpowder in the 19th Century was known as Black Powder - The first known chemical explosives until 1800s.

Considered the oldest propellant.

It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate (saltpeter) - with the sulfur and charcoal acting as fuels, while the saltpeter works as an
oxidizer.

Personalities in Gunpowder

Wu Ching Tsun – the unrecognized inventor of gunpowder.

Roger Bacon (1248) - an English monk and scientist, credited with the invention of gunpowder (blackpowder).

Constantine Anklitzen (a.k.a. Berthold Schwartz) (1300) - A German monk was credited for the application of gunpowder for propelling missile.

Paul Vielle (1886) – invented smokeless gunpowder with nitrocellulose, a single-base propellant which was called Poudre B (composition of ether
and alcohol).

Alfred E. Nobel – developed smokeless gunpowder and he called it Ballistite, a double-base propellant.

Frederick Abel & James Dewar (1890) – obtained a patent of modifying smokeless gunpowder, they called it Cordite.

Types of Gunpowder

1. Black Powder – consists of jet black and shiny grains.

2. Smokeless Powder – produces small amount of smoke.

Note: Guncotton – is the principal ingredient of smokeless powder, invented in 1846.

General Power of Gunpowder

1. Long Arms – have SLOW burning gunpowder
2. Short Arms – have FAST burning gunpowder.

Residue from Discharge of FA

1911 – The 1st examination and detection of GSR was done.

1914 – Dr. Iturriuz was the 1st to use Paraffin Wax to collect GSR, from then, it was popularly called today as Paraffin test.

1931 – Theodoro Gonzales performed a modified version of the Iturriuz Test using molten paraffin wax on the hands of firer. In 1933, he made a
demonstrated the use of paraffin cast in Criminal Identification Laboratory of Mexico, USA which was called Dermal Nitrates Test, Diphenylamine
Test and Gonzales Test.

Trace Evidence

Locard’s Principle - as stated by Edmond Locard, when two objects come into contact, exchange of materials take place.

Common Areas of Trace Evidence

1. Hands – most common
2. Face
3. Clothing
4. Objects Near the Place of incident

Types of Collection:
1. Cotton Swabs – with the use of cotton with 5% Nitric Acid Solution, particles maybe collected.
2. Adhesive Stubs – used for Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis.

Evaluation of Crime Scene (Relative to GSR)

1. Time Factor is the most important consideration in dealing with GSR evidence.
11 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
 2. The standard Time Frame is 3-6 hours from the time of shooting BUT in some cases it may persist much longer.
3. Careful preservation of clothing should be made.
4. The Traditional belief to remove GSR on hands is by application of Vinegar.

Shapes of Trace Evidence

1. They are generally spherical.
2. Particles show overall cracking characteristics.
3. Edges are straight or jagged to partially round.

Methods of Examination of GSR

1. NAA = Neutron Activation Analysis -
2. ICP-MSP = Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy Plasma – the most efficient method employed in the analysis of GSR,
computerized.
3. GFAAS = Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy – used in the analysis of inorganic materials in primer residue such as Ba
and Sb.

Tests for Gunshot Residue

1. Diphenylamine Test – detects the presence of nitrates and nitrites.
2. Sodium Rhodizonate Test – detects presence of Lead Styhpnate (pb).
3. Walker Test – detects presence of nitrates in unburned or partially burned gunpowder, this is also used by the investigator to detect the
Range.
4. Greiss test – detects Nitrites
5. Marshall and Tiwari test – both detect nitrites, same with Greiss test.
6. Lunge reagent – the chemical used to indicate the presence of nitrocellulose.

Explosive

Law on Explosives

RA 8294, Sec 3 – Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Explosives.

Penalty is Prision Mayor (Maximum) to Reclusion Temporal and a fine of 50,000.

Main Types of Explosives

1. Low Explosives – are normally employed as propellants for guns. Undergo deflagration from a few centimeters per second to approx
400M per second.
2. High Explosives – also known as double-base powder. Undergo detonation from 914 to 9140 meters per second.

Classifications of Explosive According to Sensitivity

1. Primary Explosive – extremely sensitive to chemical shock, friction and heat such as Fulminate Mercury, Lead Styphnate & Lead Azide.
2. Secondary Explosive – insensitive to shock, friction and heat because there is a need to expose them to heat or flame to boost their power,
like Dynamite (developed by Alfred Nobel), TNT, RDX, PETN and HMX.
3. Tertiary Explosives – are also called blasting agents, such as Ammonium Nitrate/Fuel Oil Mixture.

Personalities in Firearms

1. Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion ignition

2. Alfred Bemhard Nobel - was to take that discovery on to great heights in the form of commercial explosives including dynamite.
3. Ascanio Sobrero (October 12, 1812 – May 26, 1888) - was an Italian chemist, born in Casale Monferrato. He was studying under Théophile-
Jules Pelouze, who studied nitroglycerin at the University of Turin, who had worked with the explosive material guncotton.
4. Benjamin Robins - one of the first to state sound ballistics theories, in his New Principles of Gunnery in 1742.
5. Berthold Schwartz (1300) - A German monk was credited for the application of gunpowder for propelling missile. In 1346 Cannon was used by
King Edward III of England. In 1453, Mohammed of Turkey used Cannon in conquering Constantinopole.
6. Carl Walter – developed a reliable small caliber automatic pistol in 1866.
7. Casimir Zeglen - of Chicago Illinois is credited with producing the first commercial bullet proof vest available to the public starting in the late
1800s. The first bullet proof vest was designed in 1538 when Francesco Maria della Rovere asked Fillippo Negroli to create one. Maximillian II,
a Roman Emperor was the first to test it out.
8. Charles Dorcester and George Sullivan – formed and developed the ArmaLite, Incorporated in 1950.
9. Christian Friedrich Schönbein (18 October 1799 – 29 August 1868) - was a German-Swiss chemist who is best known for inventing the fuel cell
(1838) and his discoveries of guncotton and ozone.
10. Christopher Spencer – Patented the first pump-action shotgun in 1882. In 1900, the first auto-loading shotgun was created by John Browning.
In 1988, O.F. Mossberg and Sons developed the first shotgun chambered to fire 3.5-inch 12-gauge cartridges, which held more and larger steel
pellets.
11. Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of Modern Ballistics
12. David “Carbine” Williams – maker of Carbine Rifle.
13. Eliphalet Remington - one of the first rifle makers
14. Elisha King Root - designed a machinery of making Colt firearms
15. Eugene Stoner – developed AR15/ M16 Rifle.
16. Fedor Vasilievich Tokarev – designer of the Service Pistols of Soviet Forces. Received an award – Hero of Socilaist Labor. Born in 1871 at
Egorlikskaya, Russia.
17. George Luger – designed 9mm Parabellum Cartridges. Born in Austria in 1849.

12 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
18. Heckler and Koch – is a manufacturer of firearms which was managed by Edmond Heckler together with Mauser, Theodore Koch and Alex
Seidel.
19. Henri Braconnot - discovered in 1832 that nitric acid, when combined with starch or wood fibers, would produce a lightweight combustible
explosive material, which he named xyloïdine.
20. Henry Derringer – manufacturer of pocket pistols. Born in 19th Century.
21. Hiram Stevens Maxim (February 5, 1840 – November 24, 1916) - was an American-born inventor who emigrated to the United Kingdom at the
age of forty-one, although he remained an American citizen until he became a naturalized British subject in 1900. He was the inventor of the
Maxim Machine Gun – the first portable, fully automatic machine gun. He patented the first commercially produced Supressor.
22. Horace Smith - Smith & Wesson and breech-loading rifles
23. Horace Smith and Daniel B. Wesson – partners in 1882 and produced the Best Double action weapon in the World. Daniel Wesson left the
company to start his Firearm Company.
24. Jack Weaver – He developed the Weaver stance is a shooting technique for handguns that was used in free style competition in Southern
California during the late 1950s.
25. James Puckle – From London, England. He invented Puckle gun, a tripod mounted, single barreled flintlock gun lifted with a multishot revolving
cylinder.
26. James Wolfe Ripley – maker of Model 1855 rifled-musket and Ripley Rifles.
27. Jeff Cooper - served as the first International Practical Shooting Confederation (IPSC) President. The IPSC is the counterpart of the Philippine
Practical Shooting Association (PPSA) in the Philippines.
28. Johann Ulrich Hammerli – invented Hammerli Weapons in Switzerland.
29. John Cantius Garand – invented the Grand Rifle in 1931, the first self-reloading rifle in the World. Born in 1888 in Quebec, Canada.
30. John Mahlon Marlin – a German Armorer and Gunsmith and inventor-manufacturer of Lever Action Rifles in 1800 at New Haven, Connecticut,
USA.
31. John Moises Browning – produced single shot rifles which were adopted by Winchester. Born in 1855.
32. John Thompson – invented the Thompson Machine Gun in 1920. Born in 1860 at Newport, Kentucky, USA.
33. Kijiro Nambu – an Army Officer and Gun designer. His first design was produced by Kayoba Factory in 1904.
34. Lance de Mole – an Australian Engineer who invented the Military Tank in 1912.
35. Melvin M. Johnson – Invented the Johnson Model 1941 Rifle, one of the most innovative rifles of its time period.
36. Michael Kalashnikov – a Russian gun designer, started as engineer in a train depot, later employed in the Red Army and developed tanks and
rifles.
37. Oliver F. Winchester – initiated the building of Winchester Company.
38. Oscar Mossberge – maker of high quality Cal. 22, sporting rifles and Pump action shotguns. Born in 1866 at Sweden, Europe.
39. Patrick Ferguson – an officer of the British Army who made demonstration before the King of Great Britain.
40. Paul and Wilhelm Mauser – invented Mauser pistols and rifles. They also produced the First metal cartridge weapon of the German Empire.
41. RJ Gatling – Hand-wranked and Duver Gatling type of machine gun. Born in 1818 at North Carolina, USA.
42. Roger Bacon (1248) - an English monk and scientist, credited with the invention of gunpowder (blackpowder). Official name is Constantine
Anklitzen.
43. Samuel Colt – revolvers and later on pistols. Born July 1814.
44. Schweizerische Industria Gesselschaft (SIG) – the standard service weapon of the Swiss Gov’t.
45. Sergei Mossin – an officer of the Russian Army who designed the Russian Service Rifle in 1891.
46. Sydney Smith - Founder of the Medico – Legal faculty at Cairo University and later Regis Professor of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one
of the leading exponents, studying entrance and exit wounds.
47. Theopile-Jules Pelouze - he worked with the explosive material guncotton and other nitrosulphates. He was a major inspiration for Alfred Nobel
and Ascanio Sobrero.
48. Uziel Gal – inventor of Uzi machine Gun in 1950s which were first used by the Israeli Army.
49. Capt. John Norton - A British Army designed the conical bullets in 1823. William Greener, a renowned English gunsmith, invented the Greener
bullet in 1836.

Firearms Companies/manufacturers

1. Arms Corporation of the Philippines (ARMSCOR)

2. Armalite, Inc.
3. Centro dos Estudios Technicos de Materiales Especiales (CETME )
4. Colt's Manufacturing Company (CMC)
5. Smith & Wesson (S&W)
6. Winchester Repeating Arms Company

CRIME LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

1. Bullet Comparison Microscope

This used to determine the similarities and dissimilarities of evidence and test evidence.

Col. Calvin H. Goddard, MD – 1st to own Bullet Comparison Microscope in 1925. He is also the Father of Modern Ballistics.

Two Positions in Comparing Evidence & Test Bullet

1. Intermarriage – half of evidence & test bullet is projected:

a. At the same time – Clock positions
b. At the same direction – Left or right
c. At the same magnification – the same size when viewed (small vs small; bigger vs bigger)
d. At the same image – landmarks vs. landmarks
e. At the same level or plane – refers to height or elevation of stage plate.

13 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
 2. Juxtaposition – the critical side by side examination of evidence and test bullet/shell. Juxtapose means putting two things together to
emphasize their contrast between them.

2. Stereoscopic Microscope
Used in preliminary examinations of fired bullets, shells.
Used also in close-up examination of tampered serial nos. of FAs.
Here the location of extractor marks and ejector marks.
a. Cherubin d’Oreans (1671) – invented the first Stereoscopic-Style Microscope with two eyepieces in 1671.
b. Honorato S. Greenough (1890) – introduced a “novel” design that led him to become the Forefather of of Modern Stereoscope.
c. Francis Herbert Wenham (19th) of London – designed the first successful stereomicroscope. This was introduced in US and was
named Cycloptic in 1957.

3. Comparison Projector 6 (CP-6)

Similar with the Comparison Microscope. BUT this equipment is capable of comparing two fired bullets and shells with a large screen.
William Howard Livens, engineer and British Army, was the inventor.

4. Bullet Recovery Box

Used in test firing to acquire test shells and bullets for comparison. The same caliber or brand of ammunition should be used and
manufactured in the same year.

Original Design (Square)

1. Length = 8ft or 96 in
2. 1ft or 12 x12 in on each side
3. ¼ inc thick = side
4. 1/8 in thick = tip

Modern Design (Tube)

A. Length = 92 inches
B. Diameter of body = 18 inches
C. Thickness of iron used = 1/8 inch
D. Frontal ring = 20 inches

5. Measuring Projector 6 (MP-6)

Used in determining the width of lands, width of grooves, diameter and twist of fired bullet.

6. Caliper
Generally, used to know the caliber of FA, bullet and shell.

Caliper is used to determine the:

1. Bullet diameter
2. Rim diameter
3. Shell mouth diameter
4. Bore diameter
5. Shell length
6. Barrel length

Aside from use of determining the Caliber of FA, bullet, shell and ammo.

7. Micrometer (C-clamp like) – similar in use with Caliper. The word Micrometer was derived from Greek words Micros (small) and Metron (to
measure). This instrument then is used to measure small things and small distances. This is an enhancement of the Vernier Caliper. William
Gascoine (17th) – first ever inventor.

Jean Laurent Palmer (1848-France) – inventor of Palmer, which is used in measuring handheld objects. It was introduced in Spain and was called
Tornillo de Palmer.

8. Analytical or Torsion Balance

Determines the weight of fired bullet, shots/pellets to know its caliber, type and make of FA used.
Measurements are expressed in Grains or Grams.
Note: If bullet is shaved, it must be noted for its weight will differ from the standard.
9. Taper Gauge
used to determine the bore diameter of FA or Caliber.
Comparison:
Ring measurer, used in determining the right measurement for wedding, graduation and personalized rings.
10. Onoscope
This is a small instrument used in the examination of the interior surface of barrel.
It has tiny lamp at its end and is being inserted in the barrel to detect irregularities and imperfections, roughness and scratches.
11. Helixometer

This measures Pitch of Rifling, which refers to a complete turn (360°) of a bullet inside the barrel. It also measures the angle of twist of
rifling, either pistol or revolver barrel.
14 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515
 Procedure: This instrument is used by inserting the telescope and aligning it with the axis of the bore.
12.Chronograph
This measures the speed the bullet or muzzle velocity of the bullet. Alfred Lee Loomis (1918) – inventor. Prior to Chronograph, Boulenge
Chronograph was actually invented but was not much reliable/accurate.
13. Electric Gun Marker – used in marking fired bullets, shells and FAs submitted for examination.
This is being plug to a female outlet.
Used only when there is power supply.
14. Shadowgraph – used in orientation/preliminary examination of fired bullets and shells with the use of series of microscopic lenses of different
magnifications. This instrument contains a large circular ground glass that is about 14 in where the observation and comparison of the characteristics
is done. This can also take photomicrographs.
15. Stylus – a pointed instrument used to mark:
14. Integrated Ballistics Identification System
15. Trigger pull gauge – a mechanical trigger pull trigger tester
16. Tweezers – used to handle bullets
17. Borescope – an optical device consisting of a rigid flexible tube with an eyepiece on one end, an objective lens on the other linked together by a
relay optical system in between.
18. Wind funnel – used to calculate the drag coefficient of the bullet. This is capable of determining the supersonic speed of bullet.
19. Stroboscope – used to photograph projectile in flight. This enables to determine the speed, position of bullet and shock waves the projectile
produces. Invented by an American Engineer Horod Eugene Edgerton
20. Electric Gun Marker – used primarily in the laboratory in marking metal evidence.
21. Gun drills/ Deep hole drills – used to drill deep accurate holes.

REPORT WRITING & COURT PRESENTATION

Principle of report writing:

• “If the LAW has made you a WITNESS, remain a man of SCIENCE .
You have no VICTIM to AVENGE, No GUILTY or INNOCENT person to RUIN or SAVE.
You must bear WITNESS, within the limits of SCIENCE.”

What is Ballistics Report?

Ballistics Report is the result of the critical study of the specimens submitted, conducted by the Firearm Examiner, usually with the use of Bullet
Comparison Microscope.

Cardinal Principles in Report Writing:

1. Accuracy – Are the words used easily understood?
2. Brevity – Is the report concise/short but complete?
3. Fairness/Impartiality – Are the conclusions based on the findings?
4. Fore/Form and Style – Does the report follow the standard format?

Parts of Ballistics Report

1. Heading
2. Ballistics Report No. (FAID-100-12)
3. Time and Date Received
4. Time and Date Completed
5. Specimens Submitted
6. Findings
7. Conclusion

Take Note of the Following:

1. No request/transmittal letter, No Examination.
2. The Laboratory receives and examines the specimens.
3. ACE-V Method is applied.
4. Original coy of report shall be retained in the office that conducted the examination.
5. At the Regional or Provincial CLO, the Senior Firearm Examiner shall review the report and Chief shall approve the report.
6. At NHQ, CLO, ballistics report should be noted by the Chief of the Unit, and Approved by the Director of NHQ,CLO.

15 Comprehensive handout on Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Jezreel Vicente @ University of Baguio (Mobile no. 0917-8799-515