CRIM 406

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Research – is taken from the word “re” which means “again” “search” meaning to
investigate.

Research - is a careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according
to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or
resolution of a problem. (Good)

Research – is defined as the systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic or
problem. ( Aquino).

Research - has been defined as “the process of gathering data or information to solve a
particular problem scientifically. (Manuel and Medel).

Research – defined as the systematic study or investigation of something to answer questions

posed by the researcher. (Panel).

Research – in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. It is the collection of
data in a rigorously controlled situation for prediction or explanation. (Treece and Treece)

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH

1. Systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of
truth, the solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.
2. Controlled. All variables except those that are tested or being experimented upon are
kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) so that the changes made on the subjects of
the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable.
3. Empirical. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same
manner by all observers.
4. Analytical. There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no error in their
interpretation.
5. Objective, unbiased, and logical. All findings and conclusions are logically based on
empirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of the research.
6. Employs hypothesis. This is to guide the investigation process. In experimental studies,
hypotheses are stated but in descriptive studies, the specific sub-problems or specific
questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested and not proved.
7. Employs quantitative or statistical methods. Data are transformed into numerical
measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or usefulness.
8. Original work. Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources or
first-hand sources and not from secondary sources (usually printed materials such as
books, or theses, etc.)
9. Done by an expert. The researcher uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid
 data-gathering instruments, and valid data.
10. Accurate, investigation, observation, and description. Every research activity must be
done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific
generalizations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.
11. Patient and unhurried activity. This is to ensure accuracy. Research that is hurriedly
done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may lead to shaky conclusions
and generalizations.
12. Requires an effort-making capacity. No research can be conducted without the exertion
of many efforts. No one without any effort-making capacity can research because
research involves much work and time.
13. Requires Courage. Research requires courage because the researcher oftentimes
undergoes hazards, discomforts, and the like. At times the researcher encounters public
and social disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may arise.

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Predictive research purposes are to give the results from one specific educational practice or
pattern and seek to establish a close statistical connection between characteristics of students and
a prediction of educational outcome.

The directive determines what should be done based on the findings.

Illuminative is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being
investigated; i.e., the interaction of the components of educational systems and aims to show the
connection among student characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and educational
consequences.

Basic and Pure it is done for the development of theories and principles. It is conducted for the
intellectual pleasure of learning.

Applied the application of the results of pure research. This is testing the efficiency of theories
and principles.

Exploratory the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.

Descriptive the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.

Experimental the researcher studies the effects of the variables on each other.

Analytic Approach the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the
research situation.

Holistic Approach this begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first and
its internal relationships.
Action Research. This involves the application of the steps of the scientific method in classroom
problems.
Evaluation these are all possible courses of action, which are specified and identified in which
researchers try to find out the most advantageous.

Developmental this focuses on the findings or developing a more suitable instrument or process
than has been available.

Quantitative or Statistical Research is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to

determine the results of the study. Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square, and
analysis of variance., used to test the hypothesis. This type of research usually includes
comparison studies and cause-and-effect relationships.

Non-quantitative Research is used for quantity or statistics, which is practically nil. This is
especially true in alternative research such as anthropological ethnocultural studies, indigenous
and participatory where the description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than
qualitative data.

Steps in Making Research

1. The selection of the research topic. This is the original idea that motivates curiosity, the
area of personal or academic interest that generates the driving force. The mind should be
so stimulated by the topic that there is a certain sense of compulsion to undertake the
research.

2. The decision on a hypothesis. The research idea must be testable. It is usually put in the
form of a null hypothesis, or a statement of no relationship. This original proposition is
called the research hypothesis.

3. The decision on how the variables can be used for data. All research is dependent
upon data. Data are the empirical base for a new theory. This step includes the
construction of the instrument.

4. The decision on the research methodology – where, when, and how data are to be
collected and organized. This includes sample size, time limits, cost limits, and
technical considerations of data handling.

5. Statistical analysis. This method or level chosen decides the sophistication of the study.

6. Interpretation. From the organization of systematic data collection and collation,

computer printouts, graphs, and tables, conclusions must be drawn that are relevant to the
research problem.
 7. Presentation. This should be in the proper format. It should reflect the scholarly style,
yet be clear and easy to read. The style should never confuse important findings.

Designing the Study - method of research to be used, the study of population, the instruments
for gathering data and its preparation, the sampling design, statistical treatment of data, and
analysis and presentation of data.

Rigid control refers to the manipulation of the research variables.

Objectivity means that there should be no bias or partiality in treating the results of the inquiry.

Systematic organization refers it proper and accurate tabulation of data as well as presenting
them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.

Rigorous standards refer to the setting up of standards or principles which serve as bases for
evaluating the findings of a study.

Three (3) major research methods with their respective variations from which the
researcher may choose the method he wants to use depending upon the nature of his
investigation.

a. Historical research the systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain and
understand actions or events that occurred sometime in the past.

b. Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation, or

phenomenon.

c. Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It includes
a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be
measured, calculated, and compared.

Case Studies - make a detailed study about one person or unit over a considerable period
Survey method - gather relatively limited data from a relatively large number of cases
Census is a sample survey that covers the entire population of interest.
A sample survey deals only with a portion of the population.
Census of Tangibles - covers a small population where the variables are concrete.
Census of Intangible - this census deals with construct based on indirect measures
Developmental Studies - reliable information about the similarities of children at various ages,
how they differ at the age levels, and how they grow and develop
Follow-Up Studies - to investigate the subsequent development of participants after a specified
treatment or condition.
Documentary Analysis - the problem of the investigation was answered through analyzing
documents
Trend Analysis - aimed to project the demands or needs of the people in the future.
Correlational Studies - determine the extent to which different variables are related to each in
the population of interest
Sociological research is the systematic study of people, institutions, or social phenomena
using measurement techniques such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, ethnography, or
comprehensive analysis of texts.
Social Research is a method used by social scientists and researchers to learn about people
and societies so that they can design products/services that cater to various needs of the
people.
Psychological research refers to research that psychologists conduct for systematic study and
analysis of the experiences and behaviors of individuals or groups.

Anthropological research deals largely with qualitative aspects and focuses on the creation
and transmission of meaning.
Economic research generates a wide array of benefits. These include information,
technological change, and improved policy. 
Health research refers to the many types of scientific investigations that aim to test ideas,
answer questions, improve treatment options and increase knowledge about human health.
Nursing research is research that provides evidence used to support nursing practices. 

Curriculum research is research in which one or more of the variables represent the status of
or change in pupil behavior which is pertinent to the goals of the school.
Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data related to the field of
education. 

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PAPERS AND RESEARCH REPORTS

Term paper contains arguments and/or persuasions that must be supported with facts taken
from a variety of reliable sources, such as academic papers, scholarly magazines, or textbooks.
The research design refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out research that defines a
succinct and logical plan to tackle established research questions through the collection,
interpretation, analysis, and discussion of data.
A critical essay is a type of academic writing where the author analyzes and evaluates a text.
For an essay to become critical, you need to claim a text's particular ideas and then support
that claim with evidence.

A position paper (sometimes position piece for brief items) is an essay that presents

an arguable opinion about an issue – typically that of the author or some specified
entity. ... The goal of a position paper is to convince the audience that the opinion
presented is valid and worth listening to.

A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are
trying to measure in some way. 
An independent variable is a variable you think is the cause
The dependent variable is the effect. 
A hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so that it can
be tested to see if it might be true.
The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research
study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why
the research problem under study exists.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study:

The scope of the study tells you the extent of applicability of the results of the
investigation. The delimitations of the study give you information on the shortcomings of the
investigation and where the results may fail to apply.
Significance of the Study:
The significance of the study indicates to whom the study will be most useful, why the
study would be useful to them, and how the study will aid them in their particular discipline. In
writing the significance of the study, the writer must take care to be specific and precise without
“beating around the bush”.
Definition of Terms:
Definition of terms is usually an annex to a work (book, research paper, pamphlet, etc.)
either at the beginning or more likely near the end with a list of acronyms, jargon, credits, etc.
This is an important part of the Research paper or report is that in which the key or important
terms in the study are clearly defined.
An alphabetical list of important terms or acronyms that you define, particularly ambiguous
terms or those used especially.
THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Literature is an article written by an authority on a topic.
Related literature usually explains the concept being investigated, perhaps elucidates the
variables or factors that relate to this concept.
Reviewing related studies one must take careful note of the problem, the methodology
including the sampling plan, the instruments used, the findings, and conclusions.
Research Design refers to the overall plan and scheme for conducting the study. Thus, the
researcher may employ a historical design, descriptive design, or experimental design.
Sampling refers to the design for getting the respondents of the study with the minimum cost
and such that the resulting observations will be representative of the entire population.
Instruments refer to the data-gathering devices that will be used in the study. There are three
characteristics of an instrument that we need to consider; usability, validity, and reliability.
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is the application of observational techniques and/or the analysis of

documents as the primary means of learning about persons or groups and their characteristics.
 Sometimes qualitative research is called fieldwork, referring to the immersion of
researchers into the lives and worlds of those being studied.
 Investigators may observe persons or groups from afar, or they may join groups and
describe their experiences with group members
 Qualitative research is intended to enrich our descriptions of social settings and persons
participating in them. Such research offers a level of detail that is generally missing from
a self-administered questionnaire or inter-research is the application of observational
techniques and/or the persons or and interactions with view situations.
Quantitative research is the application of statistical procedures and techniques to data
collected through surveys, including interviews and questionnaire administration.
 Quantitative researchers are known as numbers-crunchers since a wide variety of
sophisticated statistical techniques exists to describe what they have found.
 Elaborate tables, charts, and graphs are constructed to portray numerical data.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND DESIGNS

Descriptive Method of research
The purpose of this design is to “describe” the status of events, people, or subjects as they exist.
Descriptive research usually makes some type of comparison contrasts and correlation and
sometimes, in carefully planned and orchestrated descriptive researches, cause-effect
relationships may be established to some extent. Some examples of descriptive researches
follow:
Descriptive Normative Surveys. The descriptive-normative survey approach attempts to
establish norms or standards based on a wide class of survey data. The survey data may be
demographic data or they may include also data on “average perceptions” of a set of respondents.
In the early days, a survey was usually connected with demographic data.
Correlational Studies. Correlational studies are designed to estimate the extent to which the
different variables are related to one another in the population of interest. The elements of this
design include the identification of the variables that will be applied and the estimation
procedure to determine the extent of relationships.
Descriptive Evaluative Studies. The objective of the descriptive-evaluative study is to judge the
“goodness of a criterion measure”. Longitudinal studies establish the changes in that criterion
measure over a long period. Thus, if one were to study the changes in the IQ levels of children 9
to 10 years over five years, then the researcher must see to it that the same group of children is
tested for IQ over the five years. Cross-sectional studies are designed to evaluate changes over
time by comparing at the same point in time, different people representing different stages in the
development. For example, to establish changes in IQ for children ages 9-10 years old, one may
simultaneously test, children 9-10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 years old to see changes in the
criterion measure.
Descriptive Comparative Studies.
Descriptive-comparative studies aim to establish significant differences between two or more
groups of subjects based on a criterion measure. No attempts to control the effects of extraneous
factors are made. For example, it may be desired to compare the managerial effectiveness of
three groups of managers A, B, and C. A study may employ a descriptive design that combines
two or more designs mentioned above.
Research methods are the strategies, processes, or techniques utilized in the collection of
data or evidence for analysis to uncover new information or create a better understanding of a
topic. 

Population and Sampling Design

The population of the study covered individuals where within the jurisdiction of (the place that
where you are holding your thesis). The study had two groups of respondents; the first was
_____(number of respondents). The second group was (number of respondents).
A purposive example, also commonly called a judgemental sample, was one that was
selected based on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study. The subjects were
selected because of some characteristics. Field researchers were often interested in studying
extreme deviant case-that was, that didn’t fit into a regular pattern of attitude and behaviors. By
studying the deviant cases, the researcher often gains a better understanding of the more regular
patterns of behavior.
Research Instruments
 The survey questionnaire was used to acquire the needed information pertinent to the
study. These were prepared and distributed to be answered by the respondent, questionnaire
consists of four (4) parts according to the problems. Problem 1. Profile of the Respondents this
part was devised to determine the profile of the respondents. The Demographic Profile of
(Respondents)
Validation of the Instrument
The instrument used in to study was validated through the following procedure. First
prepared the survey questionnaire and was submitted it to the thesis adviser and the professor for
corrections, comments, and suggestions. Upon approval, the researcher conducted the pre-test of
the questionnaire to the selected groups of respondents to determine the administrability,
appropriateness of the language used, clarity of terms, right direction, and constructions. Then,
respondents of the dry-run validity were included in the final selection of the respondents. Then,
upon writing that the questionnaires were clear and the essay to understand the post-test was
made. Since there were no more corrections it was finally printed. Then the researcher requested
the final distribution, prepared the letter addressed of the Dean, Thesis Adviser, to the Immediate
Boss and respondents.
Data Gathering Procedures
The following procedures were undertaken in gathering data and the distribution of the
instruments. First, the researcher prepared the communication letter address to the respondents
for the conduct of the study. Then a briefing was made on how to answer the questionnaire
correctly and handed down the survey questionnaires to the respondents. After the questionnaires
were answered it was collected by the researchers. Then the responses were scanned, sorted, and
tallied. Through the assistance of the thesis adviser and professor. The data gathered were
tabulated and computed, analyzed, and interpreted. After the procedures were done the data were
presented in tabular and textual form and presented.
Statistical Treatment of Data
The following statistical tools were used in the treatment and analysis of data.
1. Percentage. This was utilized to establish the profile of the respondents.
2. The ranking was used to deter the category of responses depending on the magnitude of
the variables.
3. Mean this was used to answer problems no. 1 to 4 respectively.
4. Likert Scale was utilized for the interpretation of the weighted mean as the result of the
assessment of the respondents on the problem study.
What are the two (2) kinds of statistics used?
1. Descriptive statistics = numbers of measurements used to describe limits and size, such
as population, samples, and parameters.
2. Inferential statistics use a random sample of data taken from a population to describe
and make inferences about the population.