Mesopotamian Civilization Unit 1

UNIT 1 : MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION

UNIT STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 The Sumerian Civilization– Origin
 Sumerian Cities and Cultural Life
 Sumerian Writing
1.4 The Old Babylonian Period
 Babylonian Law- Code of Hammurabi
 Babylonian Literature
1.5 Assyria
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Further Reading
1.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.9 Model Questions

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

 explain the origin of the Sumerian civilization
 explain the socio-political life that prevailed in ancient Mesopotamia
 describe the society, culture, religion and literature that developed
in ancient Mesopotamia

1.2 INTRODUCTION

This is the first Unit of the Paper “History of Ancient Civilizations”.

In this Unit we will be discussing about the Mesopotamian Civilization.
Home to the earliest civilization, the Mesopotamian civilization
has been the land where the first cities of the world were developed and
early empires flourished. The people of Mesopotamia were among the
first to record events on clay tablets. During the Hellenistic period, the
Seleucids used the term Mesopotamia to indicate a wide geographical
area.
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1.3 THE SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION-ORIGIN

Being a riverine civilization, the area between the Euphrates and

Tigris rivers forms the cradle of this civilization. Geographically, the valley
was situated in between Syrian and Arabian Desert on one side and the
other boundary was formed by the Zagros Mountains. The Valley was
productive as the soil was alluvial and fertile. Due to its productivity and
fertility, it was known as “Garden of Eden” or “The Fertile Crescent”.
Unlike the early Egyptian civilization, which remained isolated for
a long time, the history of Mesopotamia is a story of struggle from its
earliest history. The river, Tigris Euphrates witnessed the influx of various
nomadic tribes. The Zagros mountains were home to tough raids by
these tribes and hence there were constant invasions. The civilization is
known to have witnessed the rise of ancient states and cities like Uruk,
Nippur, Nineveh and such others with complex social structures.
The Mesopotamian civilization consisted of three main civilizations-
the Sumerian civilization, the Babylonian civilization and Assyrian
civilization. A few important historical rulers of Mesopotamia were as
follows- Ur-Nammu (the king of Ur), Sargon (founder of Akkadian kingdom),
Hammurabi (founder of the Old Babylonian state), Tiglath-Pileser I (founder
of the Assyrian Empire) and Tigranes the Great, who established the
Armenian Empire.
It is believed that the ancient Mesopotamian civilization developed
in about 4th millennium B.C. till the rise of the Achaemenids in the 6th
century BC. The period can be divided into the following-
 Hassuna, Samarra and Halaf cultures (Late Neoloithic period)
 Ubaid Period (ca 5900-4000BC)
 Uruk Period (4000-3100 BC)
 Jemdet Nasr Period (3100-2900 BC)
 Early Dynastic city states (2900-2350 BC)
 Akkadian Empire (ca 2350-2193 BC)
 Neo-Sumerian Period (ca 2119-2204 BC)
 Early Assyrian kingdom (20th to 18th century)

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 First Babylonian dynasty (18th to 17th century)

 Kassite Dynasty, Middle Assyrian period (16th to 12th century)
 Dark Age (12th to 10th century)
 Neo Assyrian Empire ((10th to 7th century)
 Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th century)
Sumer was the heartland of the Mesopotamian civilization.
However, in later period the centre of power shifted from Sumer to
Babylonia and farther north to Assyria. So we are going to discuss
separately these three civilizations in our course of study.

THE SUMERIANS

The Sumerians were the earliest settlers in the Valley as referred

to in several accounts. In fact, it is very difficult to say as to how
and when these settlements started. The Summerians were neither
Mediterranean nor Alpine in their physical features. They had an
oval face, high straight nose and their stature was stocky. From the
available materials, it can be said that small states developed and
flourished in this civilization. The small states were ruled by several
political dynasties of which a few are mentioned below.
 From the excavations, it is found that the Uruk dynasty, which
ruled in Northern region from 2800 B.C. to 2360 B.C., was the
first kingdom of Sumer.
 The Uruk dynasty was replaced by Ur dynasty and it is known
that the Urs had a well established government. Some tombs
belonging to the kings of the Ur dynasty have been discovered.
The tombs, made of bricks and stones, also contained the
personal belongings of the dead person.
 The Lagash dynasty succeeded the Uruk dynasty. Ur-Nanshe
was the founder of Lagash dynasty and constructed many
temples and canals. Eantum, of the Lagash dynasty,
conquered the cities of Umma, Kish and Mavi.
 Ur Kazina, the last ruler of Lagash dynasty was defeated by
Lugdzagesi, the governor of Umma, who founded the

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Lugalzeshi dynasty. His kingdom covered the whole of

Sumerian from the lower sea i.e. the Gulf of Persia to the
upper sea i.e. Mediterranean sea.
The conquest of Akkad led to the spread of the Sumerian culture.
Even though the Akkadians were Semitic, they accepted the
Sumerian culture. Although the Sumerian culture was rich, their
lack of unity proved to be a fatal weakness. The Akkadians developed
a great kingdom which fell into the hands of the Barbarians but was
later restored by the Ur rulers. Later in 2200 BC, the Babylonians
took over the whole territory and built a new capital city and called
it Babylon, and this marked the beginning of the Babylonian period.

 Sumerian Cities and Cultural Life

The cities were ruled by kings, assisted by the nobles and priests.
In Sumerian times, the kings were mere figureheads. The Kings
and Queens were believed to be descendants of God and not God
in person, as the Egyptians. The most common name for the kings
were “shepherd” referring to the role of the king as the guardian of
the general people.
The Sumerians had an orderly society. The king or “patesti” (in
Sumerian tongue) was considered the tenant farmer of the god,
whose lease was renewed every year during a festival held annually.
The king had several duties which included collecting offerings,
supervising farming and workshops, legalizing all business
transaction and defending the city. Warfare was common because
of rivalry for land and water. Many a time the change of the course
of the river led to hostilities and even the repeated invasions from
the neighbouring nomadic tribes necessitated the need for military
alertness.
Solar and Lunar eclipse were observed and their occurrence
was noted according to the year, month and day. Texts containing
botanical and chemical terms that are still used by scientists in
these fields have been found, dating from the 2nd millennium BC.

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 Sumerian Writing
Sumerian was the earliest written language and according to
scholars, besides Sumerian there were other spoken languages in
early Mesopotamia. The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets with a
reed, making some symbols or lines- a system that is referred to
as cuneiform. The Summerians did not learn paper making, but
they continued to record their history on clay. They rolled out a lump
of soft clay, made their wedge-shaped marks on it, and then allowed
the tablet to dry until it was hard. It served the purpose of counting
of sheep for the sake of taxation to religious practice, myths and
legends.

The latin word for ‘wedge’ is cuneus and forma meaning “shape”,
hence the name cuneiform (Kyoo-Nee-uh-form) writing. There were
about 600 cuneiform signs.

LET US KNOW
Cuneiform- It is the oldest writing system.
The puzzle of cuneiform writing was solved in much
the same way as the Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Sumerians took their idea of writing from cylinder seals and

used symbols which were later employed to identify religious and
economic terminologies. Designs or signs, each representing people,
animals, plants, temples, gods, and cities and finally graphs were
associated with specific words and component syllables.
Centuries after the high point of Sumerian culture, a ruler of
Persia named Darius the Great suppressed a rebellion led by nine
chiefs. He ordered the story to be carved in both pictures and
writing on a limestone cliff which is now placed in western Iran. The
writing is in tree languages, all written in cuneiform.
The Sumerians also devised a moon calendar with 12 divisions
adding a year whenever necessary to bring the year in harmony
with the seasons. Each year was named after some significant
event like a storm, death of someone important etc.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the blanks :
Q 1: Mesopotamian Civilization owes its origin
to _____________ and _____________ River.
Q 2: _____________ was the first kingdom of
the Sumerian Civilization.
Q 3: _____________ was the last ruler of thee Lagash Dynasty.

1.4 THE OLD BABYLONIAN PERIOD

The Babylonian people followed the Semitic culture and they gained
control of Mesopotamia after their supremacy over the Akkadians. The
term Babylonian includes the mixed culture of Semites, Sumerians and
other diverse elements. When one of their chief, Summu-Abbu, became
the ruler of a town Bab-Ilu, this small town later became the centre of
power and was named as Babylon. Summu–Abu is said to have founded
the first kingdom of Babylon.
Hammurabi, the fourth descendent of Summmu-Abbu was a
popular and powerful ruler. He conquered Isin, Eshnunna, Mari city states
and extended his empire to the Mediterranean Sea. He played a major
role in uniting the greater Mesopotamia and established a centralized
government. He governed with an iron hand, his authority being based
upon divine origin and thus he enjoyed absolute power. He worked for the
welfare of his subjects and during his rule several canals were built to
provide irrigation facilities to his subjects. His period was rightfully a
glorious period in the Babylonian history.
The descendents of Hammurabi had to defend their empire from
the invasions of the Kessites, but it was not for a long time. The Kassites
conquered Babylon and established a new dynasty in about 1700 BC.
During the rule of the Kassites, anarchy prevailed everywhere resulting
in the degradation of culture and civilization. During the time of Hammurabi,
a small state like Babylon became a major city and later it was called

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Babylonia meaning “the gateway of the gods”. However, Babylonia regained

its lost glory and honour under the rule of the able king

 Babylonian Law- Code of Hammurabi

However, Hammurabi is best known by his code of laws.

Hammurabi’s laws controlled all the aspects of Babylonian life. Some
laws were related to commerce and industry, and included provisions
regarding wages, powers and conditions of work. There were laws
which dealt with property rights, bankruptcy while others dealt with
marriage and divorce. The judges were bound to enforce the laws
and under the strict supervision of the king’s advisers and officials.
In Hammurabi’s code, adultery in legal terms was limited to the
infidelities of the wife. There were severe penalties for any attempt
to bribe a judge or a witness. Carved upon a diorite stone shaft
about 8 feet high, the code of Hammurabi has been preserved. He
tried to make his subjects believe that the laws were divine and
given by the Sun God. Although his laws offered justice - the idea
of punishment was ruthless, basically –‘an eye for an eye’.
The Babylonians believed that the king was an agent of Marduk
and any ruler who was legitimate should be crowned. The
Babylonians had a centralized government where the king held all
power. The king exerted all control and the fate of the state and that
of the common people was decided by him. His power was based
on the concept of divine origin and hence it was absolute.

 Babylonian Literature

That learning was prized among the Babylonians is known from

the popular proverbs like, “Ye who excel in tablet writing shall shine
like the sun”. They adopted the Sumerian cuneiform writing, and
developed it further.
The towns and temples housed libraries. Men and women alike
learned to read and write. Most of the Babylonian literature was
translated from the original Sumerian texts and the language

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continued to remain Sumerian. Mythology and epics appeared to be

popular and the most popular epic was that of the Great Epic of
Gilgamesh. He was a legendary ruler and the epic portrays the
challenges faced by mankind through their life and after death. The
epic contains many Babylonian myths. Through the epics, attempts
were made to explore the relation of man with the universe and
their very existence in this world.
Another form of Babylonian literature consisted of Temple
Literatures, which included psalms, hymns and prayers. Fables were
written in great numbers and were termed as “Wisdom Literature”
because every story had a moral within it. Epigrams were equally
popular for its words of wisdom and philosophy. The study of the
sciences like astronomy and astrology held a special place in the
society of the Babylonians. Reports from the Observatories were sent
to the king. The Babylonians developed the lunar calendar and were
able to predict the movement of the planets.

1.5 ASSYRIA

The Assyrians were first settled along the Tigris River, north-west
of Babylonian and built a city state, Asur, named after their chief god.
Tiglath-Pileser I is regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian Empire.
He assumed the title of “King of Sumer and Akkad”.
During the rule of Adad-nirari II who ascended the throne in 911
BC the Assyrian empire extended as far as the Khabur. Following a
policy of massive expansion by terrorizing people, Ashurnasirpal II turned
the Assyrian capital of Kalhu (Nimrud) into an armed state. The Assyrians
were warriors and during the rule of the Sargonid dynasty, the Assyrian
Empire extended from the Taurus to the Egyptian border.
Assyrians were specialised in warfare. They used cavalry on
mounted horsemen and made extensive use of iron weapons.
Shalmanesar III (858-824 B.C.) was a powerful ruler of this dynasty who
conquered Syria and Palestine and annexed them to his empire. Pilesan
III was another powerful ruler who conquered Babylon and annexed it to
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his empire. Ashur Banipal was another mighty ruler of Assyrian dynasty.
He attacked Egypt and defeated both the kingdoms of Thebes and
Memphis and brought invaluable wealth. He also defeated Ethiopia and
thus extended the Mesopotamian civilization.
In case of Assyria, the kingdom was well organized and the king
also functioned as the High Priest as in the case of the Greek. When
Assyria grew into a power, the entire Empire was divided into certain
provinces named after the main cities. The provinces were ruled by the
governors, who were responsible to enforce law and order. The districts
or provinces were compelled to pay fixed tributes and also to provide a
military contingent to the king.
However, there was marked change in the government which is
often termed as the beginning of “the Second Assyrian Empire”. In this
period, the government acquired a militaristic nature. Political and military
organisations were the chief component of the Assyrian government. The
army was the state and it was well equipped with soldiers using iron
weapons, war chariots etc. The government was more centralized with
the king acting as a general. The governors and messengers were
appointed personally by the king, which enabled him to keep a check on
the administration of his state. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire, there
was no attempt at restoring the government due to its cruelties and
inhumanities inflicted on the people.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following :
Q 4: What changes were brought in the
government at beginning of “the Second Assyrian
Empire”?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q 5: ___________ believed that the king was an agent of Marduk.

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1.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that-

 The origin of the Mesopotamian civilization amidst the rise and fall
of different dynasties.

 The socio-cultural life and political structure under the various

dynastic rulers of ancient Mesopotamia.

 The development of the art of writing in ancient Mesopotamia.

1.7 FURTHER READING

1) Adler, Philip J. & Pouwells, Randall L. (2006). World Civilizations,

4th edition, Thomson Wadsworth, USA

2) Potts, D.T. (1997). Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material

Foundation, Cornell University Press, UK.

3) Sharma, H.C. and Singh, Dharam (2008). World Civilizations: A

Brief Study, Alfa Publications, New Delhi

4) Swain, James E. (1983). A History of World Civilization, Mc Graw

Hill Book Co., New York

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: The Tigris-Euphrates.

Ans to Q No 2: The Uruk dynasty.
Ans to Q No 3: Ur-Kazina.
Ans to Q No 4: The kingdom became a militarized state.
Ans to Q No 5: The Babylonians.

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1.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in 50 words)

Q 1: “The Fertile Crescent” refers to which valley?

Q 2: What do you mean by “Temple Literatures”?
Q 3: Who were the Akkadians?

(B) Short Questions (Answer each question in 150 words)

Q 1: Write short notes on-

a) Babylonian literature
b) The Kassites
c) Hammurabi’s code of law

(C) Long Questions (Answer each question in 300-500 words)

Q 1: Describe the political structure of ancient Mesopotamia.

Q 2: Discuss the rise of the Mesopotamian Civilization.

** ***** **

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