CHAPTER–I

INTRODUCTION AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Sustainable economic growth is the aim, common to all the developing

economies, for which agriculture plays a vital role.1 Ever since India has become

independence, agriculture and allied sectors provide more than half of the total

employment.2 Agricultural growth during the tenth five year plan was broadly as

anticipated and production targets were by and large achieved for food and oil

seeds. 3

Agriculture is the life blood of India’s economy. It contributes nearly 25

per cent of the GDP and about 70 per cent of the population is dependent of

agriculture for their livelyhood.4 The green revolution of the 1960’s ushered in

rapid increase in production of food crop like wheat, rice and other cereals. Efforts

were also taken to achieve similar increase in production of coconut, groundnut,

sugarcane, cotton and the like. In recent years a large number of national

programmes for coconut development have been launched in many Asian and

Pacific countries, particularly in India, because coconut occupies a unique position

in commercial agriculture as fibre, food, oilseed and beverage crop.5

The high oil content of the endosperm of the coconut (copra) is widely used

in both food and non-food industries like margarine and soaps. The coconut palm
 2

and its products are important sources of livelihood to a sizeable section of the

rural folk in the tropics and also contribute substantially to the total export

earnings of some of the Asian and Pacific countries. It is unique among

horticulture crops of India because of the diverse uses of coconut products.

Therefore, coconut products production, productivity and marketing have become

an attractive field for multidisciplinary research. Extensively grown coconut trees

in tropical countries, or the ‘cocosnucifera’ has multiple uses 6.

Besides being an important oil seed crop, its raw nut and edible copra are

important items of food. Coconut is an indispensable item offered in divine

ablution, tender coconut water is a refreshing unadulterated cool health drink. The

coconut shell and husk are main raw materials for the manufacture of handicraft

articles. Coconut leaves are used for thatching roofs and for making brooms. Husk

is used for producing coir. Coconut milk, the aqueous extract of the solid coconut

endosperm, plays an important role in the cuisines of South Asia and in the food

industries. It is estimated that 25 per cent of the world’s output of coconut is

consumed as coconut milk.7 The trunk of the tree is used as building material, fuel

and for making furniture and the like. Every part of the coconut tree is of great

utility and hence it is rightly called as ‘Kalpaviriksha’ or the ‘Tree of Heaven’.8

Since Coconut is a multi-product crop, farmers involved in coconut

growing, depend solely on the palm for their domestic requirements such as food,
 3

fuel and shelter.9 Among the coconut based industries such as, coir making and oil

milling are significant and coir products constitute one of the major items of

export every year. Coconut occupies a place of importance in the social and

religious functions of the people of India.10 Coconut contributes over Rs. 7000

crores per year to the Gross Domestic Product of India and it earns foreign

exchange to the value of Rs. 292 crores by way of export of coir and coir products.

Coconut based farming system provides large quantity of biomass to satisfy the

fuel requirements of small families domiciled in rural India. As a result of

diversification, coconut has become the main agro-based raw material for many

industries producing new coconut products such as coconut cream, spray-dried

coconut, coconut milk powder, tender coconut water and coconut vinegar. It is a

raw material for the manufacture of several handicrafts as well.

In Kerala and Goa coconut toddy tapping is an important industry.

Fermented toddy is used as an intoxicant in the west-coast of India. In

Lakshadweep coconut toddy is used for producing vinegar and jaggery. In West

Bengal 80 per cent of the nuts produced are consumed as tender nuts. In

Karnataka coconut is used for making ball copra and desiccated coconut whereas

in Tamilnadu it is used for producing milling copra and coconut oil. Invariably in

all the states of India, coconut is used in raw form or in dry form for various

culinary preparations in households.11

 4

The coconut cabbage, the tender meristematic shoot in the heart is also used

in the treatment of ‘Vatha’ and ‘Pitha’. Coconut inflorescence is used for curing

urinary complaints, back pain and headache.12 Tender coconut water is effective in

arresting dehydration and impotency. Coconut husk cures gynecological diseases.

Coconut kernel is good for increasing body weight and can be also used as an

internal body cleaner. Coconut milk constitutes an ingredient of several ayurvedic

preparations for treating skin and head diseases.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Coconut is an important tropical oil seed crop which gives coconut water,

kernel and oilcake for cattle and the like. Since it is one of the leading

commodities in agricultural exports, the production programme of the crop is of

critical importance in improving the efficient use of resources.13 The cost of

production and net return obtained per unit would determine the profitability of the

crop. The profitability of an enterprise depends upon the efficient use of the

resources in production.

Though production is the initiation of the developmental process, it could

provide less gain to the producers when there is no efficient marketing system.

The producers depend upon the market conditions to fulfill their hopes and

expectations. But forced sales, multiplicity of market charges, malpractices in

 5

unregulated markets and superfluous middlemen are the problems faced by the

cultivators and producers of coconut products.

The market imperfection and the consequent loss in marketing efficiency

are more pronounced in markets for perishable commodities which require quick

transportation and better storage facilities. Though coconut products have a pride

not only for its diverse uses but also for its special preference to consumers, rich

and poor it is subjected to the above stated production and marketing problems.

The Coimbatore district of Tamilnadu is one of the rich coconut and its products

producing regions and therefore an attempt has been made to analyze the

production and marketing of coconut products in the district.

1.3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

An attempt is made here to review several studies in evaluating the

strength and weakness of the concepts used earlier and specifies appropriate

concepts as applicable to the present study.

Rajkumar and Thamil Selvan in their study entitled “Importance of coconut

cultivation” pointed out the significance of coconut as a source of edible oil and as

an agro-based raw material for many industries such as manufacture of shell

powder, and handicrafts. Fermented coconut toddy is an intoxicant used widely in

the west coast of India. Vinegar and Jaggery are important by–products of

coconut toddy. The tree trunk is used as a building material and for making
 6

furniture. Fifty per cent of the total coconut production is converted into copra.

Coconut crop is raised in India under varying soil and climatic conditions in 17

states and three union territories. As the coconut tree is versatile in its adaptability

to wide range of soil conditions, coconut cultivation has begun to spread from the

west coast of India to interior regions of Tamilnadu especially to erode district and

Thanjavur district.14

Shalini Rani and Mohamed Mohideen in their study entitled “Coconut oil –

A Gift of Nature” analysed the consumption pattern of coconut produced in India.

According to these researchers, coconut oil being the major commercial

product derived from coconut, has significant impact on the country’s national

economy besides its influence on the economic social and cultural lives of millions

of farmers who form the backbone of coconut culture in the country.15

In an in-depth study of coconut development in India entitled “Coconut–

India’s Pride”, Sugata Ghose traced the different stages of coconut development.

Expansion of European soap and edible oil companies offered great opportunity to

India to export copra in the latter half of the 19th century. Steady increase in

export trade enhanced the pace of coconut development. On the eve of the First

World War, India was one of the leading exporters of copra, the annual quantum

of export being 30 tonnes of copra and 10,000 tonnes of coconut oil. But the post

war period witnessed fall in prices. The Second World War worsened the
 7

situation. Hence the government of India set up the central coconut committee in

1945. It did yeomen service for the growth of coconut sector. In 1966 this

committee was replaced by the directorate of coconut development, but its powers

and objectives were restrictive in processing and marketing aspects and so

Parliamentary act was passed in 1979 which paved way for the formation of the

coconut development board, in January 1981.

Since the formation of the board, systematic crop research resulted in the

introduction of hybrid coconut varieties. Further optimum manorial and cultural

requirements of coconuts were determined. Coconut processing technology

received greater attention and the major technologies developed were

(1) Imparting roasted flavour to coconut oil

(2) Production of non-carbonated beverage from matured coconuts

(3) Preservation and packing of tender coconut water

(4) Pollution free quicker wetting of fresh husk in cement tanks for

extraction of white fibres

(5) Production of vinegar and nata-de-coco from matured coconut

(6) Production of tannin, lignins, and other compounds from husks

(7) Coir net and geo-textiles for prevention of soil erosion and land-

slides

(8) Light weight bricks and fuel briquettes from coir pith
 8

(9) Extraction of lignosulphanates from coir pith

(10) Coconut shell or cellular blocks are used in concrete masonry units

(11) Composting of coir pith to organic manure by edible mushroom

(12) Production of coconut cream and coconut milk powder.

(13) Production of activated carbon from coconut shell by fluidized bed

technique.

(14) Development of mechanical coconut dehuskers and coconut palm

climbing device.

Traditionally, in India coconut was processed as coir, copra and coconut

oil. In recent decades manufacturing of edible ball copra and desiccated coconut

has gained some importance. Though a few units have been set up for

manufacturing shell powder, shell charcoal, activated carbon and different shell

and wood handicrafts, processing of wet kernel into different edible products of

commercial importance has not yet become popular. The researcher concludes the

study with an optimistic note that in all the aspects of the coconut crop

development, product marketing in domestic and export sector and processing

technology, there is much scope for further development. Future strategy of the

central and state governments should be focused to technological development,

market expansion and productivity improvement.16

 9

According to Sugata Ghose in the study entitled ‘Coconut Production – A

New Look’, the most common indicator used to understand the crop situation of a

country were area and production. But the per capita availability is also an

important criterion. The production population Ratio (PPR) of coconut in India

steadily increased from 9.92 Coconuts Per head (CPH) in 1951 to 10.56cph in

1961 and to 11.08 cph in 1971 but dropped beyond the 1951 level by 1981 to 8.37

cph due to various constraints. The situation improved during the eighties and the

PPR increased to an all time high of 11.49 cph by 1991. Among the 13 coconut

producing states, the PPR of Lakshadweep was at the maximum of 512.60 cph

followed by Andaman and Nicobar Islands with 289.57 cph and Kerala with

156.06 cph. Maharashtra had the lowest PPR of 1.38 cph.17

Rethnam in his study entitled ‘World Coconut Industry- Its Past, Present

and Future’. He pointed out that over a period of 30 years India, Indonesia and the

Philippines had considerably increased the area under coconut, while Malaysia,

Srilanka, Thailand, Vietnam among Asian countries and Fiji among pacific

countries showed a negative trend in area expansion. Though there is a small

increase in production in some of the APCC member countries due to the increase

in area, the increase in production does not match with the total area under this

crop. The productivity in many countries remain below one tone /ha/year while the
 10

Crop is capable of producing three to six tones/ha depending upon the input

management.18

Satyabalan in his study entitled “Effect of weather factors in coconut and

copra production in Kerala”, revealed that favorable climatic factors like rainfall,

long day length, high temperature, low humidity during initiation and

developmental stages of the inflorescence and of the female flowers during the

period of 32 months before opening in the hot weather season march to may

account for a high yield in a year. In coconut there are marked fluctuations in

annual yield of nuts but they do not follow any specific trend as in the case of

seasonal variations. Ideal moisture conditions for the development of the

inflorescence during the 16 month period prior to opening to prevent abortion of

the inflorescence and long day length with bright sunshine, high temperature, low

humidity and summer showers during the formation and development of female

flowers result in maximum yield in the three coconut yield groups of palms-high,

medium and low. 19

Dealing with the value added products from tender coconut, Neelofar

Ittiaskutty, et al., in the study entitled “Value Added Products from Tender

Coconut”, pointed out that there has not been much progress in the development of

coconut products when compared to the countries like the Philippines, Indonesia

and Thailand. Hence the need of the hour for India is to accomplish product
 11

diversification either by technology transfer or by developing indigenous

technology so that various processed coconut based products can tap both the

export and domestic markets. One of the options to overcome the present crisis in

coconut industry is to popularize tender coconut water as a beverage. Coconut-

water pineapple beverages have been developed. Blending of fruit juices helps to

develop new products. Tender coconut fraction can serve as a valuable ingredient

for many products and hence its application needs to be exploited in India as well

as in global market by producing more new products.20

Punchihewa in his study entitled “Current Status of the Coconut Industry”,

recalls the dominant position held by coconut oil in the midst of vegetable oils

trade during the early half of the 19th century and says that by the end of the 20th

century coconut had been dethroned from the position it held in the international

trade. Low production and productivity leads to uncertainty of supplies resulting in

fluctuating prices and, prompted increase in compulsion of substitutes. According

to him , the development of new high yielding varieties did not result in increasing

production substantially, high cost of planting material, establishment, inputs and

maintenance resulted in lower net returns. Inadequate supplies, distribution

problems, lack of choice in planting material, inappropriate planting strategies and

lower copra outturn prevented the wider use of new cultivation technology,

particularly among the small holders. There were also other factors which
 12

contributed to the low productivity such as senility of palms, climatic factors, pests

and diseases and non-adoption of cultural practices. It is also pointed out that the

increase in population in the coconut producing countries resulted in higher

domestic consumption and thereby reduced the export supplies. In addition to

increasing competition from substitutes, campaign against coconut oil and EEC

regulations on aflatoxin contamination on animal feed which included copra and

copra meal, resulted in decline in volume and value of these exports. Hence the

coconut producing countries resorted to product diversification and by-product

utilization for value addition. Campaign against coconut oil, however, was a

stimulator for serious research on coconut oil. Biological Researches proved that

coconut oil has health supporting functions and it acts as an essence and a natural

anti-viral, anti-fungal food. The researcher concludes with the suggestion that for

the future development of the coconut industry steps should be taken to increase

production and productivity, coconut products and market diversification.21

Choudhuri, et al., in their study entitled “Product Diversification in

Coconut –World Scenario”, described a newly developed coconut variety called

"Kamrupa" in Assam where coconut is being cultivated from time immemorial. In

this non traditional coconut growing area, different varieties have been imported

from the neighbouring states and also from the southern parts of the country. The

Horticultural Research Station under the Assam Agricultural University has been
 13

maintaining a large number of germ palms including exotic as well as local types.

Of the several varieties developed by this station, Kamrupa is considered as one of

the most promising cultivars for this region. Some of the salient features of this

variety are (i) High yield of 106 nuts/palm/year (ii) Better fruit quality (iii) Copra

yield 16-34 kgs /palm/year and oil content of 64-50 per cent (iv) Tolerant against

major pests and diseases (v) Tolerant to high rainfall (vi) Capacity to withstand

cold injury (vii) It can be grown easily in acidic soils (viii) Highly responsive to

major nutrients (ix) It takes 84 months for first flowering.22

Kaul in his study entitled, “Product Diversification in Coconut–World

Scenario”, is of the opinion that coconut is one of the oldest crops of India with

1.5 million hectare under the crop and a total production of 10,000 million nuts per

year. It stands third in production in the world after Indonesia and the Philippines,

although it has got a potential of much higher production from the existing area.

His paper focuses two major issues:

(i) Future of coconut oil vis-à-vis other vegetable oils

(ii) Scope of developing new products based on the experience of other

countries. Imported oils like rape seed oil, palm oil and Soya bean oil are the

threat to coconut oil. To bring down oil imports, the government of India set up a

Technology Mission on Oil Seed in 1986. Efforts were made to improve

productivity and production of different oil seeds crop and imports of edible oil
 14

and oil derivatives decreased from Rs. 769 crores in 1985-86 to 41 cores in

1992-93. As against this the export of oil derivatives increased from Rs. 257

crores to Rs. 1400 crores during the same period .The Technology Mission also

undertook massive programmes for developing oil palm plantations which are

expected to yield additional 8 to 10 lakh tons of edible oil by next decade. He also

opinioned that increasing production of other oils in the country will have an

adverse effect on the Indian coconut oil industry. This calls for a long term

planning for diversification of uses of coconut and other coconut products on a

large scale as is done in Sri Lanka and Philippines. These countries have agreed to

provide consultancy and training under the aegis of the APCC to other countries.

The UNIDO is prepared to provide funding for proposals on these lines. Kaul

concludes that while availing these opportunities, it is essential to pay greater

attention to R and D efforts and investment for promotional and commercial

adoption in this area to make major dent in coconut economy. 23

Rethinam in his study entitled “Coconut – Making Industry Competitive”,

concluded that India’s share in the export of coir and coir products is sizeable

whereas the export of other coconut based products is very negligible. Increasing

global population and demand for coconut products, changing consumer

preferences, intensifying safety and security concerns and shifting marketing

 15

networks have significant impact on the character and shape of the global market

for coconut products.

According to him , of all the coconut based industries like copra making,

oil making, cream making, milk powder making, desiccated coconut making,

making coconut water concentrate and jam, vinegar, coconut water packing and

the like only oil and copra making dominate and their marketing alone decides

the price of the coconut.

The researcher concludes his study by pointing out the need for more

intensified approach in marketing strategy. Besides the efforts of the coconut

development board and the government of India to popularize coconut water as a

health drink, it is necessary that India should participate in international

exhibitions and exhibit Indian coconut products for which the gulf countries offer

great opportunities.24

Ganesan in his study entitled “Coconut Farming – An Innovative

Approach”, pointed out that after the removal of restriction on the import of 715

items, India would face stiff competition in coconut and coconut oil from the

Philippines and Indonesia.25

Maheswari, et al., in their study on ‘Marketing Strategies for Coconut’

point out that, in spite of the fact India accounts for 25.57 per cent of the world

production of coconut, the present system of marketing of coconut and its products
 16

is by and large unscientific and unorganized and is almost lacking in vertical

integration. Coconut is a notified commodity. Still the absence of an efficient

marketing system provides sufficient opportunities for middlemen to exploit the

market. In almost all primary markets, they normally dictate the prices. Further

there are several malpractices in the coconut market. Apart from this, during the

past two decades there had been abnormal price fluctuation-both seasonal and

cyclical. According to these researchers the chief marketing problems are:

(1) Farmers are unaware of the current market price of coconut. They are

unable to understand the methodology involved in fixing the price based

on recovery percentage.

(2) Farmers do not have proper storing facilities to keep their produce until

higher prices prevail in the market during lean seasons.

(3) Import of palm oil and vegetable oil from abroad tells heavily on the

prospects of coconut cultivators and oil millers.

(4) Credit purchase of coconut by merchants from the garden itself and

irregular and delayed payments of the low prices already fixed deprive

the producer of his right to get fair prices.

(5) Though coconut is a notified product, it is not marketed through

regulated markets.
 17

These researchers suggest the following promotional activities: 1)

improving quality for export promotion (2) reduction of cost of production (3)

product diversification and by product utilization. Diversification should be done

at the farm level itself (4) Formation of coconut committees in each block

consisting of representatives from the agricultural department, coconut board and

growers to discuss coconut production and marketing problems (5) To achieve

market promotion and consumer awareness, extension programmes should be

carried out by conducting trade fares and exhibitions. (6)Cooperative marketing

(7) Restriction of import of copra and edible oils (8) Revival of future trading (9)

Integrated multi-cropping (10) Establishment of display and sales outlets for the

processed products (11) establishment of coconut technological development

centres in the main coconut growing areas.26

Krishnaswami in his study entitled “Coconut and its Importance in

Industry”, explains the importance of coconut and its by products and described

that the price fluctuations of coconut products upset the economy of millions of

coconut farmers and small processors of primary products. According to him price

stabilization can occur only when marketing of coconut and its by products is

carried on in an organized manner. Strong financial support should be given to

coconut farmers for stock piling and creating infra-structure facilities. Coconut

farmers should make a co-operative approach to carry out production, processing

 18

and marketing of different coconut products. The researchers suggest that coconut

farmers can establish processing complex for centralized services with

decentralized production. This will help to promote domestic as well as export

marketing without relying on government support.27

Rethinam in his study entitled “World Coconut Industry-Past, Present and

Future”, made an exhaustive analysis of the state of coconut industry which

revealed the following facts. Coconut is grown in 93 countries across the world in

an area of 11.85 million hectares producing 57.514 billion nuts or 10.52 million

tonnes of copra. Asia and Pacific Countries alone occupy 10.4 million hectares

i.e., 87.9 per cent of total coconut area and produce 8.63 million tonnes of copra.

Copra and coconut oil are traded commodities which are exported to various

countries since 1960. The export of copra decreased considerably over the period

of years due to the fact that the countries exporting copra started making CNO as a

first step in value addition. The global exports of coconut products indicate that

coconut cream, coconut powder, coco chemical, activated charcoal and coir

products have good export market. According to Rethinam, the use of medium

chain fatty acids and Lauric acid in producing antiviral, antifungal and

Antiprotozoal and antimicrobial medicines particularly use of Lauricidin in the

cure of HIV/AIDS virus will go a very long way in creating market potential for

coconut oil and virgin coconut oil.

 19

Since coconut is not grown in many countries, and there is the need to

meet the increasing needs of the growing population for coconut products, Asia

and Pacific Region being the largest producer of coconut will have to meet the

regional demand for various coconut products.

He also pointed out that since the liberalization of world trade, the coconut

industry has encountered a number of obstacles to free trade as a result of

numerous non-tariff barriers as well as production of competing products. The

non-tariff barriers include an adverse publicity regarding health aspects of coconut

oil, imposition of strict standards for incidence of aflatoxins in copra meal used in

animal feed, formulation of a described direction on the use of desiccated vessels

for transport of bulk edible oils including coconut oil, certification of desiccated

coconut consignments as being free of pest and diseases and the like. Further, to

make the coconut trade competitive in the domestic and international markets, the

following vital issues are to be addressed effectively

(a) Cost effectiveness

(b) Maintaining international quality

(c) Proper brand names for identification, attractive packing and

labelling

(d) Identifying new domestic and foreign markets

(e) Developing effective strategy

(f) Identifying proper distribution channel.
 20

The researcher concluded that the future prospects of the coconut industry

depend upon the overall competitive ability. The industry has to tap the full

potential of coconut as a renewable resource which would be used to generate a

range of environmentally, friendly natural products with a wide variety of end uses

and applications. The producing countries need to exploit to the fullest their

individual comparative advantages in cultivation, processing and marketing of

coconuts.28

Khalon and George in their study entitled “Agricultural Marketing and

Price Polices”, pointed out that marketing plays a significant role in the economic

development of countries as it stimulates production, avoids unnecessary

fluctuations in output and prices and reduces cost of production. Marketing

technology and strategies have to keep pace with the ever changing production

technologies. Without an efficient marketing system agricultural development

strategies will not help much to stimulate production.29

Yarlagadda Srinivasulu’s in-depth study entitled on “Cause Related

Marketing- An Incitement Strategy” emphasized the fact that economic

development in freedom and responsibility, has to be built up on the foundation of

marketing, for successful marketing provides the promise of an improved quality

of life and better society. Today’s society demands more of marketers, who are

challenged to adapt to the issues such as diversity, ethics, responsibility, concern

 21

about environment and the like. Hence the marketing function can no longer

confine itself to one organization, but it needs to encompass a broad range of

stake-holders, suppliers and customers.30

Chandran’s study entitled “Coconut Marketing in Tamilnadu” explains the

marketing practices such as harvests, grading, packing, marketing channel and the

like and throws much light on the marketing costs, margins, price spread, effect of

variations in the consumer’s price on the share of the producer seller and the

retailer as well as in the efficiency of the market system. Besides analyzing the

problem faced by the traders in coconut marketing, the researcher concludes his

study saying that marketing efficiency is high due to fewer middlemen and low

marketing margin and the producer’s share is inversely related to consumer’s price

while the retailer’s share is positively related to consumer’s price.31

Linson Mark’s study entitled “Marketing of Coconuts in the

Agasteeswaram Taluk of Kanyakumari District” revealed that the prices which

rule the coconut market do not reflect the changes in demand.32

Arulkumar and Madhavi in their study entitled “Rural Marketing in India”

are of the opinion that rural India offers a plethora of opportunities for marketers

of Fast Moving Consumers Goods (FMCG). While rural market offers a big

attraction to marketers, it would be natural to think that they can easily enter the

market and walk away with sizable profit. But they have to face many challenges
 22

such as physical distribution and channel management. One of the ways to

circumvent this is to use company delivery vans which can serve two purposes:

(i) it can take the product to the customers in every nook and corner of the market

and (ii) it enables the firm to establish direct contact with them and thereby

facilitates sales promotion. Since rural marketing involves more intensive

personal selling, marketers need to understand the psyche of the rural consumers

and act accordingly and reach them wherever they assemble-festivals, weekly

cattle market or the well where village women wash their clothes. The researchers

concluded that marketing well-made products to the rural people is not just a

business opportunity, but it is a sign of commercial respect for people whose needs

are often overlooked. Further, the future is very promising for those marketers,

who can understand the dynamics of rural markets and exploit them to their

advantage.33

Namasivayam and Richard Paul in their study entitled “Price Spread in

Marketing of Coconut in Tamilnadu” highlights price spread in the marketing of

coconut in the Theni District of Tamilnadu. As per their analysis the marketing

cost incurred by producers per thousand nuts was maximum (Rs. 630.18) in

Channel II consisting of Producer Commission Agents-wholesalers -Retailers –

consumers, followed by Rs. 610.00 in Channel III that is Producer – Wholesaler –

Retailers–Consumers. No marketing cost was incurred by producers in channel I

 23

consisting of Producers–Pre-harvest Contractors-Commission Agents-

wholesalers-Retailers–Consumers, because the marketing cost was met by the Pre-

harvest Contractors. Commission Agents incurred no marketing cost because of

their non-performance in the field of cutting, loading, counting, grading and

transportation. It was also found that under Channel III, the producers realized the

maximum share of 58.73 per cent in consumer’s price. Their share in Channel II

and Channel I was 58.32 per cent and 50.20 per cent respectively. Commission

Agents got very meagre margin with a small effort. Wholesalers got 6.02 per cent

in Channel III, 4.57 per cent in Channels I, and II respectively. The share of the

retailers worked out to equal the cost of all channels. The study also revealed that

the marketing efficiency was higher in Channel III followed by Channel II and

Channel I .34

Minnie Mathew and Thomas Mathew of the Coconut Development Board

in their study entitled “The Recent Fall in Copra and Coconut Oil Prices in India”

have made an analysis of the price movements of coconut products and attributed

the recent fall in the prices of copra and coconut oil to a combination of various

factors such as demand–supply imbalance, availability of cheaper vegetable oils,

import of coconut oil and cake during the crucial months, adulteration as well as

the recently introduced Value Added Tax (VAT) The introduction of VAT has

caused a major set back to the coconut oil industry in Kerala, a major coconut
 24

producing state and is considered to be one of the reasons for the sudden fall in the

prices of copra and coconut oil.

On account of the VAT, production cost of copra increased and so most of

the copra buyers for the upcountry and domestic coconut oil mills shifted their

purchasing centre to the neighbouring Tamilnadu, where traders are benefited not

only because of peak production season but also due to non introduction of VAT.

VAT attracts 4 per cent tax on coconut purchase for converting into copra. A study

on the price spread of coconut in Kerala has revealed that the net profit margin to

oil millers is only 5 per cent based on the cost of production. Thus the additional

cost on account of VAT erodes their margin considerably.35

Subburaj and Singh conducted a study entitled “Marketing Mix for Coconut

Products”. In our country, coconut has more or less constant and inelastic

demand, but its supply has considerably increased owing to increase in crop

production and productivity. Further production cost of coconut in our country is

higher as compared to that in other countries of the world. Free and liberal entry

of coconuts and coconut products of foreign origin into Indian markets also has

eroded the demand for home products. This situation gives rise to the urgent need

to diversify the end use of coconuts with the help of technological innovations.

Philippines, Sri Lanka and Indonesia have prominently developed product

diversification and converted coconuts into a number of manufactured consumer

 25

goods like desiccated coconuts, processed and packed coconut milk, coconut

cream, processed tender water, coconut jam, coconut chips etc. Such products are

offered to consumers all over the world and thus they have successfully positioned

their products in tune with the needs and wants of the consumers.

While product diversification brings solace to palm producers in terms of

farm price for coconuts, it is imperative that the markets for coconut products

should be cultivated, expanded and maintained. This calls for an empirical

enquiry about the buying motives and behaviour of consumers towards coconut

products should be cultivated expanded and maintained. This calls for an

empirical enquiry about the buying motives and behaviour of consumers towards

coconut products. A field study conducted by these researchers at Chennai

revealed that the income level and living standard of consumers exert influence on

the purchase behaviour towards coconut products. Moreover the perception on the

marketing mix for coconut products varies among consumers in general and

different categories in particular. Yet majority of consumers do not have high

perception on coconut products. High income group finds difficulties with

distribution mix, whereas other than high income category finds problems with

price mix. Therefore promotion mix is to be designed and executed in such a way

that it could address the expectations and wants of target consumers in general and

potential consumers in particular. The researchers conclude their study

 26

emphasizing the need to communicate the advantages and relative merits of

coconut products and to exploit the market potential for coconut products through

effective marketing strategies meant for both creating and fulfilling the demand.36

According to Subburaj and Singh, a farmer marketing is something more

than production, but he could neither control nor regulate production in tune to

market changes because of the predominance of natural forces affecting

production functions nor can market his product in tune to market requirements

due to his own internal constraints. He faces the chronic problem that he can

neither derive the advantages of his increased production/productivity nor the

advantages of better marketing. In India agricultural production is abundant but

the problem is with distribution. Coconut farmers are not exempted from the

above phenomenon. They have very little control over production as also on

marketing.

An enquiry at micro level carried out by these researchers among the

coconut farmers in the villages of the Dindigul District revealed that the coconut

farmers adopt both direct and indirect modes for disposal of their coconuts

including by - products. The direct mode is very simple wherein coconut farmers

sell their products directly to the consumers, the ultimate users either within or

outside their village. In the indirect method disposal of the products is done

through ‘channel intermediaries’ namely itinerant traders, brokers/agents of

 27

wholesalers, agents of processing units, trader – cum – lease holders, big farmer –

cum – traders and big farmer – cum – traders and big farmer – cum – lease

holders, wholesalers and retailers.

Direct mode is popular among farmers possessing very few coconut trees.

Indirect mode is the most common and prominent mode for disposal of coconuts

and byproducts. Two thirds majority of farmers adopt this method. Based on sale

practices, four categories of coconut farmers have been identified. They are:

(i) Lesser coconut farmers

(ii) Opportune coconut farmers.

(iii) Mixed practice coconut farmers

(iv) Debt bonded coconut farmers.

Major reasons for leasing out coconut trees are:

i) to redeem prior debts

(ii) to deepen existing well/improve the irrigation sources

(iii) to meet marriage/education expenses of children

(iv) to meet capital investment

(v) to overcome problems relating to direct sale and labour. Less than one

third of the coconut farmers including large scale coconut farmers, and farmers

possessing a very little number of trees have adopted direct mode of disposal of

coconuts. They have not availed financial assistance as advance or loan from any
 28

of the channel intermediaries except organized financial institutions. Such farmers

are opportune farmers who do not sell their coconuts as per the wishes of traders.

They sell their product at a price prevailing in the market on cash and carry basis.

A very insignificant proportion of coconut farmers have leased certain

number of trees besides retaining the rest for their own harvesting. They are

called ‘mixed practice coconut farmers’. Though the mixed – practice coconut

farmers form a very insignificant proportion to total coconuts farmers, discussions

with them help to infer the effects of channel intermediaries especially the lessee

traders on the levels of income and other economic aspects of coconut farmers and

the price of coconut. Following are the reasons for mixed practices:

(i) Differences in age and productivity of palms

(ii) Location differences regarding fertility, irrigation, transportation,

and availability of labour.
(iii) Differences in the cropping pattern

(iv) Distance from the market

(v) Nature of local demand for tender coconuts.

Debt bonded coconut farmers are those who sell their coconuts to their

creditors from whom they have obtained loans on condition that the loan amount

and interest thereof would be repaid from out of their sale proceeds after selling

the produce to their financier – cum – buyers. Such type of farmers is generally

small in number and they are mostly those adopting dry farming.
 29

In short there are two channels for the disposal of coconuts–Direct channel

and Indirect channel, the former is very simple while the latter is very complex.

The researchers conclude their analysis pointing out their finding that indirect

mode of disposal of coconut as a strategy is more popular and widely adopted by

coconut farmers. Farmers following direct channel are those who have

comparatively better financial base than others. Since majority of the coconut

farming community depend on intermediaries because of their own constraints,

organized marketing bodies should come forward to tackle their problems through

integrated means and should encourage them to exert influence on the functions of

equalization.37

Chandrasekharan, Remany et al., of the Coconut Development Board,

Kochi in their study entitled “Exploring Trade Opportunities for Coconut

Products–An Experience from New Delhi”, attempted to explore trade

opportunities for coconut products, indicate the inherent weakness of the coconut

sector even though coconut production in the country has made greater strides

during the past two decades, the total crop area being 1.89 million areas with an

estimated production of 12.82 billion nuts. Domestically the cost of production is

too high and so in the global market Indian coconut products are pricewise less

competitive. Further imported coconut products caused decline in domestic prices

leading to low income of Indian farmers. To overcome these inherent weaknesses

 30

product diversification, by product utilization and value addition are considered as

better options. But in the case of most of the kernel based coconut products, the

cost of raw material is often too high; with the result after value addition the

market price of these products often goes beyond the reach of the masses. In the

international market, the absence of international quality standards or certification

and strong brand name adversely affect export opportunities.

Under such circumstances it is suggested that tapping the domestic market

with new coconut products is a better option. Besides the efforts of the Coconut

Development Board to provide impetus to the coconut sector by encouraging

product diversification, by–product utilization and value addition it is necessary to

develop technologies for the production of new coconut products such as coconut

cream, coconut spray, dried milk powder, packed and preserved tender coconut

water etc. Commercialization of these products and their market promotion will,

in the long run, enhance the demand for coconut and thereby ensure remunerative

price for coconut.

Highlighting the Board’s initiatives to promote these new products at the

International Trade Fair held from 14th to 17th November 2003, at Pragati Maidan,

New Delhi by setting up a pavilion in an area of 450 sq.m, these researchers give

out their findings based on a survey involving 641 sample participants as follows:
 31

i) Public perception on the Coconut Development Board and its schemes has

improved along with increased awareness of coconut products.

ii) Products like coconut oil, edible, copra, and desiccated coconut could be sold

more if the quality and availability of these products are improved.

iii) Participation of the Coconut Development Board in domestic and international

trade fairs will have greater impact on increasing demand for coconut products

in general, and in non-traditional areas in particular.38

Somasundaram in his study entitled “Market Driven Production Strategies

to Improve Agriculture” highlighted the advantages for the agricultural sector,

secured through an assured market and minimum support price citing sugar cane,

wheat and rice and cotton as examples. According to him such an assured market

with a minimum support price is not available for most other crops. The practice

of disposing of the produce at the farm gate soon after harvesting deprives the

farmer of fair price for his produce. Somasundaram suggests that the farmers

should be guided to process, package and market their produce through a network

of departmental stores. Further a number of agro-business enterprises have to be

promoted to use agricultural produce as raw material and generate value added

products which enjoy a steady market within and outside the country. Such

strategies will create a steady demand for agricultural produce.39

 32

Kameswara Rao in his study entitled “An Analysis of World Coconut

Situation”, pointed out that coconut in Andhra Pradesh is marketed in three major

forms namely dry coconut, copra and coconut oil. The only market for these

items in the state is Ambajipeta. Palakol in West Godavari is the centre for water

coconut marketing. Nearly 40 per cent of the coconut produced is marketed as

water coconut and 30 percent as dry coconut. The rest is marketed either as copra

or oil or as both based on market demand. But coconut trade is facing certain

problems including high degree of price fluctuations. All types of marketing

channels namely farmer, middle men, wholesaler and retailer exist.

The existing market committees are not working properly. Most of them

lack minimum facilities like sufficient yards and go downs. They collect market

cess without providing required facilities. The dry coconut is mostly exported to

Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Even transport has become a major

constraint. Up to the 80’s 99 percent of the trade utilized rail wagons for

transport. Thereafter the railways stopped allotting wagons. Instead racks were

allotted. It is highly impossible to avail this facility because quantities have to be

pooled over a long period to load one racke, which causes spoilage of the

commodity. Therefore road transport is resorted to. It is not only costly but also

causes hardships to the traders.40

 33

Jacob Mathew in his study entitled “An Analysis of World Coconut

Situation”, has analysed world coconut situation and points out that after meeting

the domestic requirements, a number of coconut products enter the international

market. Important among them are copra, coconut oil, oil cake, desiccated

coconut, coir fibre, fibre products and shell products. Besides these, fresh

coconuts, coconut cream and powder and coconut sugar also appear in the export

market. Though India is the third largest producer of coconuts in the world, the

entire external trade is limited to export of coir and coir products like mats,

matting and rubberised coir fibre.

World trade of coir products has been stagnant now mainly due to low

international demand and availability of cheaper synthetic substitutes. However

domestic consumption of these products is on the increase. Use of coir in the field

of soil engineering to solve erosion problems and the changing attitude of

construction and landscaping to save environment have converted natural fibres

into geo-textiles. Trade in fresh coconuts has been minimum only. Owing to

expansion of area and increase in coconut production since 1985, trade in coconut

products also registered an increase. In consequence of the bumper yield, prices

of coconut products, especially coconut oil failed to fetch remunerative prices.

Jacob concludes his study with an emphasis on the need for product diversification

and by-product utilization to get remunerative price for the farmers.41

 34

Kaul in his study entitled “Global Competitiveness of Coconut Industry,”

has dealt with the global competitiveness of coconut industry. He pointed out that

coconut as a traditional crop, particularly in the third world, has not received the

benefit of improved management technologies and market promotion. He has

analysed the magnitude of threats facing the coconut industry such as competition

from other oil-seed crops, low profitability, fluctuating prices, misconceptions

about coconut oil as edible oil and inconsistent supplies of coconut products.

He suggested the following strategies for ensuring a better future for the

coconut farmers :

i) Major efforts should be made to improve productivity in all the countries

including the coconut producing states of India.

ii) Productivity improvement requires greater research efforts to develop high-

yielding varieties/hybrid with large nut size and resistant to major maladies,

besides being drought tolerant.

iii) Intensification of land-use in the coconut gardens

iv) Bringing down the cost of production which needs urgent consideration

v) Steps to reduce dependence on coconut oil as an edible oil and intensified

efforts towards diversification for developing different products which are

more profitable
 35

vi) Product development strategy would have to be supported by strong marketing

support for expanding the demand through identification of new markets and

undertaking a vigorous promotional campaign to counter the propaganda

against consumption of coconut oil and products on health grounds. Kaul

concludes that avenues are available to reduce the impact of the threat to the

coconut industry. What is required is a strong political will, supported by

major R&D efforts with a more open and strong global coordination to ensure

a bright future for the coconut industry.42

Yvonne Augustin, Executive Director, United Coconut Associations of the

Philippines conducted a study entitled “Global Demand Trends and Opportunities

for Marketing and Trading in Coconut Products”, According to him, of the

several coconut producing countries, Indonesia Philippines and India dominate

world coconut production, their share being 44 billion nuts as against the 60

billion world total. Indonesia takes the lead with 18 billion nuts, trailed by the

Philippines with 14billion and India with 12 billion nuts. In the international

market four products or group of products dominate coconut trade. They are

coconut oil, copra meal, desiccated coconut and oleo chemicals. Besides these,

there is a wide range of coconut products like coconut shell charcoal, activated

carbon, coir products, coconut milk, coconut cream, coconut water, nate-de-coco,
 36

Coconut vinegar, coconut sugar, coconut wine etc. manufactured both for the local

and export markets.

The United States and Europe are still the primary markets for coconut

products, particularly coconut oil, desiccated coconut, copra meal and oleo

chemicals. Some countries make it more difficult for coconut products to

penetrate into their markets either because of regulations, national product

standards, or health issue. For example coconut oil may miss the opportunity in

the U.S. food industry because of high power campaign by soybean interests,

branding coconut oil as increasing the risk of coronary heart disease. Augustine

concludes that among coconut products, coconut oil offers more market

opportunities. Its unique faulty acid composition facilitates production of unique

products for special applications. Hence it is suggested that coconut producers

should build up on this advantage and discourage development of substitute.43

In an exhaustive study conducted by Punchideva entitled “Current Status of

the Coconut Industry,” explained that one of the fears expressed in the sixties

regarding the future of the coconut industry, apart from stagnation in production,

was the restrictive nature of the market. However, product diversification and

value addition brought in its train diversification of international coconut market

too. Today more than 100 countries import coconut oil in big or small quantities.

America and Europe still dominate the trade. Asian countries are increasingly
 37

getting into it and they emerge as a key importer of desiccated coconut. Apart

from the traditional products, new products are finding their way to new markets.

Coconut shell charcoal is bought by more than thirty countries in the form

of activated carbon, chief among them being U.K., France, Belgium, Holland,

Japan, Korea, Taiwan, South Africa and Australia. There cannot be any country in

the world where some part or derivative of coconut is not used in the daily life

today, in the form of vegetable oil, margarine, beverage, bakery item, sweets,

soap, shamboo, cosmetic, pharmaceuticals, carpets, rugs, hand crafts, brushes,

mattresses furniture or as peat. Still competing substitutes pose a threat to coconut

industry.44

Thampan in his study entitled “Profitability of Coconut Farming”, analysed

the cost of raising and maintaining coconut plantation and the profitability of

coconut farming reveals the fact that after meeting the initial expenditure on land,

fencing, irrigation and buildings, in most places in Kerala the average expenditure

over the first seven years after planting tall variety palms is around Rs. 125,000

per hectare while the same in Tamilnadu exceeds Rs. 1,75,000. The components

which constitute maintenance cost are expenditure on manures and fertilizers,

plant protection, cultural management, irrigation and harvesting. A Farm

Household Survey involving 198 households ranging in farm size from 0.5 ha to 5

ha drawn from 10 panchayats representing the northern, middle and southern

 38

regions of Kerala, brought out the fact that the average quantity of organic

manures used was 32.45 kg per palm per year and over the different size classes,

the expenditure incurred on manures and fertilizers showed variation from Rs.

47.43 to Rs. 68.63 per palm per year, the average being Rs.38.19 per palm per

year.

The next expenditure component is cultural management involving digging

or ploughing, forming solid mounds and subsequent levelling. For this

expenditure, per palm is the highest at Rs. 44 for the size class below 0.5 ha and

Rs. 40 for the size class above 5 ha. The amount spent for plant protection varied

from Rs. 13 to Rs. 50 per palm per year, the lowest being in small holdings of less

than 0.5ha in size . In the state only less than 50 percent of the holdings have

irrigation facilities. In the study the per palm expenditure varied from Rs.1.95 to

Rs.14.37 with the annual average for all size classes being Rs.10.16. Harvesting

cost is met in cash and kind. Cash part varies from Rs. 150 to Rs. 360 and kind

part from 60 nuts to 4 nuts per 100 trees. At a price of Rs. 4 per nut and for

average 6 harvests per year the total expenditure ranged from Rs. 18 to 24 per

palm per year.

The said survey’s revelation is total maintenance cost increased

progressively from Rs. 25,473 per ha for the lowest class below 0.5 ha to Rs.

28,190 per ha for the highest size class above 5 ha. An analysis of cost of
 39

production and income shows that the average household income from all the

holdings worked out to Rs. 46,343.5 per ha. The highest household income is for

size class 2-3 ha at Rs. 55,313 followed by class 1-2 ha at Rs. 50,969 and the

lowest for the size class above 5 ha.

Thampan concludes his study pointing out that coconut farming in Kerala is

generally profitable but the level of profitability showed substantial increase when

intercropping with or without livestock, component is practised.45

Nair et. al. of the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod

have conducted an in-depth study entitled “Competitiveness Through Cost

Reduction and Higher Productivity in Coconut”, studied the possibilities of

reducing the cost of production of coconut. According to them cost of production

of coconut in India has increased considerably due to the steep rise in the factor

costs, mainly of labour, fertilizers and transportation. The average cost of

cultivating the palm in one hectare under rain-fed conditions with good

management in Kerala ranges from Rs. 20750 during the first year to about Rs.

10500 between 6-7 years and to about Rs. 12000 between 8-60 years (at 1993-94

prices). But the average yield per palm is only 40. This low productivity and high

cost results in low profit margin.

Hence the researchers suggest this problem may be overcome through two

approaches: (i) by reducing the annual cost of cultivation and (ii) by reducing unit
 40

cost of production through higher productivity. Competitiveness in coconut

production can be achieved by using non-monetary/low cost inputs, improved

management practices and by adopting coconut based farming systems as well as

by using modern equipments like dryer for post harvest operations. Low

productivity of coconut in India is due to the predominance of local cultivars

which are generally late bearers and poor yielders compared to high yielding

varieties / hybrids. Therefore it is preferable to invest in high yielding varieties

which have a higher benefit cost ratio, pay back period and internal rate of

return.46

George and Joseph carried out a study on ‘Cost Benefit Analysis of

Investment in tree crops and arrived at the cost of production of coconuts by

taking into account both capital and current expenses as the opportunity cost of

land.47

Gopalan and Venkataraman in their study entitled “Cost of Cultivation of

Coconut in Travancore” classified the cost of cultivation of coconut as follows: (i)

Cost of bringing up the palms to the stage of bearing (ii) Cost of maintenance

under the first category includes cost of land, seedlings, manuring, watering and

fencing. The second category includes all agricultural operations, manuring and

harvesting. 48
 41

Sosamma in her study entitled, ‘Nematode Parasites of Coconut and their

Management’ stated that coconut palms under homestead and plantation situation

suffer considerable damage due to the infestation by nematodes right from the

seedling stage. Of the 78 nematode species reported on coconut, the most

important endoparasites are red ring nematode and the burrowing nematode which

cause considerable damage to the nuts. It is the major problem faced by the

coconut industry in Caribbean, Central and South America. 49

Desai in his study entitled, ‘Biological Control of Coconut, Black headed

Caterpillar Opisina Arenosella W/K’ pointed out that coconut palm is attacked by

107 pests. Among them the leaf eating caterpillar is one of the major pests. It

infests the coconut palm throughout the year with varying intensities. Under

varying conditions sporadic outbreaks lead to severe damage. A peak infestation

occurs during the months of February to May, which may even prolong to June in

case of delayed monsoons.

Caterpillar lives on the lower surface of leaflets in galleries and feeds on

chlorophyll. Dry and green patches which appear on the lower surface of the

leaves are the major symptoms of infestation. Palms of all ages are susceptible to

infestation by black headed caterpillar.50

Chowdry in his study entitled “Problems and Prospects of Coconut

Cultivation in Assam” pinpointed the following problems of coconut cultivation in

 42

Assam. First, there is lack of awareness of the farmers on recent developments

related to crop improvement, crop protection, production and cropping system;

Secondly, there is a lack of quality planting materials to the farmers; Thirdly, lack

of proper management practices, as coconut is grown in a very uncared condition

without applying fertilizer and irrigation; Fourthly, pest problems and diseases

caused by fungi and phytoplasma result in different degrees of crop loss.51

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Production of coconut products contributes to the Coimbatore district’s

economic, social and cultural development in many ways. It is also a primary

source of income and food to the people of the district. Coconut products provide

the basic raw materials to so many coconut related product industries in the

district. The present study covers only production and marketing of coconut

products in Coimbatore district and does not go into the industrial activities using

coconuts. The study has been undertaken from the point of view of the Coconut

product producers (farmers) and market functionaries.

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following are the specific objectives of the present study.

1. To study the overview of the Coconut Products Industry.

2. To study the characteristics of the sample respondents.

 43

3. To analyse the trend, growth and magnitude of variability of Copra in the

world, APCC countries, India, Tamilnadu and the sample district.

4. To analyse the Cost and returns of Copra Production

5. To study the temporal variations in prices of Copra.

6. To evaluate marketing cost, marketing margin, price-spread and marketing

efficiency of available channels of distribution.

7. To analyse the problems encountered in the production and marketing of

Copra by the producers and to suggest suitable solutions to solve them.

1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

Village Merchant (Copra maker)

The village merchants are the first purchaser of the nuts from the producers.

Middle Man (Copra Merchant)

The middle men who are also merchants convert the coconut into copra on

sun drying or kiln dry or by following both the methods. Drying normally takes

around seven days for producing standard quality of copra.

Traders (Millers)

The copra procured is brought for further sale to millers by the traders. The

transportation involved is either by country boats or bullock carts. Generally,

traders are associated with particular miller but can go to other agency if they have

not taken any advance payment from the miller.

 44

Grading

Wholesale traders adopt the practice of grading copra based on the quality

factors prevailing in the trade. The coconuts are categorized in the two forms,

fresh and dry, while copra into edible and milling. The edible copra is classified as

ball copra and cup copra, depending on the quality, edible copra is further graded

as copra from dry nuts, copra from semi-dry nuts and copra from fresh nuts. Each

grade is again classified into different trade name. Such as Office Pass, Rassi,

Rajpur, Moong etc. The office pass grade is generally used for milling purpose

and sold to miller. The traders grade the copra in the order of its market value. The

grading is mainly based on moisture content with maximum limit of 10 per cent,

the foreign matter up to two per cent and black copra up to five per cent. However,

the good quality copra ideally should have moisture up to six per cent, oil content

71 per cent, acid value 2.5 per cent, foreign matter 0.5 per cent, mouldy cups five

per cent, wrinkled cups five per cent and black copra one per cent.

Cultivator

A cultivator is a person who is engaged either as an employer’s single

worker or family worker in cultivation of land owned or held from government or

private persons or institutions for payment in money, kind or share. Cultivation

also includes supervision and direction of work of cultivation. Similarly persons

engaged in the production of cereals and millets such as paddy, wheat, jowar,
 45

bajra, ragi and some other crops like sugarcane, ground nut, tapioca, pulses and

raw jute, kindred fibre, cotton and other fibre crops are considered as cultivators.

Agricultural Labourer

A person who works in another person’s land for wages in money, kind or

share should be regarded as an agricultural labourer. He or she has no risk in the

cultivation, but merely works in another person’s land for wages and has no right

of lease or contract on land on which he or she works.

Literate

A person who can both read and write with understanding in any language

is a literate. A person who can merely speak but cannot write is not considered as

a literate.

Cropping Pattern

Cropping pattern is the nature of crop in a single agricultural season.

Main Occupation

Main occupation of the household is that from which the head of the

household derives the major annual income.

Allied Occupation

An occupation other than the main occupation is considered as secondary

occupation or allied occupation.

 46

Hybrid Varieties

It refers to those varieties of coconut developed by inter-varietal crossing.

Edible Oil

Edible oil is the oil used in cuisines and catering establishments.

Edible Copra

Copra is used for various household sweet preparations and also as an

ingredient in the processed betel nuts for chewing.

Milling Copra

Copra used for extracting oil.

Coconut

Coconut consists of an outer skin, which is green or brown in colour when

harvested, enclosing a thick fibrous coating or husk. Inside the husk there is a

woody shell covering the kernel which is separated from it by a brown skin. The

kernel is a solid white layer preserving an aqueous liquid known as coconut water.

Copra

It refers to the coconut kernel which has been processed from raw coconut

after removing the lint and the shell. It is used for extracting oil. The oil content

present in the copra is known as unctuous. It is used for various household

preparations and also as an ingredient in the processing of betel nuts for chewing.

The copra used for extracting coconut oil is called milling copra.
 47

Husk

The outer covering of the coconut is green or red or yellow or brown in

colour depending upon the variety and maturity of the coconut. The husk usually

forms 35 to 45 per cent of the weight of the whole nut when ripe. The percentage

decreases with the ripening of the nut. The thickness of the husk of an ordinary

nut is from 2.5 to 3.0 cm in the case of thin husked nuts and 4.0 to 5.0 cm for thick

husked nuts. The weight of the husk and its thickness are usually controlled by

both hereditary and environmental conditions. The husk has fibre, which is used

as a raw material to produce the important commercial product, coir.

Coconut Shell

It is the outer cover of coconut made up of hardened cellulose. The

activated carbon manufactured from the coconut shell is considered superior to

carbon contained from other sources of materials such as coal, lignite, wood,

paddy husk and the like. Shell charcoal, shell-based activated carbon, shell

powder, shell handicrafts, shell ice cream cups, ladles, forks, show pieces and

shell buttons are the shell-based products.

Harvesting

Plucking and gathering the matured coconuts from the coconut tree are

known as harvest. The harvesting operation is carried out by labourers using

traditional instruments.
 48

Desiccated Coconut

It is a dehydrated coconut meat in grated or shredded form which is a

convenient substitute for grated raw materials.

Coconut Farming

It means the cultivation of coconut which is non-recurring in nature. Once

the trees are planted they are nurtured carefully to get the yield.

Yield

The output received from the coconut tree is called yield. It denotes the

number of nuts harvested from the tree.

Cost

Cost is a measurement, in monetary terms, of the amount of resources used

for some purpose and the amount of expenditure incurred in the realization of the

objective. The amount spent on developing the coconut palm and the upkeep of

the same is known as cost.

1.7 METHODOLOGY

The present study is an empirical research, based on the survey method.

First-hand data required for the study were collected from respondents directly by

the researcher herself. The data relating to the Copra producers were collected

with the help of an Interview Schedule, a copy of which is appended in

Appendix A.
 49

Secondary data were collected from the published and unpublished records

of the offices of the RBI, the NABARD, and Government of India. journals,

bulletins, magazines and annual reports of the Department of Agriculture,

Government of Tamilnadu.

1.8 CONSTRUCTION OF TOOLS

An interview schedule was prepared by the researcher for collecting the

necessary data. Before preparing the schedule, the researcher made a

comprehensive review of the literature was made directly or indirectly connected

with the topic of the study. She also discuss the problems of the production of

Coconut products were discussed with the officials of the Department of

Agriculture, Government of Tamilnadu and some experienced agriculturists of the

selected district.

The variables to be studied were identified by the researcher with the help

of some of the senior officials of the Department of Agriculture, Government of

Tamilnadu and agriculturists functioning in the study area. The available literature

in the study area was also consulted. After having identified the variables, the

researcher started preparing the interview schedule was prepared. Preliminary

interviews were conducted with five officials of the of the Department of

Agriculture, Government of Tamilnadu and another five farmers engaged in the

process of coconut products production. With the help of such people, the draft
 50

interview schedule was prepared and then it was circulated among a few

researchers for opinion and suggestions.

The interview schedule was revised and redrafted in the light of criticisms

and the suggestions put forth by them. Then the interview schedule was pre-tested

with 15 respondents to judge word arrangement, format and the like. In the light of

their suggestions, the interview schedule was once again modified to incorporate

all the pertinent suggestions for the purpose of bringing it to its present form.

1.9 GEOGRAPHICAL COVERAGE

Coimbatore District is one of the more affluent and industrially advanced

districts of the state of Tamilnadu in India. The headquarters of the district is

Coimbatore city, the second largest city in Tamilnadu, which is located

approximately 497 km from Chennai, the state capital, and 330 km from

Bangalore. It is the highest revenue yielding district in the state, next only to

Chennai. The district was ruled successively by several dynasties of South India.

Under the Cholas during the 11th century, the present-day Coimbatore came into

existence as a jungle village under an Irula chieftain. The district was occupied by

Mysore in 1700s from the Madurai rulers and after the Mysore wars in 1799, the

district was occupied by the British until the Indian independence in 1947. 52

Coimbatore district lies in the western part of Tamilnadu, part of the Kongu

Nadu region. The district borders with Palakkad district of Kerala in the West,
 51

Nilgiris district in the North, Erode district in the North East and East, Idukki

district of Kerala in the South and Dindigul district in the south east. The district

has an area of 7,649 square kilometers. The South Western and Northern parts are

hilly, part of the Western Ghats, and enjoys pleasant climate all throughout the

year with heavy rainfall. To the West is the Palghat Gap, the only major pass in

the long stretch of the ghats abutting Tamilnadu and Kerala. The Palghat Gap,

connecting Coimbatore city and Palakkad city, serves as an important transit link

for both the states. The rest of the district lies in the rain shadow region of the
53
Western Ghats and experiences salubrious climate most parts of the year. The

mean maximum and minimum temperatures for Coimbatore city during summer

and winter vary between 35°C to 18°C. The average annual rainfall in the plains is

around 700 mm with the North East and the South West monsoons contributing to

47% and 28% respectively to the total rainfall. 54

. The major rivers flowing through the district are Bhavani, Noyyal,

Amaravathi, Siruvani and Aliyar. The Siruvani river is the main source of drinking

water for Coimbatore city and is known for its tasty water. Amaravathi Dam,

which created Amaravathi Reservoir, is located at Amaravathinagar. It had a

population of 29,16,620 as of 2001, with a decennial growth rate of 21.76% 55

The literacy rate of the district is 69 per cent. Tamil is the principal

language spoken in the district, with sizable minorities of Telugu, Malayalam and
 52

Kannada speakers. Hindus formed the majority of the population at 90.08 per cent

followed by Muslims at 5.33 per cent, Christians at 4.35 per cent and others at

0.24 per cent. As per the 2001 Census, Coimbatore district had a population

density of 600 persons per square kilometer and a sex ratio of 963 females for

every 1000 males.

Coimbatore District has three universities namely Anna University

Coimbatore, Bharathiar University and Tamilnadu Agricultural University. To add

to this, there are several deemed universities in the district. There are various

Engineering, Medical, Law, Hotel Management and Arts & Science colleges, the

most prominent ones being PSG College of Technology, Government College of

Technology, Coimbatore Institute of Technology and Government Law College.

The district Coimbatore enlists the details of Revenue Divisions, Taluks, Firkas

and Revenue Villages56 as presented in Table 1.1.

TABLE 1.1
Revenue Divisions, Taluks, Firkas and Revenue Villages

Revenue No. of Revenue

No. of Taluks No. of Zones No. of Firkas
Division Villages

Coimbatore 3 4 15 100

Pollachi 3 6 18 225

Total 6 10 33 325

Source : District Profile, Office of the District Collector, Ciombatore, 2010.

 53

Out of the two revenue divisions, Coimbatore is industrially developed and

Pollachi is predominantly agriculture. Coimbatore district has 3 parliament

constituencies and 15 assembly constituencies57. Coimbatore district is well

connected by roads and highways. There are five Regional Transport Offices at

Coimbatore South, Coimbatore North, Coimbatore Central, Mettupalayam and

Pollachi. Three national highways namely NH-47, NH-67 and NH-209 connect the

district to other parts of the country. Coimbatore district has a total of 21 railway

stations and the Coimbatore junction is the largest railway station. Coimbatore

Junction is the highest revenue yielder in Southern Railways after Chennai. But it

is not well maintained. The district is served by the Coimbatore International

Airport.

Coimbatore district is the home to Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and

National Park. The Park and the Sanctuary is the core of the Nilgiri Biosphere

Reserve and is under consideration by UNESCO as part of The Western Ghats

World Heritage site58. The park is the home to a wide variety of flora and fauna

typical of the South Western Ghats. There are over 2000 species plants of which

about 400 species are of prime medicinal value. The animals in the park include

Tiger, Leopard, Sloth Bear, Elephant, Giant Flying Squirrel. The birds endemic to

the Western Ghats residing here include Nilgiri Wood Pigeon, Nilgiri Pipit,
 54

Flycatcher, and Malabar Grey Hornbill. The Amaravathi reservoir and the

Amaravathi river are breeding grounds for the Mugger Crocodiles.59

Coimbatore is the Capital of the district and third largest city in Tamilnadu.

Major manufacturing and commercial centre in the region, nicknamed 'Manchester

of South India'. Pollachi-Major agricultural trading centre (in the south of

Coimbatore). Mettupalayam-Agriculture (arecanut and betel) centre (in the north

of Coimbatore). Sirumugai-A town panchayat rich in Agriculture and textile. It is

famous for Kora puttu, SIV industry (rayon) and Temples (in the north of

Coimbatore). Karamadai-A town panchayat, Agriculture (arecanut and betel)

centre (in the north of Coimbatore). Annur-A town panchayat rich in textile

industry and agriculture (in the north-east of Coimbatore on the National Highway

209). Sulur-A town panchayat, rich in textile industry (in the east of Coimbatore).

Vellalore is a town panchayat situated on north bank of noyyal. It is rich in

agriculture.60

Textiles are the major industry in the Coimbatore district; it is one of the

important textile hubs of India. Coimbatore is also called the "Manchester of

South India" because it houses many textile industries. India's leading Textile

Machinery Manufacturer "Lakshmi Machine Works Ltd" produces textile

machinery for textile mills in India and abroad. LMW is pride of Coimbatore.

There are many electric pump manufacturing companies in and around

 55

Coimbatore, such as Deccan, CRI, Texmo, KSB, Sharp. Coimbatore also houses

some auto component manufacturing brands, such as Roots, Pricol and LGB.

German Auto Component Major Robert Bosch started their R & D facility in

Coimbatore. Coimbatore also houses many Information Technology and Business

Process Outsourcing Companies, such as Cognizant Technology Solutions and

Perot Systems. The district is the home to almost 50 per cent of the poultry

population of Tamilnadu. 61 The district has Major crops like Gingelly (With 34%

share, the district is the top producer in Tamilnadu.) Cotton, Coconut, Arecnut and

betel, Corn, maize and millet, Wheat and rice (limited areas) Sugarcane (limited

areas) Tea, Coffee, Pepper, Poultry and Jaggery. 62

1.10 SAMPLING DESIGN

The sample district Coimbatore has two revenue divisions namely

Coimbatore and Pollachi with three Taluks each. There are 100 revenue villages

in the Coimbatore revenue division and 225 revenue villages in the Pollachi

revenue division. One respondent, from each revenue village, who was supposed

to be a coconut product producer, was selected by applying convenient sampling

technique. The required data for analysis were collected from all the 325

respondent coconut products producers. But on preliminary analysis it was

observed that, of the selected 325 respondents, the data entered in the interview
 56

schedule from 25 respondents were found to be inadequate and inaccurate and

hence rejected.

1.11 COLLECTION OF DATA

The present study is based on both primary and secondary data. The

primary data were collected from the coconut product producers through personal

interview method. Based on physical, cultural and socio economic environment of

coconut product producers in the region, interview schedule was designed, pre-

tested and finalised. Detailed information were collected from the coconut product

producers on cropping pattern, coconut products production patterns, labour

utilization and variety of coconut products.

The data required for the study of marketing of coconut products were also

gathered by interviewing the different market functionaries using the same well-

structured pre-tested schedule. Information were collected from the intermediaries

on marketing cost, marketing margin, price-spread and problems in marketing.

Data regarding prices of Copra, area, production and other secondary data were

collected from various journals, books, coconut statistics, published by coconut

Board, Cochin, Statistical Year Book, and the Reports of Director of Economics

and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi and Director of Economics and

Statistics, Trivandrum and Tamilnadu.

 57

1.12 FIELDWORK AND COLLECTION OF DATA

The fieldwork for the study was carried out by the researcher herself.

It was conducted during the period July 2009 to March 2010. For the collection of

primary data from the sample members, an interview schedule was used. (Vide

Appendix–A) The coconut product producers were interviewed by the researcher

generally during their leisure time, with the help of the interview schedule. In

order to have a close rapport with the customers, she got herself first introduced by

the staff of the Department of Agriculture. The interview was quite informal and

was in a conversational style. The interview schedule was administered to the

respondents and the data were recorded by the researcher in the interview

schedule. After the completion of each interview, a check-up of the data was made

to ensure completeness and accuracy. Each interview took about two hours on an

average.

1.13 DATA PROCESSING

After the completion of the interview schedule, a thorough check-up of the

data was made. The missing data were collected immediately by referring to the

records of the Department of Agriculture and afterwards the coding of data was

completed. The coding was made with the help of a master table. The coded

information was transcribed on transcription cards for further processing.

 58

Afterwards, classification tables were prepared for further analysis from

transcription cards. The analysis of data was made with the help of a desk

calculator and computer.

1.14 PERIOD OF STUDY

Primary data were collected from coconut product producers. The study

was undertaken during the months from July 2009 to March 2010. Secondary data

relating to prices Area under cultivation of coconut production of copra and

productivity of copra for a period of 20 years from 1986-87 to 2005-06 were

collected.

1.15 FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS

Multiple regression analysis is used to analyse the determinants of copra

yield.

To study the trends in area cultivated, production and productivity of

coconut Simple Regression Equation has been used.

In order to find out the growth rate in area, production and productivity of

copra equivalent and copra, Compound Growth Rate has been calculated using

Semi-log or Exponential Function.

To study the magnitude of variability in the area, production and

productivity of copra, Co-efficient of Variation has been computed.

 59

Garrett’s Ranking Technique has been used to analyse the problems in

Copra production and marketing of copra.

To measure the marketing efficiency of the various channels in the

marketing of Copra, Shepherds’ formula has been used.

Time Series Analysis has been carried out to study temporal variations in

prices of coconut using Multiplicative Model.

1.16 LIMITATIONS

The study is confined to the Coimbatore district only. The researcher has

depended on the information and data supplied by the coconut farmers most of

them are not used to keep proper records about cost of manures, seeds and the

actual prices received for their produce. Hence the study suffers from respondent’s

recall bias. These had been minimized by suitable interaction with the cultivators

as well as cross checks then and there with the agricultural departmental field staff

during the survey. Moreover, as the study is based on opinion provided by the

sample respondents, the results of the study cannot be generalized and should be

used with caution.

1.17 CHAPTER SCHEME

The present study is presented in seven chapters.

 60

The first chapter entitled “Introduction and Design of the Study”

introduces the topic and traces the development of coconut trade with special

reference to coconut products. It also includes statement of the problem, review of

previous studies, scope of the study, objectives of the study, operational definition

of concepts, methodology, construction of tools, sampling design, geographical

coverage, period of the study, field work and collection of data, data processing,

framework of analysis, limitations of the study and the chapter scheme.

The second chapter entitled “Profile of Coconut Products” describes the

various coconut products produced with the help of coconut.

The third chapter entitled “Characteristics of the Sample Respondents”

studies the various characteristics of the sample respondents and the usage to

Copra.

The fourth chapter entitled “Copra Production - An overview ” deals with

the growth rate, magnitude of variability and trend values in area, production and

productivity of coconut and copra in the coconut in the major coconut producing

countries in the world, APCC countries, India, Tamilnadu and the sample district.

The fifth chapter entitled “Cost and Returns of Copra in Coimbatore

district” analyses the cost of production, profitability, production function and

capital productivity of Copra.

 61

In the sixth chapter, “Marketing of Copra”, the channels of distribution,

price-spread, price analysis and the problems of marketing of coconut product

producers are discussed.

The seventh chapter entitled, “Summary of Findings and Suggestions”

emphasizes the relevance of the study and presents the findings.

 62

REFERENCES

1. I. C. Dhingra, Indian Economy, 1999, Sultan Chand & Sons, New Delhi.
pp.82-83.

2. K.M.Mathew, Manorama Year Book 2007 Malayala Manorama, Kottayam,

pp.514-515.

3. C.B.Mamoria and B.B.Tripathi, Agricultural Problems of India, Kitab

Mahal, Allahabad,1999, pp236-237

4. India 2003, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India ,

New Delhi, p.395.

5. Sugata ghose, “Coconut-India’s Pride”, Kissan World, Vol.25, No.8,

August, 1998, p.31.

6. Working papers presented at the Third session of FAO, 1969, p.15.

7. T.Krishnakumar, “Some Facts About Coconut Milk”, Kissan World, Vol.22,

No.5, May 2005, p.52

8. S. Rajkumar and R. Thamilselvan, “Importance of Coconut Cultivation”,

Kissan World, Vol.32, No.5, May 2005, p.58.

9. P.K.Thamban, “Coconut Industry in India”, Asian and Pacific Coconut, CDB,

Ministry of Agriculture, 1990, p.1.

10. Ibid., p.7-8.

11. H.P.Singh, “Coconut Industry in India-Challenges and Opportunities”,

Indian Coconut Journal, Annual Number, Vol.29, No.4, 1998, pp.4-11.

12. Balakrishna Vaidyar, “Medicinal Uses of Coconut”, Indian Coconut

Journal, Vol.No.33, No.24, 2002.
 63

13. Tamilnadu Agricultural Census Book, 2005-06, pp.41-42.

14. S. Raj Kumar and R. Thamilselvan, “Importance of Coconut Cultivation”,

Kisan World, Vol. 32, No.5, May 2005, p.58.

15. T. Shaline Rani and Mohamed Mohideen, “Coconut Oil–A Gift of Nature”,
Kisan World, Vol.32, No. 5, May 2005, pp.59-61.

16. Sugata Ghose, “Coconut–India’s Pride”, Kisan World, Vol.25, No.8, August
1998, pp.27-31.

17. Sugata Ghose, “Coconut Production–A New Look, Kissan World, Vol.20,
No.11, November 1993, p.52.

18. P.Rethnam, “World Coconut Industry-Past, Present and Future”, Indian

Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXV, No.3, July 2004, pp.3-14.

19. K. Satyabalan, “Effect of weather factors Coconut and Copra Production in

Kerala”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXIV No.12, April 1994, pp.6-10.

20. Neelofar Illiaskutty, Mary Ukkuru and George V. Thomas, “Value Added
Products from Tender Coconut”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol.XXX11,
No.9, January 2002, pp.10-12

21. P.G.Punchihewa, “Current Status of the Coconut Industry”, Indian Coconut

Journal, Vol. XXX1, No.6, October, 2000, pp.1-12.

22. D. Choudhuri, J.C. Nath and N. K. Mohan, “Kamrupa Product Diversification

in Coconut–World Scemnario”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XX1,No.9,
January 2001, pp.12-13.

23. G.L.Kaul, “Product Diversification in Coconut–World Scenario”, Indian

Coconut Journal, Vol. XX, No.12, April 1994, pp.2-5.
 64

24. P.Rethinam, “Coconut–Making Industry Competitive”, The Hindu Survey

of Indian Agriculture, 2004, pp.70-72.

25. K.P.Ganesan, “Coconut Farming–An Innovative Approach”, Kissan World,

Vol.28, No.8, August 2001, p.53.

26. P.C.Maheshwari, R.Rathika, M.Edwin Ganadhas, “Marketing Strategies for

Coconut”, Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. XXXIII, No.3, March 2003,
pp.10-12.

27. S.Krishnaswami, “Coconut and Its Importance in Industry”, Kissan World,

Vol.27, No.8, August 2000, pp.51-53.

28. P.Rethinam, “World Coconut Industry-Past, Present and Future”, Indian

Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXV, No.3, July 2004, pp.3-14.

29. A.S.Khalon and M.V.George, Agricultural Marketing and Price Polices,

Allied Publishers Ltd., New Delhi, 1985, p.3.

30. Yarlagadda Srinivasulu, “Cause Related Marketing: An Incitement Strategy”,

Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. XXXVI, No. 9, September, 2006, p.17.

31. C. Chandran, “A Study, of Coconut Marketing in Tamilnadu”, Ph.D. Thesis,

M.K. University, Mardurai, 1992.

32. M. Linson Mark, “Marketing of Coconuts in the Agasteeswaram Taluk of

Kanyakumari District”, M.Phil Dissertation, M.K. University, 1982.

33. S. Arulkumar and C. Madhavi, “Rural Marketing in India”, Kissan World,

Vol. 34, No. 06, June, 2007, pp.62-64.

34. N. Namasivayam & V. Richard Paul, “Price Spread in Marketing of Coconut

in Tamilnadu” Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. XXXVI, No.7, July,
2006, pp.3-5.
 65

35. Minnie Mathew and M. Thomas Mathew, “The Recent Fall in Copra and
Coconut Oil Prices in India”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXVII, No.9,
January, 2007, pp.2-10.

36. B. Subburaj and R.K. Singh, “Marketing Mix for Coconut Products–
Consumers’ Perception” Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXIV, No.2, June
2003, pp.6-10.

37. B. Subburaj and R.K. Singh, “Marketing of Coconuts: Disposal Strategies

of Farmers”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXIII, No.11, March 2003,
pp.1-7.

38. V.G. Chandrasekharan, Remany Gopalakrishnan and M. Thomas Mathew,

“Exploring Trade Opportunities for Coconut Products–An Experience from
New Delhi”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXV, No. 4, August 2004,
pp.22-24.

39. N. Somasundaram, “Market Driven Production Strategies to Improve

Agriculture”, Kisan World, Vol. 33, No. 5, May 2006, p.18.

40. P. Kameswara Rao, “Coconut Marketing in Andhra Pradesh: Problems and

Prospects”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol.XXVI, No.1&2, May & June,
1995, pp.18-19.

41. Jacob Mathew, “An Analysis of World Coconut Situation”, Indian Coconut
Journal, Vol. XXVIII, No.9, January, 1998, pp. 9 -16.

42. G.L.Kaul, “Global Competitiveness of Coconut Industry,” Indian Coconut

Journal, Vol. XXVI, No.4, August 1995, pp. 2-5.

43. Yvonne T.V.Augustin, “Global Demand Trends and Opportunities for

Marketing and Trading in Coconut Products”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol.
XXXVII, No.1, May, 2006, pp.18-22.
 66

44. P.G.Punchideva, “Current Status of the Coconut Industry,” Indian Coconut

Journal, Vol.XXXI, No.6, October 2000, pp.1-12.

45. P.K. Thampan, “Profitability of Coconut Farming”, Kisan World, Vol.26,

No.10, October 1999, pp.23-24.

46. M.K. Nair, C.V. Sairam and Gopalasundaram., “Competitiveness Through

Cost Reduction and Higher Productivity in Coconut”, Indian Coconut
Journal, Vol. XXVI, No.4, August 1995, pp.6-13.

47. M.V. George and P.I. Joseph, “Cost Benefit Analysis of Investment in Tree
Crops”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1973, pp.173-180.

48. K. Gopalan and M.S. Venkiteraman, “Cost of Cultivation of Coconut in

Travancore”, Indian Coconut Journal, 1951, pp.57-58.

49. Sosamma, V.K., 1998, “Nematode Parasites of Coconut and their

Management,” Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXIX, No.4, p.10.

50. Desai, V.S., 2003, “Biological Control of Coconut, Black Headed Caterpillar
Opisina Arenosella W/K”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXIV, No.7,
p.6.

51. Choudhury. D., 2002, “Problems and Prospects of Coconut Cultivation in

Assam”, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXII, No.10, February 2002, pp.
10-12.

52. Coimbatore District Profile- 2006-2007. District Collectorate, Coimbatore.

p.16.

53. http://www.coimbatore.gov.in/pdf/cbeprofileN.pdf.

54. Coimbatore District Profile, Op.cit., p.17.

55. http://www.coimbatore.tn.nic.in/pdf/SHB002.pdf
 67

56. Coimbatore District Profile, Op.cit., p.18.

57. "Election results". Indian Elections.http://www.Indian-elections.com/

assembly-elections/tamil-nadu/election-result-06.html.

58. UNESCO, World Heritage sites, Tentative lists, Western Ghats sub cluster,
Annamalai, 2007.

59. Coimbatore District Profile, Op.cit., p.20.

60. http://www.eci.gov.in/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp.

61. http://books.google.com/books?id=97oE6gTFW8EC&pg=PA278&lpg=PA27
8&dq=tilapia+%22Amaravathi+reservoir%22&source=web&ots=f- .

62. http://www.tn.gov.in/deptst/agriculture.pdf