AR8322

Site Analysis & Planning

by
Ar. M. JANAKI BANU
Assistant. Professor
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction to Site and Site Surveying

2. Site Analysis

3. Site Context And Regulations

4. Principles Of Site Layout And Development

5. Exercise In Site Surveying And Planning

 UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO SITE AND SITE SURVEYING

Definition of plot, site, land and region, units of measurements. Introduction to survey,
methods of surveying, where they are used, Surveying Instruments and their
application. Need for surveying. Measuring and drawing out a site plan from the
measurements
Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
DEFINITIONS

PLOT:

Plot means the area of contiguous parcel of land enclosed by definite boundaries over which
the applicant has legal right for development

SITE:

The place at which construction work is undertaken, a building site.

An area of land designated by a planning application for a specific development, or one for
which a proposed building is to be designed.

LAND:

Land is an area or plot of ground on the earth’s surface.

SURVEYING:

Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of pointsabove, on, or
beneath the earth’s surface and locating the points in the field.

SHORT HISTORY OF SURVEYING

1. Surveying had it’s beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC

• Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation. Divisions were washed
away by annual floods.

• “ROPE-STRETCHERS” Egyptian surveyors were created to relocate the land

divisions (measurements were made with ropes having knots at unit distances).

• Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian monuments

2. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry.

• Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments – Diopter (a form of

level).

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Planning Introduction
3. Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the Roman roads, aqueducts,
and land division systems.

• Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional organization

• Developed several instruments:

• Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles

• Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling

• Chorobates – 20’ straight edge with oil in notch for leveling

4. Middle Ages: land division of Romans continued in Europe.

• Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning angles up to 90° and has a
graduated scale developed by an Italian named Von Piso.

5. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for mapping and marking land
claims caused extensive surveying, especially by the English.

• 1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile
square sections

1. 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System (also

called the Rectangular System)

• 1807: United States Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate

control network and mapping

• Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George

Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and many more.

6. 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced, population increased, and land
value caused development of licensure for surveyors in all states.

• Educational requirements for licensure began in the early 1990’s

• Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning using global

positioning systems, construction machine control, and lidar (scanning)
mapping

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
• Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and geographic information
systems (GIS)

• Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into the 21 st century

THE WORK OF THE SURVEYOR CONSISTS OF 5 PHASES

1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and final point locations.

2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements and recording data in the field.

3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing calculations based upon the recorded
data to determine locations in a useable form.

4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to produce a map, plat, or chart in

the proper form.

5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the proper locations in

the field.

CATEGORIES OF SURVEYING

1. Plane Surveying – surveying with the reference base for fieldwork and computations
are assumed to be a flat horizontal surface.

Generally within a 12 mile radius the pull of gravity is very nearly parallel to that at
any other point within the radius and thus horizontal lines can be considered
straight.

2. Geodetic Surveying – surveying technique to determine relative positions of widely

spaced points, lengths, and directions which require the consideration of the size and
shape of the earth. (Takes the earth’s curvature into account.)

7 TYPES OF SURVEYS

1. Photogrammetry – mapping utilizing data obtained by camera or other sensors

carried in airplanes or satellites.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
2. Boundary Surveying – establishing property corners, boundaries, and areas of land
parcels.

3. Control Surveying – establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that

serve as a reference framework for other survey projects.

4. Engineering Surveying – providing points and elevations for the building Civil
Engineering projects.

5. Topographic Surveying – collecting data and preparing maps showing the locations
of natural man-made features and elevations of pointso the ground for multiple uses.

6. Route Surveys – topographic and other surveys for long – narrow projects associated
with Civil Engineering projects.

1. Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.

7. Hydrographic Surveying – mapping of shorelines and the bottom of bodies of water.

1. Also known as bathymetric surveying.

CHAIN SURVEYING

 Simplest method of surveying

 Measurements are taken in field and the rest work, such as plotting calculation etc.
are done in office
 Most suitable adapted to small plane areas with very few details
 Carefully done, gives accurate results.
 Necessary requirements : chain, tape, ranging rod, arrows and sometime cross
staff
 System of surveying in which sides of various triangles are measured directly in
the field and NO angular
 Adopted when level of accuracy required is not high.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
EXECUTION:

1. Reconnaissance: The preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed.

2. Marking stations

3. Reference sketches

4. Running survey line

APPLICATION:

Chain survey is suitable when,

 Ground is fairly level and simple

 Plans are required on large scale e.g., fields
 When area is small in extent

Chain survey is not suitable when,

 For large areas

 When too many details are not required
 Wooden countries
 Undulating areas

TYPES OF CHAINS AND TAPES:

Before the ability to make steel rods and bands, sticks were cut into lengths of 16.5’ (Rod)
and they were laid end to end to measure.

GUNTER’S CHAIN

 66’ long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches or 66 feet long
 Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600’s in England and made with
individual wires with a loop at each end connected
 Chain had between 600-800 wearing surfaces which with hard use would
wear and cause chain to elongate
 Measurements were recorded in chains and links
 7ch 94.5lk = 7.945 ch = 7.945 X 66’/ch = 524.37’
 1 chain = 4 rods; 80 chains = 1 mile

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction

Gunter’s Chain

SURVEYOR’S AND ENGINEER’S TAPES

 Made of ¼” to 3/8” wide steel tapes in 100’; 200’; 300’ lengths

 Multiple types of marking and graduation
 Available in chains, feet, and metric
 Graduated:
• Throughout – feet and tenths marked the entire length
• Extra foot – feet marked the length of the tape with additional foot at the
0 end graduated in tenths and hundreds of the foot

ENGINEER’S CHAIN

Same construction as Gunter’s Chain, but each link is 1.0’ long and was used for engineering
projects

INVAR TAPES

 Made of special nickel steel to reduce length variations due to temperature changes
 The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive
 Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes

CLOTH, FIBERGLASS, AND PVC TAPES

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
 Lower accuracy and stored on reels.
 Used for measurement of 0.1’ accuracy requirements

ACCESSORIES:

1. Chaining Pins – set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths

2. Hand Level – used to determine required plumbing height

3. Plumb Bob – used to transfer the mark from the tape to ground

4. Tension Handle – used to maintain correct tension on tape

MODERN CHAINS

Modern chains are metal strips 100 feet long. These chains are three standard types.

1. FULLY GRADUATED

2. FIRST FOOT (CUT CHAIN)

3. EXTENDED FOOT (ADD CHAIN)

READING SURVEYING STEEL CHAIN

The first step in reading a surveying chain is to determine the units that are used.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction

• Knowing that the chain is 100 feet long, having numbers from 0 to 100 indicates that
each number is one foot of distance.

• Each foot has nine (9) lines (10 spaces), therefore each line represents 1/10 or 0.10 of
a foot.

• The reading for this example is 98.6 ft.

Note: this a fully graduated chain

READING A CUT CHAIN

The first foot or cut chain gets its name from the fact that the whole foot reading at the head
of the chain must be reduced “cut” by the partial foot.

In this example the pin at the head is on 99 feet and the rear pin is on 0.4 feet. The distance
is 99 - 0.4 or 98.6 feet.

READING AN ADD CHAIN

The extended foot (add) chain gets its name because an additional foot is added to each end
of the chain.

• The partial foot is added to the foot value at the head of the chain.

• In this example the head pin is on 99 feet an the rear pin is at 0.7 feet. The distance is
99 + 0.7 or 99.7 ft.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction

STEEL CHAIN ON HOLDER

To rewind chain on holder:

1. Hold holder vertical in the left hand.

2. Attach 100 foot end of the tape with the numbers up.

3. Wind tape up rotating the handle clockwise.

4. Remember to wipe tape with a dry cloth as it is wound onto the handle.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
SURVEY INSTRUMENTS

TRANSIT:

Transit is the most universal of surveying instruments – primary use is for measurement or
layout of horizontal and vertical angles – also used to determine vertical and horizontal
distance by stadia, prolonging straight lines, and low-order leveling.

COMPONENTS OF THE TRANSIT

1. Alidade – Upper part

2. Horizontal limb – Middle part

3. Leveling-head assembly – Lower part

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
ALIDADE (UPPER PART)

 Circular cover plate w/2 level vials and is connected to a solid conical shaft
called the inner spindle.
 Contains the vernier for the horizontal circle
 Also contains frames that support the telescope called STANDARDS
 Contains the vertical circle and its verniers, the compass box, the telescope
and its level vial

HORIZONTAL LIMB (MIDDLE PART)

 This is rigidly connected to a hollow conical shaft called the outer spindle
(which holds the inner spindle)
 Also has the upper clamp, which allows the alidade to be clamped tight
 Also contains the horizontal circle

LEVELING-HEAD ASSEMBLY (LOWER PART)

1. 4 – leveling screws

2. Bottom plate that screws into tripod

3. Shifting device that allows transit to move ¼ to 3/8”

4. ½ ball that allows transit to tilt when being leveled

5. The SPIDER – 4-arm piece which holds the outer spindle

6. Lower clamp – allows rotation of outer spindle

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction

PROPERTIES

1. Designed to have proper balance between:

 Magnification and resolution of the telescope

 Least count of the vernier and sensitivity of the plate and telescope bubbles

2. Average length of sight of 300’ assumed in design

3. Specifications of typical 1’ gun:

 Magnification – 18 to 28X
 Field of view - 1 to 130’
 Minimum focus – 5’ to 7’
 X-hairs usually are + with stadia lines above and below
 The transit is a repeating instrument because angles are measured by
repetition and the total is added on the plate

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
OPERATION OF TRANSIT

9 Steps:

1. Set up over point B and level it. Loosen both motions

2. Set up the plates to read 0 and tighten the upper clamp. (Upper and lower
plates are locked together)

3. Bring Vernier to exactly 0 using upper tangent screw and magnifying glass.

4. Sight on point A and set vertical X-hair in center of point, by rotating transit

5. Tighten the lower clamp and entire transit is locked in

6. Set X-hair exactly on BS point A using the lower tangent screws. At this point
the vernier is on 000’ and the X-hairs are on BS

7. Loosen the upper clamp, turn instrument to right until you are near pt. C.
Tighten the upper clamp

8. Set vertical X-hair exactly on pt. C using the upper tangent screw.

9. Read  on vernier

If repeating , loosen lower motion and again BS on A (using only lower

motion), and then loosen upper motion to allow  to accumulate.

If an instrument is in adjustment, leveled, exactly centered, and operated by an experienced

observer under suitable conditions, there are only 2 sources for error.

1. Pointing the telescope

2. Reading the plates

ADVANTAGES

 Better accuracy obtained through averaging

 Disclosure of errors by comparing values of the single and multiple readings

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
HANDLING A TRANSIT

 Hints on handling and setting-up the transit

 Pick up transit by leveling head and standards
 When carrying the transit, have telescope locked in position perpendicular to the
leveling head with objective lens down
 When setting-up, keep tripod head level and bring plumb bob to within ¼” of point to
be set over, then loosen leveling screws enough to enable you to movetransit on
plate, then move transit until it is over the point

TELESCOPE, SCALES:

TELESCOPE:

 Similar to that of dumpy level, but shorter

 Parts – objective, internal focusing lens, focusing wheel, X-hairs, & eyepiece

SCALES:

Horizontal plate or circle is usually graduated into 30’ or 20’ spaces with graduations from 0
to 360 in both directions.

 Circles are graduated automatically by machine and then scanned to ensure

accuracy
 They are correct to within 2” of arc

VERNIER:

 Least count = Lowest # of reading possible – determines accuracy

 Least Count = (Value of smallest division on scale)/(# of divisions on vernier)

The vernier is always read in the same direction from zero as the numbering of the circle,
i.e. the direction of the increasing angles

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
Typical mistakes in reading verniers result from

 Not using magnifying glass

 Reading in the wrong direction from zero, or on the wrong side of a double vernier
 Failing to determine the least count correctly
 Omitting 10’, 15’, 20’, 30’ when the index is beyond those marks

Scale Graduation Vernier Divisions Least Count

30’ 30 1’

20’ 40 30”

15’ 45 20”

10’ 60 10”

3 TYPES OF VERNIERS

1. Direct or single vernier – reads only in one direction & must be set with graduations

ahead of zero

2. Double vernier – can be read clockwise or counterclockwise–only ½ is used at a time

3. Folded vernier – avoids a ling vernier plate

 ½ of the graduations are placed on each side of the index mark

 Use is not justified because it is likely to cause errors.

ANGLE SCALE WITH VERNIER

 Mechanical instruments use Vernier scales to improve the precision of the instrument.
 The Vernier scale divides the last unit on the main scale into another set of fractional
parts.
 The main scale is read at the zero (0) on the Vernier scale.
 The Vernier scale is read at the line of coincident.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction

o
Reading of the scale :26.5
Main scale reading

Vernier Scale
Line of coincident

DOUBLE VERNIER SCALE

Rotation

 The double Vernier is read using the same method.

 One additional step when reading a double Vernier is deciding which side of the
Vernier should be read.

 This is determined by the direction of rotation of the instrument.

 [Note: the angle scale is stationary and the Vernier scale rotates]

Clockwise rotation (right turned) = Left side

Counter clockwise rotation (Left turned) = Right side

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
ODOMETER WHEEL:

 Odometer wheels use different units on the odometers.

 Insure you know the measuring units before you start to use the wheel.

OPTICAL - RANGE FINDER

 Range finders are used to measure distance.

 Two primary types are optical and EDM.
 Optical range finders use lenses, mirrors and principles trig to determine distance.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
RANGE FINDER – EDM:

 EDM = Electronic distance measuring

 Many different models.

 Many different features.

 Many different prices. (Precision)

PRINCIPLES OF EDM

 Laser light and other signals travel at the speed of light.

 If you know speed and time, you can calculate distance.

 Multiple signals are used to determine partial cycles.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
HAND LEVEL:

 This is the simplest type of hand level.

 It is useful for estimating slope & elevation changes.

This instrument is called the Abney level. It can be used to measure slope, vertical angles
and stadia distances.

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
ROD:

 The Philadelphia style rod is seven (7) feet long and has a scale that measure to
1/100 of a foot.

 Each whole foot is marked with a large red number.

 A small red foot number is located at the 1/3 foot mark.

 The black numbers between each red foot mark are 1/10 th of a foot.

 The 1/100ths are read by reading the transitions between white and black.

7.04

6.73

6.33

6.15

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
ROD WITH TARGET:

 The use of a target improves the accuracy of the readings and increases the readable
distance between the rod and the instrument

 Using the Vernier scale on the target, distances can be read to 1/1000 of a foot.

 A rod with target can be used four ways.

1. Direct read

2. Indirect read

3. High rod

4. Extended rod

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
DUMPY (WYE) LEVEL:

LEVELING A FOUR (4) LEGGED INSTRUMENT

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
AUTOMATIC LEVEL:

These levels are called automatic because the level will complete the leveling process once it
is close to level.

TOTAL STATION:

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Site Analysis and 1.
Planning Introduction
 A total station is an electronic transit and an EDM combined into one instrument.
 Add in a microprocessor, laser plummet and other options and you have the
instrument of choice for ground based surveying.
 Some may require a prism, but others are reflector less.

ROCKING THE ROD

Rocking the rod should be used when a rod level is not available.

ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT

PLUMB BOB

RANGE POLE SURVEYOR’S NAIL

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 UNIT 2. SITE ANALYSIS

Computation of area by geometrical figures and other methods. Drawing marking out
plan, layout plan and centerline plan – Importance, procedure for making these
drawings and dimensioning. Setting out the building plan on site – Procedure and
Precautions.Exercises on the above
Site Analysis and 2. Site
Planning Drawings

SETTING OUT THE PLAN ON SITE

The process of transferring the distances of the plan to the ground for
commencing the construction work is known as the Setting out process

 Setting out is the establishment of the marks and lines to define the position and level
of the elements for the construction work so that works may proceed with reference to
them.

 This branch of surveying is sometimes referred as the construction surveying.

 It is the reverse of normal land surveying in which measurements are taken to prepare
plan.

 A building is set out in order to clearly define the outline of the excavation and the
centre line of the walls, so that construction can be carried out exactly according to the
plan.

 The centre line method of setting out is generally preferred and adopted.

 Setting out is one application of surveying.

 Most of the techniques and equipment used in surveying are also used in setting out

 Mistakes in setting out can be costly

 For setting out to be undertaken successfully good work practices should be

employed.

 There are three parties involved in the construction procedures: the employer, the
engineer and the contractor

OPERATIONS INVOLVED

1. To establish on the ground a system of control points or stations from which the
measurements can be taken for the setting out process

2. To establish suitable lines and levels to facilitate the process of construction

3. To mark arrangements for checking or verifying the location of the completed parts of
the structure.
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Site Analysis and 2. Site
Planning Drawings
ITEMS REQUIRED

1. Tape

2. String

3. Nails

4. Wooden pegs

5. Lime powder

PROCEDURE

 First step is to clear the site from all types of debris and organic matter

 Outer boundaries of buildings are fixed with help of wooden batten and centre line
plan.

 The building face is checked by right angle method with the help of string

 Generally rectangle should be checked by diagonals.

 The centre line pegs are marked and fixed, the width of foundation is marked with
the help of plum bob and lime powder.

PRECAUTION

 The diagonals should be equal for rectangles and also be equal to its calculate value

 Lines should be marked with the help of lime powder by stretching the string tightly

 Rectangle should be marked by 3,4,5 or 9,12,15 method accurately.

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
Planning Drawings

Example: Setting out plan for a residential building

Example: Centre plan for a residential building

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
Planning Drawings
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. Checking

• The work should be checked completely as the existence of an undetected error may
serious)y affect the final result.

2. Direct sealing

• In abstracting the required dimensions from the drawing of the project, the surveyor
must be very careful in reading the figures and the direct scaling should be resorted to
as little as possible and that too for minor structures only.

• The skew or inclined distances should be carefully worked out from the given square
plan, width and angle of inclination.

3. Important pegs

• Important pegs should be fixed with a greater sense of certainty.

• It is desirable to fix such pegs by two different method based upon independent sets
of calculations rather than repeating the same method,

4. Instruments

• The instruments employed in the setting out work should be tested at frequent
intervals and they should be so used that the errors of non-adjustment are reduced to
a minimum.

5. Structural work

• For structural work, a setting out plan should be prepared from the drawings and as it
will not be possible to locate this plan directly owing to the obstructions, a convenient
framework of parallel lines clearing the obstructions, should be prepared.

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
Planning Drawings
CONTROL STATIONS

• The aim of the construction surveyor is to set out the structure correctly in all the three
dimensions so that it is of the correct size, at the correct level and in the correct
relative position.

• For this purpose, the surveyor has to establish a number of control stations on the
ground.

• Following factors should be considered while deciding the control stations:

1. Duration:
• For relatively short duration of work, the control stations may be in the form of
wooden pegs driven directly into the ground.
• But for long duration of the construction work, the control stations should take
up the form of concrete or masonry pillars.

2. Location

• The control stations should be so located near the structure that they are not
disturbed during the construction process.
• They should be located well outside the actual area of construction.

3. Numbering

• A suitable system of numbering the control stations should be devised for

convenience.
• It will serve as a good reference and will also be helpful in re-establishing the
disturbed control stations.

HORIZONTAL CONTROL

• The setting out of works requires a very accurate horizontal control. It consists of
establishing reference marks of known plan positions from which the horizontal
distances are measured for setting out the structure.

• For the horizontal control, it is desirable to establish a base line near one face of the
structure.
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Site Analysis and 2. Site
Planning Drawings
• In case of large important structures, two base lines mutually perpendicular to each
other may be established. The measurements are taken from the base lines.

• For achieving the horizontal control, a reference grid is established and it may be
taken the same as the survey grid, if it is already existing. However, if the survey grid
does not have sufficient control points or if the control points are quite far off, a
separate site grid may be established.

VERTICAL CONTROL

• The vertical control consists of establishing the reference marks or points of known
elevation relative to some datum.

• The levels of the various points on the structure are measure or obtained from the
vertical control points.

• For a large project, a master bench mark (M.B.M) is established near the structure.

• The existing bench mark in the vicinity of the structure may be selected as a M.B.M

• But if no such existing bench mark is available, the M.B.M is established by running
levels from the nearby bench mark.

• Depending upon the size and shape of the. structure, the required number of
temporary bench marks (T.B.M) are established near the structure. The particulars of
T.E.M. are as follows:

1. All T.B.M should be properly protected

2. Each T.B.M should be given a code number on the site plan
3. Some existing permanent features should be selected as T.B.M. If such features
are not available, the concrete or masonry pillars can be constructed to serve as
T.B.M
4. The distance between the two adjacent T.B.M should be normally be not more
than 100m
5. Their positions should be preferably be fixed during the site reconnaissance
6. The levels of T.B.M should be checked at regular intervals.
7. They should be linked or connected to the T.B.M

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
Planning Drawings
BASE LINE:

 For setting out /layout, the most important requirement is to establish a baseline.
 This is marked on the ground as per site plan requirement with the help of offsets
which are taken from the existing road or existing building.

CENTRE LINE:

 Centre line divides the plan into two equal parts.

 This can be marked in the field with the help of baseline.
 This line is very necessary and useful for layout.
 This line should be transferred to Burjis and be kept up to the completion of foundation
work.

SETTING OF STRUCTURES

The salient points like the corners of the building are marked correctly on the ground by using
the following methods:

1. Co-ordinates from the Site grid

• The site grid is prepared and depending upon the number of control points
required on the ground, the secondary site grids may be established
• The important points of the structure are located from the co-ordinates of these
points with reference to the site grid
• The bearing and distances of each important point are calculated with reference to
two grid points and it is located on the ground by the process of intersection
• The location is then checked from a third grid point

2. Offsets from the base line

• A suitable base line is chosen and the setting out of the important points of the
structure is done by taking the offsets from this base line

3. Offsets from the existing building

• This method may be adopted when the proposed structure is small.

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
Planning Drawings
• A reference line is run between the corners of some permanent features of the
existing building and then, the offsets are taken from this reference line to locate
the important points of the proposed structure.

SETTING OUT BUILDINGS

• From the plan of the proposed building, the foundation plan, showing the centre-
line points and their distances, is prepared.
• The foundation plan should be fully dimensioned and it should clearly indicate the
dimensions of the foundation trenches.
• A reference line is decided and it is marked on the ground.
• The other points and marks are then established and necessary checks are
applied to ascertain the fact that centre-lines of the proposed structure are properly
marked on ground.
• The wooden pegs, masonry pillars or similar marks are put up at proper places so
that they do not cause any obstruction when the work of excavating the foundation
trenches starts.
• Thus, the setting out of buildings mainly serves the following two purposes:
i. The excavation of foundation trenches can be started immediately after this
process is completed.
ii. The lines and marks established by this process serve as a guide and
provide checks in the construction of the foundation work.

COMPUTATION OF AREAS

• The area of the plot is computed either from its plan or from the field notes of the
survey work as in case of cross-staff survey

• The term ‘area’ indicates the area of a tract of land as projected upon a horizontal
plane & in the strict sense of the term; it does not mean the actual area of the surface
of land.

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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The units of measurement of areas are as follows:

• 1 square kilometre (km2) = 100 Hectares (ha)

• 1 Hectare (ha) = 100 Are (a)

• 1 Are = 100 Square metres (m2)

• 1 Square metre (m2) = 10000 Square centimetres (cm2)

Thus the relations between km2, ha, a, m2 and cm2 will be as follows:

km2 ha a m2 cm2
1 100 10000 1000000 -
1 100 10000 -
1 100 1000000
1 10000

The methods for the computation of areas may are of following types:

1. Analytical method
2. Graphic method
3. Mechanical method

All the above methods are applied to obtain both large and small areas involved in the
and boundary survey work. On some occasions, the combinations of the methods may
also prove to be of advantage.

1. Analytical method

• The area is worked out by the computations based directly on the field measurements
of angles and lines and making use of the formulae of geometry, trigonometry and
analytic geometry
• Greatest accuracy is offered by this method because it is affected only by likely errors
involved in the field measurements.
• Requires linear and angular measurements along the boundary of the plot and bulky
calculations depending upon the number of angles involved.
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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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2. Graphic method

• The area is calculated by the computations of the lines as drawn on the plan
• The outline of plot is subdivided into elementary geometric figures mainly triangles and
sometimes into rectangles and trapezoids
• The height and base of each figure are then scaled to calculate the area and by
adding the sums of all figures, the total area is obtained
• Convenient to use when the boundary of plot is a broken line with a few turns.

3. Mechanical method

• The area is obtained by the use of a mechanical device or equipment, usually a

planimeter.
• Less accurate
• Most commonly used method because it has the advantage of allowing the areas to
be obtained from the outline of any shape.

Following methods of computations of areas will now be discussed:

i. Geometrical figures
ii. Measuring angles
iii. Ordinates
iv. Co-ordinates
v. Planimeter

I. GEOMETRICAL FIGURES

Area by Triangles:

• This is the analytical method of computing the area of plot and it can also be
converted into the graphic type, if the plan of the plot is prepared
• The area can be found by dividing the lot into a series of triangles, making the
necessary measurements and then calculating the area by any of the usual
trigonometric formulas.
• The area of each unit of triangle can be worked out by the following formula:
1. Area of triangle = ���(��−��)(��−��)(��−��)
Where a, b and c are the three sides of the triangle and s is the half perimeter,
s = ½ (a+b+c)
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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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2. Area of triangle = ½ b h
Where b= length of any side
h= perpendicular distance of the opposite vertex from this side.
3. Area of triangle = ½ a b sin o
Where a and b are the two sides of triangle making the angle of o (theta)

II. MEASURING GRIDS

 The measuring grid technique of calculating areas in the graphic method and it is
helpful in determining the areas of small plots with curved boundary lines.
 The square and parallel measuring grids of the rectilinear type are the most popular in
practice.

figure i

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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 As shown in figure i, the square measuring grid consists of a network of lines drawn
mutually perpendicular at certain intervals on some transparent material such as
tracing paper or photographic film
 The figure whose area is to be calculated is superimposed on the square grid and the
full number of squares is counted and the partial squares dissected by the boundary
lines are converted into the corresponding full squares by careful judgement.
 The common mistake which may occur in the square measuring grid is the correct
counting of the whole unit squares
 Parallel measuring grid as shown in figure ii, is free from such limitation.

figure ii
 The parallel measuring grid is prepared by drawing parallel lines at equal intervals on
some transparent material such as tracing paper or photographic film
 The figure whose area is to calculated is superimposed on the grid in such a way that
the boundary of the figure is completely accommodated on the grid.
 The vertical offsets are then drawn to replace the curved boundary of the plan and
such arrangement divides the figure into rectangles which can be easily measured.
 The positions of offsets should be chosen in such a way that the area exceeded by an
offset is nearly same as the area lost by an offset.
 Such offsets are known as the equalising offsetsand they should be carefully framed
to get the accurate area of the plot.

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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III. ORDINATES:

• This method can be used as an analytic method

• But it is more convenient in the form of graphic type.
• This method is useful when the plot is in the form of long and narrow strips such as
those required for roads, railways, canals etc. with irregular boundaries
• In short, areas with irregular or curved boundaries are usually measured by
establishing a base line conveniently near and by taking offsets at regular intervals
from the base line to the boundary.
• Following two case will be studied
a) Offsets at equal intervals
b) Offsets at unequal intervals
a) Offsets at equal intervals
By knowing the length of constant interval between the ordinates and height of each
ordinate, the area of the plot can be compared by adopting any one of the following
rules:
1. Mid-ordinate rule
2. Average ordinate rule
3. Trapezoidal Rule
4. Simpson or parabolic rule

1. Mid-ordinate rule:

Let n = number of equal parts

d = length of each equal part

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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L = length of base line = ndor d = L/n

h1, h2etc = ordinates at mid-points of each division. Then,

Total area = dh1+ dh2 + dh3 + ….. +dhn

= d (h1 + h2 + h3 + …. + hn)

= (L / n)(h1 + h2 + h3 + ….. + hn)

2. Average ordinate rule:

In this case, the length of average ordinate is obtained by dividing the sum of all ordinates
with the total number of ordinates measured.

Let O1, O2 etc = ordinates at each of the points of division n, d and L (total length of the base

line)

Then, number of ordinates = n + 1

Total Area = [(O1 + O2 + O3 + ……. + On) / (n + 1)] L

3. Trapezoidal rule:

This rule assumes that the short lengths of boundary between the ordinates are straight lines
so that the area is divided into a series of trapezoids.

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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The total area = d x [(F + L) / 2 + other ordinates]

or = d/2 x [(F + L) + other ordinates]

or = d/2 x [(O1 + On + 2(O3 + O4 + ............... + O n-1)]

Where

d = equal distance between ordinates

F = first ordinate

L = last ordinate

O1 = first offset

On = last offset

ILLUSTRATION PROBLEM:

Distance 0 8 16 24 32 40

offset 0 1.5 2.2 2.0 2.1 1.1

Total area, A = d/2 x [(O1 + O6 + 2(O2+ O3+ O4 + O5)]

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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= 8/2 x [(0 + 1.1 + 2(1.5 + 2.2 + 2.0 + 2.1)]

= 66.8 sq.m

4. Simpson rule:

In this rule, the boundaries between the ends of coordinates are assumed as an area of a
parabola. Simpson’s rule is sometimes called parabolic rule.

The total area = d/3 [F + L + 4(sum of En) + 2(sum of On)]

d = equal distance between ordinates

F = first ordinate

L = last ordinate

En = even numbered ordinates

On = odd number ordinates

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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ILLUSTRATION PROBLEM:

Distance 0 8 16 24 32 40

offset 0 1.5 2.2 2.0 2.1 1.1

Total area, A = d/3 [O1 + O7 + 4(O2 + O4 + O6) + 2(O3 + O5)]

= 8/3 x [(0 + 1.1 + 4(1.5 + 2.0) +2(2.0 + 2.1)]

= 8/3 x 23.7 = 63.2 sq.m

4. CO - ORDINATES:

The method of coordinates is based on the following rule in analytic geometry: If the vertices
of the figure are taken in order around the figure, the area is equal to one-half the sum of the
products of each ordinate multiplied by the difference between the two adjacent abscissas
always subtracting the preceding from the following abscissa.

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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Area Calculation by Coordinate Method

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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AREA BY DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE METHOD:

 Meridian distance – is the distance of the midpoint of a line to the reference

meridian.

 This method is an adaptation of the coordinates method and is convenient to use

when the latitudes and departures of the traverse are known.

 The method is based on the theory that the area of a right triangle equals one half

of the product of the two sides.

 The surveyor can determine this area by taking one half of the product of the

latitude and the departure. However, depending on its location, the triangle may

add to or subtract from the total area of the irregular figure.

 It does, however, involve more effort and time.

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Site Analysis and 2. Site
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Double meridian distance of any line is twice its meridian distance.

AB = 2 x GG’ = GG’ + KL or departure of AB

BC = 2 x FF’ = 2 x GG’ + 2 x KL + 2 x LF’ = DMD Of AB + dep of AB + dep of BC

CD = 2 x HH’ = 2 x HM + 2 x MN – 2 x NH’ = DMD of BC + dep of BC + dep of CD

RULES IN COMPUTING DMD

1. The DMD of the first line is equal to the departure of that line.

2. The DMD of any other line is equal to the DMD of the preceding line, plus the
departure of the preceding line, plus the departure of the line itself.

3. The DMD of the last line is numerically equal to the departure of the line but with
opposite sign.

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 UNIT 3. SITE CONTEXT AND REGULATIONS

Importance of site analysis; On site and off site factors; Analysis of natural,
cultural and aesthetic factors – topography, hydrology, soils, vegetation,
climate, surface drainage, accessibility, size and shape, infrastructures
available - sources of water supply and means of disposal system, visual
aspects; Preparation of site analysis diagram. Study of microclimate:-
vegetation, landforms and water as modifiers of microclimate. Study of land
form;- contours, slope analysis, grading process, grading criteria, functional and
aesthetic considerations – Case studies and exercises on the above.
Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
SITE ANALYSIS

Site Analysis is the act or process of investigating the natural, Man-made and cultural
characteristics in and around the site to determine how they present opportunities and
constraints for achieving the project design goals.

IMPORTANCE

 Development proposals need to illustrate design decisions, which are based on

careful analysis of the site conditions and their relationship to the surrounding context.
 By describing the physical elements of the locality and the conditions impacting on the
site, opportunities and constraints for future development can be understood and
addressed in the design.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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OFF-SITE FACTORS

 Adjacent Land Uses

 Upstream/upwind issues: pollution; run-off…

 Noise, Visual Pollution, Odours: Road traffic, airplane flight path, rifle range…

 Soil/Air/Water: Pesticides, factory emissions, acid rain, toxic farm runoff…

 Electrical Pollution: Power lines, transmission boxes

 Continuation of Wildlife Corridors: Deer paths, bluebird trail…

 Social Community

 Potential Sharing/Bartering: People, business, plants/seed, biomass, timber…

 Potential Markets

 Public Open Space

 Threats of Local Development

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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NATURAL FACTORS

 Sun Direction: Orientation (locate a north arrow on your base map drawing)

 Wind/Air: Seasonal direction winter; summer; air drainage

 Water: Ponds, streams, bogs, marches; springs; rainwater runoff/drainage; flood

plain; fords; dams; swales, ditches; where does run-off go/come from?

 Microclimates: Frost pockets; thermal belts; airflow; shade; solar gain/refection

 Topography: Elevation above sea level; contours; key lines&key points; valleys;

ridges

 Slopes: Aspect; gradients (gentle, medium, steep)

 Soils: Types - rocky, fertile, wet, clay; color, compaction, erosion

 Rocks, sand, minerals: Potential building materials, obstructions, microclimate

 Flora: Trees, crops, gardens, ground covers, (wild or exotic); “edges”; native edible

forage, wildlife habitat; (Stage of succession, invasive, poisonous…

 Fauna: Domestic; native wildlife

 Views

CULTURAL FACTORS

 Site history :

 Previous land use,

 nature,
 buildings, people, disasters..

 Land use, Ownership and control :

 Present zoning of site, adjacent property;

 Function and pattern of land use;
 Location, type and size of pertinent community;

 Economical value :

 Land costs,
 Future potential

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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AESTHETIC FACTORS

 Landscape special character

- Natural features,
- Urban features,
- Visual value/ characters :
- panoramic views,
visual channel,
framed view/ filter view,
point of interest

 Spatial pattern of the site

 Visual quality and character

 Visual disturbance

TOPOGRAPHY

 Topography refers to the slope and level of the land – whether the land is flat and

plain, or whether it is sloping? From a design point of view, a sloping site will be more

challenging.

 If a site is sloping, the exact slope can be interpreted from a detailed Contour map.

 The contour locations and spacing of contours will play a big role in the siting of the

building.

 It is always better to design buildings along with the contours, integrating it into the

design to reduce unnecessary cutting and filling of soil.

 Also, during the site visit, it is important to check out the stability of the slopes –

whether the slopes are solid enough to permit construction on it.

 Major topographic features such as high points, low points, ridges and valleys, slopes

and flat areas are also noted

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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WHY TOPOGRAPHIC INFORMATION IS NEEDED

 Building locations, technology and cost are influenced by topography.

 Topography, combined with aspect, affects microclimate and vegetation.

 Topography influences and can be exploited for recreation and aesthetic enjoyment

(see also ‘Visual and Sensory Experience

 Topography influences access and circulation

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis

HYDROLOGY

 Hydrology, as the name suggests, refers to things related to water. During the site
visit, we need to identify water bodies present in and around the site like ponds, lakes,
rivers etc.
 The location and size of these water bodies should be studied so that they can be
integrated into the design scheme.
 The presence of water can lead to reduction in the overall temperatures. It will also
affect the moisture content in the atmosphere.
 One thing to be checked is whether there is any excessive glare present.
 The water table is another very important feature in any site study. This refers to the
level below the soil at which water is present.
 For areas close to water bodies, the water table may be very shallow. A shallow water
table will affect the stability of foundations and additional precautions will have to be
taken.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
TYPICAL QUESTIONS

1. Drainage pattern and major water channel

2. Unique feature and size such as water body

3. Aquifer and recharge area, the depth of rise and fall 0f water table

4. Floodplain of 50 and 100 year storms.

5. What pattern, quantity and quality will be affected by the design

6. Water table level

7. Qualitative analysis of soil:

Alkalinity, Color of water, pH level, taste and odour…

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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USE OF WATER

 Like all living things, plants and lawns need water to survive and flourish, and in many
areas of the country, this is provided by sprinkler systems, which may be designed or
specified by the site planner
 Aesthetic in nature—the still water of a lake is soothing and evokes a feeling of
serenity.
 In contrast to the tranquility of still water, the swift moving water of a fountain or
waterfall is dramatic and exciting, both visually and aurally
 The rigid geometry of a reflecting pool may also provide a contemplative setting
 Water also moderates the microclimate of a site, as discussed in the previous lesson
 The sound of falling water may be used to mask urban noise from cars and other
sources, as in Park
 The recreational uses of water are many and varied: swimming in a backyard pool,
sailing or waterskiing on a lake, snorkeling in the ocean

SOIL

 Soils vary from place to place. Their properties also vary according to the type of soil.

Sandy soil, clayey soil, laterite etc, all have different properties, which affect the

design of the building.

 This is very important from a structural point of view while designing buildings. The

safe load bearing capacity of the soil is to be found out after which the structural

system and the foundations will be designed accordingly.

 Some soils have peculiar properties. The Black cotton soil for example, is perfectly

normal when in a dry state. However, as soon as it comes in contact with water, it

starts to expand, which will have a very adverse effect on any building designed on it.

 Thus, it is important to be aware of these characteristics to avoid problems in future.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
Soil survey data and the importance of soil information:

 related to building construction and basement

 related to water supply and septic system

 related to functions of land use planning

 related to vegetation and wildlife habitat.

TYPICAL QUESTIONS

1. Which kind and what depth for engineering and plant value?

2. Chemical property of soil for engineering and plant value?

3. How deep is the water table and how much it fluctuates?

PROBLEMS IN SOIL

 Expansive Soil

 Weak Soil

 Poorly/Excessively drained soil

 Soil acidification

 Soil contamination

 Desertification

 Soil erosion

 Soil salination

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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VEGETATION

 The vegetation will consist of all the trees, flora and fauna present on the site.

 These should me marked onto the site plan so that it will assist during the design
stage.

 Along with the location, the type of trees, the size of the trees, diameter or spread of
the branches, heights etc., are to be identified.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
 Different trees have different characteristics – the spread of leaves, the speed of
growth, the spread of roots, falling of leaves, water requirement, soil nourishment etc.

 All these features will vary from tree to tree and will also play a major role in the
design.

 Along with trees and vegetation, other natural features like rock formations, swamps,
marshes etc. are also to be identified.

 If we think of larger plant materials forming the walls and ceiling of the outside
environment, then ground cover is its carpet.

 Ground cover defines a space or surface, provides visual interest because of its color
or texture, and retains soil and moisture.

 Trees or other plant materials may be used to frame a view.

 However, plants of varied shapes, colors, and textures may be added to provide more
interest. Too little variation is dull and monotonous, while too much is busy and even
chaotic.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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CRITERIA'S FOR SITE VEGETATION ANALYSIS

 The age of the existing planting – young trees will get taller
 Growth patterns
 Condition and nature of the tree
 Diameter of the Girth
 Spread of the tree
 Height of the tree
 Sensual qualities

The location and identification of vegetation on a site helps to preserve and take advantage
of nativeplant material.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis

CLIMATE

 The climatic aspects of the specific site or areas on the site are called the
microclimate.
 The specific characteristics of the site are analyzed only after one has a good
understanding of the macroclimate and general climatic characteristics which give an
overview of the climate for your region.
 The microclimate must be studied not only for the natural elements, but for how any
man-made elements, such as buildings and landscaping are affecting and/or will affect
the site.
 For example, a windbreak that protects against the winter winds can change the
microclimate of the site significantly

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis

CLIMATIC ELEMENTS

1. SUN

 The sun path direction tells one which will be the side from which the maximum heat
will be coming, especially in the afternoons. In warmer climates, the design will try to
reduce the amount of incident sunlight so as to reduce the heat intake to a minimum.
The lesser surface area of the building which is exposed to the sun, lesser will be the
conductive heating.
 In colder climates, the design will try to maximise the amount of sunlight incident on
the building so as to have maximum warmth as possible.
 Existing elements (natural or man-made) on and around the site will have definite
shading patterns. Understanding those patterns can help in determining the building
location and configuration.

2. WIND

 Most of the locations will have a general major direction from which the wind comes.
However, this will not always hold true and will vary from location to location.
 If we are to design a climatologically responsive building, it will be important to
consider the direction of the wind so that it can be channelized through the interiors.
This will play a major role in placement & size of openings.
 The thing to be remembered is that the wind direction may vary from place to place
inside the site itself and thus have to be checked from a few different places especially
if it is a large site.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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 When wind testing is not feasible, the designer can understand wind direction and
speed by using five basic principles of air movement: velocity, direction, pressure,
density and the venturi effect.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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3. TEMPERATURE

 The microclimate temperatures of the site may be different from the general data
collected at the airport and can vary significantly at the site.
 Again, large bodies of water will tend to stabilize temperatures on the land adjacent to
them.
 The average temperature of the area, as well as the monthly average temperature has
to be studied to determine the temperature range and the fluctuations, which will
impact the design.

4. HUMIDITY

 The Relative Humidity of the place also has to be found out to determine the moisture
content in the atmosphere.
 A higher relative humidity suggests a humid climate, for which cross circulation of wind
at the body level is a must for comfort.
 A lower relative humidity will suggest a dry climate.

DRAINAGE

In grading, SURFACE RUNOFF is the primary method to remove excess water. This is
usually in some form of STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM, which collects, conducts and
disposes excess surface water caused by runoff from rainfall.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
collect

collect

Dispose

Factors which determine drainage needs are:

1. LAND USE --urban or rural area, function, density and how fast we must drain the
water.
2. TOPOGRAPHY --the steeper the area, the faster draining it will be, drainage must be
provided above and below steep bank
3. SIZE OF AREA TO BE DRAIN -- determines the size of underground and surface
structure. Typically, the larger the area, the larger the underground structures or
surface ditches.
4. TYPE OF SOIL -- determines the rate of percolation or amount of water the soil will
absorb.
5. VEGETATION -- any thick, matty ground cover will slow down the rate of runoff and
reduce the need for elaborate drainage systems.
6. INTENSITY OF RAINFALL -- amount of water from rainfall will affects the type of
drainage system.

GOOD DRAINAGE PRACTICE

 Design the grading and drainage plan as to respect, reinforce, and duplicate the
existing natural systems.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
 New runoff must never be purposefully redirected from one property onto
neighboring property.
 Surface drainage is generally preferred to underground systems for two reasons: cost
and ecology.
 Avoid the design of a system that necessitates the drainage line through a foundation
or under slab.
 Always consider some method to slow runoff water down and let it be absorb into the
soil.
 Slow-moving water will create a bog, while water moving too fast create erosion and
unwanted gullies.
 Paved areas (parking, sport court, etc.) look better when graded almost level-- avoid
wildly sloping paved area.
 Avoid draining large amounts of water from paved areas across pedestrian paths or
sidewalk. Install a catch basin or trench drain to collect most runoff before the
sidewalk.
 Always design a secondary drainage route to handle runoff in case of the primary
one become clogged.

DESIRABLE SLOPES FOR SURFACE DRAINAGE ARE AS FOLLOWS:

 Open land - 1/2 percent minimum

 Streets - 1/2 percent minimum

 Planted areas - 1 percent minimum to 25 percent maximum

 Large paved areas - 1 percent minimum

 Land adjacent to buildings - 2 percent minimum

 Drainage swales - 2 percent minimum to 10 percent maximum

 Planted banks - up to 50 percent maximum

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
METHODS OF SURFACE DRAINAGE:

1. SWALE

Sloping areas can be drained by creating swales, which are graded flow paths similar to
valleys. Swales are graded around structures with finish contours always pointing uphill and
flow paths shown perpendicular to the revised contours

2. SLOPING PLANE.

This is the simplest, cheapest, and, consequently, the most common way to drain a relatively
level area. The area tilts in one direction, so that the water drains to the low side. Adjacent
structures are always located at the high side

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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3. Warped plane:

The high side is level, similar to the sloping plane. The contours, however, are fan-shaped,
so that the entire area drains to one low corner.

4. Gutter:

Gutters are formed by two sloping planes that create a valley. The planes are slightly warped
so that water can run down the valley to a collection point. When adjacent to a structure, the
top edge of one sloping plane will be level

5. Central inlet:

Large flat areas, especially where enclosed (courtyards, patios, etc.) employ a central drain
toward which all surfaces slope.

SURFACE DRAIN: DRAINING LEVEL AREA

 Most use areas -- play fields, courts, patios, roof garden, etc. require a dry level
surface. Level area do not drain well, so we must TILT all use areas slightly to allow
water to runoff.
 REMEMBER to set the building finish floors at least 15 cm. Higher than the outdoor
elevation.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
CONTOURS

TOPOGRAPHIC CONTOUR MAP

 They are composed of a series of line that designate the elevation of the land above
sea level.
 Each line called contour line represents specific level (, elevation).
 Contour Interval is the difference in elevation values between two adjacent contours,
so it indicates the elevation change from one contour line to the next one.
 Contour Interval is the same value for every elevation change in the same topography
map.

TOPOGRAPHIC CONTOUR MAP INTERPRETATION

 The topographic contour map represents an elevation data to show landform in two-
dimensional drawing
 Graphical slope information can be generated by simple techniques from the contour
map. Constructing a slope profile from a topographic contour map is to plot the
elevation of contour lines on a two-dimensional graph.

• Contour interval: the height between each contour line.

• Cross section show specific section of that shape

• X axis represents distance, Y axis represents level change

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis

TOPOGRAPHIC MODELS

Modelsaregood mediums to give the feeling of the earth form and study the naturaldrainage
pattern.

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TOPOGRAPHIC CONTOUR MAP INTERPRETATION

To know the characteristics of contours is important for their interpretation and essential to
understand the nature of that land- form.

 A Uniform slope is indicated by evenly spaced contour plan.

 A Ridge and Valley are shown similarity, but note that RIDGE with the higher contour
inside (contour line pointing down to lower level), VALLEY with the lower contour
inside (contour line pointing up to higher level)
 If two sides of VALLEY contour lines are quite closed, it indicates STREAM.
 CONVEX and CONCAVE landforms are the most common landform found in nature
and express the felling differently.
 High point on SUMMIT or low point in a DEPRESSION is indicated by spot elevation.
 Existing contour lines are shown in dashed line,proposed new Grade is shown in a set
of solid lines.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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TOPOGRAPHY MAP - CONTOUR CHARACTERISTICS

 Sameelevation ononecontour lineand same level change in between eachcontour

line. (called contour interval)
 Everycontourcloses on itself.
 Asummit or depression indicated bythe elevationathighest, lowest points.
 Contourlinesnever cross.
 Uniformslopingsurface
 Convexslope
 Concaveslope
 Valleys
 Steepslope
 Relativelylevel.
 Ridge

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
STUDY OF CONTOURS

Slopeanalysis of 20.8 acre site. Diagram showsthe use of graduated scale for mapping
slopes from a contour map.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
SLOPE CRITERIA

Suitable&recommendedslope for each use concerningmobility, possiblecut-

fill,maintenanceand drainage ability.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
MAPPING SLOPE FROM TOPOGRAPHY MAP

Slope compares the vertical distance to the horizontal dis- tance. This comparison can be
expresses as an angle, a percent- age or as a ratio. the slope ratio is expressed by putting
horizontal distance firse and vertical distance second such as a 4:1 slope means 1 metres of
vertical rise in 4 metres of horizontal distance

WHAT IS ANGLESOF REPOSE?

Maximum angle for earth materialthat it can be inclined, and it will fail if beyond.Anglesof
reposeforvarious types of slope materials. (Angles are given in degrees.)

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
SLOPE PROBLEMS

Slope failures generally fall into 3 catagories

1. Grade: slopes that are too steep or too gentle for paricularlanduses and inclined by
undercutting by construction processes (cut-fill)

2. Erosion: slopes with steep inclinations, less vegetative cover, loose soil materials and
eroded caused by waves, streams, heavy rainfall.

3. Failure: slopes that are composed of weak, soft material which have low bearing capacity
and have tendency to mass movement problem such as mudflow, slides, sinking which
worsen by increased or decreased ground water.

GRADING

Gradingis the act of re-modelling the land form. It isone of the most important items in site
planning, landscape design andconstruction. Grading servesthreemain purposes:

 To create a level to put somethingon; for a house, car, sport play field, a hotel, etc.
 To create circulation ways; roadway, loading ramp, handicapped ramp, bicycle track,
etc.
 To create special effect and solvespecial problem ; make a mound to hide parking lot
or reduce sound, preventerosion and landslide, aesthetic or psychological purposes.

GRADING PROCEDURE

 Topographic characteristic and natural drainage pattern.

 Locate unusual soil type -- sandy soil, clay.
 Fixed elevations or points on the site such as roads, trees, adjacent buildings
 All area that need to be kept dry and elevations
 The location and extent of the existing sewer system (both public and private system)

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MAKINGAN AREA LEVEL:

BY CUTTING ONLY

 thesoil is stable
 requireless cost for foundation construction
 beable to do very steep slope
 costto transport earth from the site
 Retaining wall high cost

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
BY FILLING ONLY

 easierto make a very level elevation

 goodfor low land, flood problem area.
 Unstableearth, needs a compaction.
 Costof transporting earth into the site

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
BYTHE COMBINATION OF CUT AND FILL

 balance earth in the site

 notransportation cost.

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GRADING WHEN NOT TO GRADE

Avoidgrading on the following conditions

 Gradingthat results in radical loss of vegetation and topsoil

 Gradingthat interrupts the natural drainage
 Gradingthat results in aesthetic degradation
 Gradingon difficult slopes (excess of 25%)
 Gradingin environmental unique condition; floodplain, bogs,
 Gradingin areas effected by natural disaster; mudslides or along earthquake faultlines

GRADING FOR CIRCULATION

 Circulationroutes should be level as possible.

 Twoways to travel up slope terrain(maximumslope for local street is 8%)

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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Thenormal grading method is something between the two extremes with roads or
pathsclimbing and falling gentlyso as to allow the quickest trip with the least effort.

Circulationroutes crossing level country are relatively easy to grade-- providing

uniformsurface and assuring the roadway drains properly.

 A uniform surface means smoothingout the bumps by spacing contours evenly.

 Draining the level road sometimesrequires creating artificial high and low points for
water flow direction.These can be shown graphically with contours, spot elevations, or
sections.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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Section through road withCROWN Road slopedfrom side to side

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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 Shortestdistance but results extensive cutting,

 commondesign guide is to align the road centerline with or parallel to the contourlines
with minimal grading

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis

 Whengrading bycutting,begin with the lowest contour and work up, by filling, begin
with the topcontour and work down.
 Contoursare spaced according to the gradient of the proposed route typically
expressedin percent. For 10% slope, one meter interval contours would be spaced
10m.apart

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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 Themost common way if existing topography is NOT to steep.
 Theprocedure is to select the contour in the middle of the road and cut half thecontour
above, fill half of the contour below.

 Ifcut/fill creates a steep bank, a heavy rainfall can induce mudslides

anderosion.Alternatives to separate the roadway (ifit is wide enough) should
beconsidered along with the use of retaining wall on the high side of the slope.

NEIGHBOURHOOD CONTEXT

 Map of the neighbourhood indicating existing and projected property zoning.

 Existing and projected building uses in the neighbourhood.

 Age or condition of the neighbourhood buildings.

 Present and future uses of exterior spaces in the neighbourhood.

 Any strong vehicular or pedestrian traffic generating functions in the neighbourhood.

 Existing and projected vehicular movement patterns. Major and minor streets, routes

of service vehicles such as trash, bus routes and stops.

 Solid-void space relationships.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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 Street lighting patterns.

 Architectural patterns such as roof forms, fenestration, materials, colour, landscaping,

formal porosity, relationship to street, car storage strategies, building height etc.,

 Neighbourhood classifications that might place special restrictions or responsibilities

on our design work such as "historic district".

 Nearby buildings of particular value or significance.

 Fragile images or situations that should be preserved.

 Sun and shade patterns at different times of the year.

 Major contour and drainage patterns.

SIZE AND SHAPE

 Dimensions of the boundaries of our site.

 Dimensions of the street rights of way around our site.

 Location and dimensions of easements.

 Present site zoning classification.

 Front, back and side yard setbacks required by zoning classification.

 Square meter of buildable area inside setbacks (should also subtract easements).

 Building height restrictions required by zoning classification.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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 Zoning formula for determining required parking based on the type of building to

occupy the site.

 The number of parking spaces required (if we know the building area).

 Any projected changes that would alter the dimensional characteristics of the site such

as street widening or purchase of additional property.

CIRCULATION

 On site sidewalks, paths and other pedestrian movement patterns including users,

purposes, schedule of use and volume of use.

 Off site pedestrian movement patterns using the same characteristics mentioned for

on site movement.

 If a pedestrian movement pattern is considered valuable and to be preserved or

reinforced, our analysis should also include an evaluation of how the existing pattern

could be improved.

 Off site or neighbourhood vehicular movement issues such as traffic generators

(buildings or uses that are significant destinations or origins of vehicular traffic) as well

as the other traffic characteristics outlined under on site traffic. Adjacent or nearby

parking areas that may be used for off site car storage in our project. Off site traffic

patterns should also include the relation of our site to the public transportation routes,

stops at or near our site, probable directions of approach to our site by the users of the

new building and directions of dispersal of traffic from our building. Traffic analysis

should document future projections to the extent they can be made.

 On site or adjacent vehicular movement patterns including type of traffic, origins and

destinations, schedule, volume of traffic and peak loads. Also included should be

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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intermittent traffic such as parades, festivals, concerts, fire truck routes, service truck

fleets, etc.

 Locations of probable or optimum access to our site for each type of pedestrian and

vehicular traffic that will use the new building or move through the site.

 Travel time to walk across our site, to drive across the site or by the site where these

times may be important to our design (time it takes to walk between classes at a

school). It may also be useful to record the time it takes to drive to or from related

locations in the city (from our site to downtown, the university, the shopping center,

etc.).

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis
UTILITIES

 Location, capacity and conveyance form (type of pipe, etc.) of power, gas, sewer
telephone and water utilities. This should involve the depth of each utility underground
and, in the case of power, whether it is above or below grade. Location of power
poles.
 Where utility lines stop short of our site boundaries, their distances from our site
should be given.
 Where there are multiple opportunities to connect to utilities that are adjacent to our
site, we should record those locations or edges on our site that seem to offer the best
connection opportunities. This may be due to the capacities of the utility lines, contour
conditions on our site in relation to sewer, the need to minimize on site utility runs,
being able to collect utility runs, bringing utilities in at the "back" of the site or dealing
with site barriers or difficult soil conditions.

VISUAL ASPECTS

 Views from the site including positions on the site where the views are not blocked,
what the views are of, whether the views are positive or negative, the angles within
which the views can be found, whether the views change over time and the likelihood
of view continuance for the long term.
 Views to points of interest on the site from within the site boundaries. Includes what
the views are of, whether the views are positive or negative, positions on the site
where the views are best arid where they are blocked, the angles within which the
views can be found and whether the object of the views changes over time.
 Views to the site from areas outside the site boundaries, including streets, walks, other
buildings and vistas. Includes when the site is first seen, angles within which it is seen,
most dramatic views of the property, best views of the site and areas that are
viewable, particular points of interest that may be objects of views from outside our
site and potential for these views to continue or be blocked by development outside
our site over the long term.
 Views through our site from positions outside the property. Involves the objects of the
views and the various positions where the views occur, whether the views are positive
or negative, the angles within which the views can be found, and the likelihood of the
view targets as well as the view paths remaining open over the long term.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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 Locations, generators, schedules, and intensities of any significant noise on or around
the site. This analysis should include likelihood of continuance over the tong term.
 Locations, generators, schedules and intensities of any significant odors, smoke or
other airborne pollution on or around our site. This analysis should include likelihood
of continuance over time.

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
Planning Analysis

OVERLAY TECHNIQUE FOR SITE ANALYSIS

Base map

Percent of Slope

Soil

Drainage & Elevation

Vegetation & Wildlife

Climate

Visual impact

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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Site development potential

EXAMPLE

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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CHECKLIST

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS (ENVIRONMENTAL & BUILT ENVIRONMENT)

 Solar orientation, wind conditions, climate considerations

 Streetscape characteristics, street furnishings, building patterns, signage
 Roadway design, crosswalks, signalization
 Handicapped access - facilities and routes
 Street patterns, parking locations, parking design, building orientation
 Landscaping, vegetation, vegetation massing, habitat areas
 Pedestrian routes - sidewalks, trails, pathways, ‘shortcuts’
 Surface conditions, subsurface conditions, utilities

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Site Analysis and 3. Site
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 Land uses, building types, height and massing, fenestration patterns
 Land forms, topography, drainage characteristics
 Water bodies and characteristics
 Prevalent building, surface materials, glare, heat, etc.
 View characteristics and view types
 Spatial characteristics - enclosure, etc.; connections

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Transit routes, bus stops and bus shelters or furnishings

 Defensible space considerations
 Traffic patterns, speeds, turning movements, signalization and other traffic controls
 Prevalent pedestrian and bicycle use and movements
 Noise factors, dust, odors
 Distances to destinations, adjacencies
 Wildlife

LEGAL CONSTRAINTS

 Plans, policies and guidelines

 Regulations and codes
 Special districts and designations
 Land ownership, easements

EXISTING INFRASTRUCTURE

 Utilities: Electric, gas, oil, wood, etc. (poles, pipes, conduits; from where?)
 Water: Drinking water source - well (depth), municipal (from where?)
 Sewage: Septic, municipal, composting (where does your sewage go?)
 Garbage: Municipal, composting, recycling where does your garbage go?)
 Food Production

CHARACTERISTICS THAT CONVEY ‘MEANING’

 Landmarks
 Community gathering places or centres
 Favourite routes
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 Parks and recreation areas
 Shopping areas
 Public and private ‘zones’
 Defensible space characteristics
 Historic features

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 UNIT 4 – PRINCIPLES OF SITE LAYOUT AND
DEVELOPMENT

Context of the site. Introduction to existing master plans land use for cities,
development control Rules. Preparation of maps of matrix analysis & composite
analysis. Site selection criteria for housing development, commercial and institutional
projects - Case studies.
Site Analysis and 4. Site
Planning Context
MASTER PLAN

 A master plan or a development plan or a town plan may be defined as a general plan
for the future layout of a city showing both the existing and proposed streets or
roads, open spaces, public buildings etc.
 A master plan is prepared either for improvement of an old city or for a new town to be
developed on a virgin soil.
 A master plan is a blueprint for the future.
 It is an comprehensive document, long-range in its view, that is intended to guide
development in the township for the next 10 to 20 years

• It creates a vision that is supported by policies, guidelines and priorities.

• It is a policy based document, it does not, nor can regulate land use.

OBJECTS OF MASTER PLAN

 It aims at intelligent and economic spending of the public funds for achieving welfare
of the inhabitants in respect of amenity, convenience and health.
 It arranges the pattern of a town in such a way so as to satisfy the present
requirements without introduction of future improvements by the coming generations.
 It helps in restricting the haphazard and unplanned growth

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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 It places various functions which a town has to perform in physical relationship of each
other so as to avoid the chances of mutual conflict.
 It removes the defects of un coordinated physical growth of the various components of
town due to the fact that it considers the entire city area or town as planning and
development entity.
 It serves as a guide to the planning body for making any recommendations for public
improvement.

NECESSITY OF MASTER PLAN

 To control the development of various industries in a systematic way.

 To discourage the growth of town in an unplanned and unscientific way.
 To give a perspective picture of a fully developed town.
 To limit to a certain extent the unprecedented flow of rural population to the urban
area.
 To offset the evils which have come up due to over-crowding of population such as
acute shortage of houses, traffic congestion, inadequate open spaces and
insufficiency in public amenities; etc.

DATA TO BE COLLECTED

 Details of trades and industries.

 Development of the airports.
 Economic condition of the authority.
 Environments of the site.
 Facilities of the transport.
 Geological condition of the site.
 Land values and land use pattern.
 Locations of spots of natural beauty.
 Locations of the water supply unit.
 Meteorological details such as intensity and direction of wind, temperature, rainfall etc;
 Mineral resources.

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
Planning Context
 Places of historic origin.
 Political condition of the surrounding area.
 Population.
 Requirements for railway stations, goods yards and shipping facilities.
 Special requirements for power houses, gas works, sewage disposal plant and storm
water drainage etc.

DRAWING TO BE PREPARED

 To give graphical representation to various ideas and proposals contained in the

master plan of a town , various maps and drawings are to be prepared. These are-
 Boundaries of land of different types such as residential, agricultural, industrial etc.
 Boundary of green belt surrounding the town.
 Contours of the whole city.
 Different zones
 Landscape features
 Locations of the public buildings and town centers.
 Open spaces including parks and playgrounds.
 Positions of the natural springs, rivers and streams.
 Position of the public utility services such as water supply station, sewage
disposal plant, power plant etc
 Road system etc

FEATURES OF MASTER PLAN

 Convenience and cheap means of transport.

 Good sanitation and water supply.
 Open air spaces.
 Population density control.
 Proper situations for places of worship, education and recreation.
 Rational layout.
 Width of roads etc.

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
Planning Context
PLANNING STANDARDS

 Educational facilities such as primary school, high school and college.

 Medical facilities such as dispensary, health centre and hospital.
 Shopping facilities such as departmental stores, shops etc.
 Miscellaneous amenities such as burial ground, crematorium, cinema, auditorium,
stadium, petrol filling cum service station, police station, post office, fire station, library,
community hall, telephone exchange etc.
 Width of roads such as village roads, state roads, national highway etc.
 Development of land for the construction of buildings in the form of various buildings
bye-laws etc.

LAND USE PLANNING

DEFINITION

 Refers to the rational and judicious approach of allocating available land resources to
different land using activities and for different functions consistent with the overall
development vision/goal of a particular city
 Refers to a document embodying a set of policies accompanied by maps and similar
illustrations which represent the community desired pattern of population distribution
and a proposal for the future allocation of land to the various land-using activities.

Land use refers to the manner of utilization of land, including its allocation,
development and management.

OBJECTIVES

 To promote efficient utilization, acquisition and disposition of land ensure the highest
and best use of land
 To direct, harmonize and influence discussions and activities of the private and public
sectors relative to the use and management of lands
 To reconcile land use conflicts and proposals between and among individuals, private
and government entities relative to the present and future need for the land

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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 To promote desirable patterns of land uses to prevent wasteful development and
minimize the cost of public infrastructure and utilities and other social services
 To preserve areas of ecological, aesthetic, historical and cultural significance

URBAN LAND USE - CLASSIFICATION

 Residential
 Commercial
 Institutional
 Industrial
 Transportation
 Utilities/Facilities
 Open spaces/greens

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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LAND USE – RESIDENTIAL

This is where people live. The type of housing in an area is based on residential density,
defined by Number of housing units in a unit of land; Ex: Land Use - Residential

• Low Density : Single-family homes, semi-detached homes, and duplexes

• Medium Density : Town houses, low-rise apartments,

• High Density : High-rise apartments,

LAND USE – COMMERCIAL

Land that is set aside for commercial activities. This includes any land use that is used for
buying, selling, or trading goods and services.Category includes all types of wholesale, retail
and service activitiesserving areas larger than neighbourhoods.Category includes all types of
wholesale, retail and service activities serving areas larger than neighborhoods. These are:

 Major Central Business Districts in urbanized areas - shopping, service

area with largest dept. and variety stores, specialty, shops, business and professional
services, hotels, theaters, etc.
 Minor Central Business District in less urbanized areas - market as mainfeature
(types: wholesale market, wet and dry market); mixed use development.
 Highway Service Centers or Commercial Strips such as highway gas
stations, motel and restaurants-extension of CBD
 Neighborhood Center – local sources of staple and convenience goods
andservices; built around supermarket with convenience stores.

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
Planning Context

LAND USE – INSTITUTIONAL

Land that covers the major public and semi-public uses like educational, cultural, religious,
health, protective and government services.

It is occupied by schools, hospitals, government offices, and places of worship.

LAND USE - INDUSTRIAL

 Land that is used for industry viz ; Factories, warehouses, power plants,or
places of resource extraction (like mines).
 It includes manufacturing, refining, fabricating, assembly, storage, parking and other
incidental uses including food processing, cottage industry, sawmills, rice mills, steel
mills, chemical processing plants, etc.
 Also included are the proposed industrial estates/subdivision

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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LAND USE –TRANSPORTATION

Land that is used for moving people and goods from one place to another.Includes:
sidewalks, roads, highways, subways, streetcars, railroad tracks, freight yards, airports,
marinas and any other land that is used for transportation.

LAND USE - OPEN SPACE

 Land that is now vacant, or left in a natural state (like a woodlot), or land that is for
recreational use (parks, playgrounds, community centres)
 Parks/Playgrounds and other Recreational Areas the space requirement may be
computed with the use of space standards based on population or area of the
municipality or city
 So called “non-functional open spaces” and includes lands reserved for greenbelts
and buffer zones; and other vacant lands reserved for specific or functional purposes.

LAND-USE PLANNING PRINCIPLES

 Evaluate and record unique features.

 Preserve unique cultural or historical features.
 Conserve open space and environmental features.
 Calculate additional charges for altering land.
 Plan for mixed uses in close proximity.
 Plan variety of transportation options.
 Set limits and managed growth patterns.
 Encourage development in areas of existing infrastructure.

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
Planning Context
LAND USE MAPS/MAPPING

Land use map is the graphical representation of Land use for a place or particular in an area.

 It is a convenient visual form of spatial data, their distribution and relationships

 This is a reduced and simplified model of reality containing geographic information.
 It is a graphic depiction of all or part of a geographic realm where the real-world
features have been replaced with symbols in their correct spatial location at a reduced
scale

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
Planning Context
ELEMENTS OF MAP

 Map Title – defines the information and purpose of a map.

 Legend – key to the codes and symbols used in a map.
 Date and Author – name of map maker and date of survey or period covered by it.
 North Arrow – usually, maps are oriented towards the geographic (true) north.
 Geographic Coordinates – geographic grid known as latitudes and longitudes.
 Latitude (parallels) – distance measured north and south of the equator.
 Longitude (meridians) – distance measured east and west with the imaginary
primemeridian (Greenwich Laboratory in London) as reference line.
 Scale – ratio distance on the map itself and the corresponding distance on the
ground.
 Graphic Scale – line or bar marked off in graduated distances representing actual
distances on the ground.
 Numerical/Functional- compares map distance with ground distance by
proportionalnumbers and expressed as a representative fraction or ratio. Example:
1:1,000 means 1 meter on the map is equivalent to 1,000 meters or 1 kilometre on the
ground.

CONCEPTS OF LAND USE

1. REVERSIBLE USES

When the inherent features and characteristics of the land have not been considerably
altered or modified such that the soil horizon, landform, and structureremain intact so that the
land can be reverted to its former use or original condition.

2. IRREVERSIBLE USES

When land is subject to applications which brought about changes, alteration or

modifications so much so that it prevents the original use or it is physically impossible
torestore the land to its previous state or condition.

3. MULTIPLE LAND USES

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
Planning Context
Combining different land uses, whether reversible or irreversible, in an orderly and
desirable pattern because:

• Land is finite and supply is finite

• Demand is ever increasing
• Competition is there
• Land may have more than one use and uses can be combined in different ways.

4. COMPATIBLE AND INCOMPATIBLE LAND USES

Some land uses are innately incompatible while others are completely compatible.
Compatible uses can coexist harmoniously and effectively in an orderly management.

5. BEST USE OF THE LAND

• The use of land which generates the maximum profit without negative consequences
especially on the environment
• Land should be used in such a manner consistent with its natural qualities to maximize
its productivity and also adhere to the principles of sustainable development.
• Utilizing land in a manner that is beneficial to both man and environment.

6. COMPREHENSIVE LAND USE PLANNING

A document embodying specific proposals for guiding, regulating growth and development of
a city or municipality.

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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CITY OF MADRAS

SPATIAL GROWTH PATTERN OF THE CITY

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HISTORY

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INTRODUCTION

• Chennai is known as the "Detroit /.of India" for its automobile industry.
• Population - 4.68 million residents (in 2011) ., making it the sixth most populous city in
India.
• 8.9 million, making it the fourth most populous metropolitan area in the country and
31st largest urban area in the world.
• Area (CMA) = 1189 sq.km, including core city area 426 sq.km

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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EXISTING LANDUSE 2006 - CHENNAI CITY

Resdential

12 Commerci
1 %
2%
% al
19
% 54
% Industrial

5 Institutiona
% 7
%
l

Open
space and
Recreation
Agricultura
l

Others

Existing landuse 2006 - Rest of

CMA
22
%
1 Resdential
%6% Commerci
54 al
% 3 Industrial
% Institutiona
l
12 Agricultural
%
Non urban
2
%

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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It extends over 1189 Sq.km. and includes Chennai City Corporation area, 16 Municipalities,
20 Special Village Panchayats and 213 villages comprised in 10 Panchayats Unions.

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GROWTH RATE, LITERACY RATE, SEX RATIO

Birth & Death Rates

The registered birth rates in Chennai City in 1971 were 38.6 and varied from 38.6 to
32.1during 1971-76 and have reduced to 22.62 in the year 2003. Similarly the death rate also
reduced to a considerable extent from 13.1 in 1975 to 8.01 in 2003. The rate of natural
increase declined from 26.3 in 1971 to 14.61 in 2003.

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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Decades 1951-61 and 1961-71. The reasons for this rapid growth rate can be attributed to
industrial development and increase in economic activities and employment opportunities in
the city and its suburbs, attracting large migrant population.

The negative growth during 1971-81is due to the annexation of surrounding Panchayats
areas to the city.

OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE

The workers in primary activity constitute 6.52 percent in CMA and 1.05 percent in City 1991.
In 2001, it was 2.91 percent and 1.52 percent respectively in CMA and Chennai City
indicating that the primary activities are on the decline in the peripheral areas due to the
emergence of manufacturing and new economy industry.

MIGRATION DETAILS

The population of the Chennai City in 1981 was 32.84 lakhs which includes 10.08 lakh
migrant population and natural increase of 5.28 lakhs (for 1971-81) population; the net
population excluding these works out to 17.48 lakhs whereas the 1971 population was 26.42
lakhs which shows that there was a net out migration of 8.94 lakhs (27%) resident population
from City mostly to the rest of CMA (during 1971-1981).

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PROJECTIONS

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INFRASTRUCTURE – TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION

In a group of 100, 38 travels by bus, 4 by train, and 30 by walk, 14 by cycle, 7 by two

wheeler, 2 by car and 5 by other modes.According to the CTTS (1992-95),

• the per capita trip rate is 1.30 per day and the trip rate per household is 5.88 per day.
• On a typical weekday 7.45 million trips by a variety of travel modes for various
purposes.

INFRASTRUCTURE – WATER SUPPLY

Chennai City Water Supply Augmentation Project-I

Add 180 MLD water to Chennai City water requirement) was taken up by CMWSSB in 2004
at a cost of Rs.720 crores. It is to draw 190 MLD of raw water from Veeranam Lake

Chennai City Water Supply Augmentation Project-II

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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Estimated cost of Rs.124.00 crore. The objective of this project is to augment water supply to
the city by intercepting the rainwater runoff into the sea by the construction / rehabilitation of
check dams across Cooum, Adyar and Palar rivers.

Rest of CMA

Other Municipalities have Palar River as source, CMWSSB bulk supply or the ground water
as source. Water supply in Panchayat areas is by local wells and public taps.

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INFRASTRUCTURE – SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Hospita
ls Market 3%
4%
Restaurants/h
ot els/schools
11%

Commerci
al 14%

Residen
ce
68%

Future Garbage Generation Trends

future generation in
Areas 2021(tonnes)

chennai city 4332

Municipalities 1326

special village panchayats 277

village panchayats 469

Total CMA 6403

Collection & Transportation

At present the Chennai Corporation and ONYX are the two agencies are the responsible for
entire solid waste collection and transportation. As per the corporation the collection
efficiency is around 95% in the city and Door to Door collection

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• Around 3.400 tones of garbage is collected daily from 15 zones
• The Perungudi dump yard gets 1600 tones and Kodungaiyur gets 1800 tones
• Total number of bins 6980
• Waste separation 10% by CMC

THE JnNURM IN CHENNAI 2005-2012

Current Scenario

• Most projects fall within the new Corporation boundaries.

• Projects in the newly extended areas have been transferred to the jurisdiction of the
Corporation
• 29,864 tenements in Ezhil Nagar and Perumbakkam at a total cost of Rs. 1073.19
crore
• Of which, for 19,412 tenements, provision of infrastructure facilities not covered by the
JnNURM costs.

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INVESTMENTS IN CMA

SCHEMES IMPLEMENTED BY TNSCB IN CMA

Slum Clearance Scheme

• Tenements are allotted either on rental basis or on hire purchase basis.

• TNSCB has constructed 69594 No. of tenements from 1970 to 2004 in Chennai.
• In addition TNHB had constructed 10,423 slum tenements in Chennai.

Pavement Dwellers Housing Scheme

It was funded by the GOI (Rs.4, 000/- per household) GTN (Rs.1000/- per household) and
HUDCO loan (Rs.8, 000/- per household) 7787 no. of families benefited under this scheme.

Nehru RozgorYojana

• Loan assistance of Rs.4, 150/- per slum family was given for up gradation of their
shelter.
• It was implemented by TNSCB with grant assistance from GOI & GTN and loan
assistance from HUDCO.14, 000 No. of families benefited by this scheme

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Shelter for Shelter less Scheme

• Affordable houses for slum dwellers were constructed on serviced plots, using locally
available materials and adopting low cost techniques.
• It was tried a pilot project in Chennai by TNSCB with GOI grant 20%, GTN grant 15%
and HUDCO loan component 65%. 2982 No. of families were benefited under the
scheme.

ROADWAYS – OUTER RING ROAD

• ORR connects NH45 at Vandalur, NH4 at Nazarathpet, NH 205 at Nemilichery, NH5

at Nallur and TPP road at Minjur and is of length 62.0 km. The configuration of the
alignment comprises of dual system of both road and rail corridor in a width of 72m.
50m. wide portion of land is reserved for future developments. The estimated project
cost is about Rs.1081.40 crores.
• Land Acquisition has been taken up in two phases. The first phase of land Acquisition
from NH 45 to NH 205 for a length of 29.2 km. covering 29 villages has been
completed and possession taken over by CMDA. The second phase of acquisition
from NH 205 to TPP Road covering 27 villages is under progress.

Chennai – Banglore Expressway

The expressway will serve as an alternative to the popular NH 7 from Bangalore to

Krishnagiri, NH 46 from Krishnagiri to Ranipet and NH 4 from Ranipet to Chennai.

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• The ambitious 262-km-long Bangalore-Chennai Expressway that will run through

Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka will require nearly 2,300 hectares of land.

• Sources in the NHAI said the project consultant had said the greenfield initiative would
cost Rs. 7,000 crore, excluding cost of land acquisition. Following land acquisition,
which would take a year and a half, the project will be completed in three years.

• The road will be access-controlled like the Chennai Bypass and have several major
interchanges. “For every 25 km, there will be entry/exit points

SATHANGADU IRON STEEL MARKET

• Chennai is a major centre for iron Steel trade. It also serves as the feeder market for
the entire south.
• The growth rate of various core sectors in Chennai is quite high, but the Iron & Steel
trade in Chennai does not seem to be located well enough to run efficiently or handle
its growth potential.
• Congested locations, cramped spaces, heavy-vehicle movement in narrow streets,
traffic blockades, noise unhygienic environs - all lead to tardy and uneconomical
operations.
• Located ideally - over 203 acres near Tiruvottiyur on the periphery of the city, with
ready access to Chennai City Port and Tiruvottiyur railhead.

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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• India' most modern market of its kind, it is scientifically planned with excellent
infrastructure, amenities and services-everything the trader seek for smooth conduct
of business and full exploitation of growth potential

CHENNAI METRO RAIL PROJECT

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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• The Chennai Metro Rail is a rapid transit system under construction in Chennai, Tamil
Nadu, India. Phase I of the project, which consists of two corridors covering a length of
45.1 kilometers (28.0 mi), is under construction.

• The elevated section of the project is scheduled to be operational by spring 2015 and
the entire project is scheduled to be completed by the financial year 2014–2015.

• About 55% of the corridors in Phase I are underground and the remaining corridors
are elevated

• At the time of construction, it cost nearly Rs.3,000 million and Rs.1,000 million to build
one kilometre of tunnel and one underground station, respectively.

• When the Chennai Metro Rail project was initiated in 2007, the estimated cost of the
45-km route in phase I was around Rs. 146 billion.

• Phase I extension of 9 km from Washermanpet to Wimco Nagar at Tiruvottiyur cost

Rs. 30,010 million as of 2014, which is expected to begin by December 2014.

CHENNAI MONO RAIL PROJECT

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Chennai Monorail is a rail-based transit system for the Indian city of Chennai. It is proposed
in the Long-term Urban Transportation Scheme of Second Master Plan by CMDA. The state
government has announced plans to introduce monorail across City to reduce traffic
congestion and to increase the share of public transport in the urban transport network. The
aim is to increase the share of public transport in Chennai from 27% to 46% by 2026

Corridor-1 (Poonamallee - Porur - Vadapalani/Kathipara)

• The first Corridor – Vandalur to Velachery (23 km) — will have 14 stations, 12 stations
will come up along the Poonamallee - Vadapalani Corridor (18 km) and 11 along the
third corridor – Poonamallee to Kathipara junction (16 km).
• Corridor-1 - 20.68-km from Poonamallee to Kathipara with a link from Porur to
Vadaplani - is expected to cost ₹32.35 billion

Corridor-2 (Vandalur -Medavakkam - Velacheri - Kathipara)

ISSUES

Traffic Congestion

The number of vehicles plying in cities run into millions. During the peak hours, the traffic
moves in snail’s pace. Come monsoon season, the roads are damaged and potholes
created, holding the city on ransom.

Urban Amenities

Cities are lacking water facility round the clock. Then there is the problem of sewage
disposal. Open sewer system is followed in many urban fringe areas- and when rain lashes
out then it is a huge mess. Garbage disposal is another irritant. Government is not able to
supply these amenities due to tremendous increase in population

Pollution

Vehicle exhaust, burning of garbage, CFC exhaust mixed with heat during the day creates a
toxic mix. Pollution has made things worse in the cities. Nausea, severe headache,
bronchitis, asthma, organ failure are few health problem faced by urban dwellers.

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Slum and Squatter Settlements

The migration of rural poor in search of jobs to the cities have created slums and squatter
settlements where there is no basic facilities. These settlements have become the breeding
ground for illegal activities and crime.

DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF THE CHENNAI MASTER PLAN

Chennai the fourth largest metropolis in India. Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA) extends
over 1189 sq.km.and comprises of Chennai Corporation,16 Municipalities, 20 Town
Panchayats and 214 villages covered in 10 Panchayats Unions It encompasses the Chennai
District (176 sq.km.), part of Thiruvallur District (637 sq.km.) and a part of Kancheepuram
District (376 sq.km.)

Development Planning in Chennai Metropolitan Area

The major plans that had been prepared for Chennai.

i. General Town Planning Scheme (1957) prepared by Madras Corporation.

ii. The Madras Interim Plan prepared by D.T.P., Govt. of Tamilnadu.
iii. Madras Metropolitan Plan 1971-91 (1971) prepared by multi- agency group and
published by RD&LA Dept., Govt. of Tamilnadu.
iv. Madras Urban Development Project (1974) prepared by MMDA (now CMDA).
v. Master Plan for MMA (1975) prepared by MMDA (now CMDA)

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vi. Structure Plan for Chennai Metropolitan Area (1980) prepared by CMDA with Alan
Turner & Associates as consultants

The first Master Plan laid down policies and programmes for overall
development of CMA taking long-term view of the requirements. It dealt with distribution of
future population in various parts of CMA, policies for economic growth and future location of
economic activities, future physical developments, circulation pattern, programmes for Traffic
and Transportation, developments of land use zoning, requirements of urban infrastructures
for the future population, policies and programmes for sectoral developments and
development control regulations.

The Second Master Plan for CMA – 2026 has brought out Development
Regulations for all developments within the CMA which is a positive sign to attract
development in the slow and medium growth settlements also because of the provisions
such as:

• Permitting multi-storeyed buildings in the rest of the CMA also excluding the Island
Grounds, approved layout areas, Aquifer recharge area and Redhills catchment area
• Permitting IT buildings and bio-informatics centers in mixed residential, commercial,
institutional use zones
• Defining IT corridor along the Rajiv Gandhi Salai (Old Mamallapuram Road)

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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• Treating buildings with maximum 6 dwelling units under ‘Ordinary Building’ category
as against the earlier limit of 4 dwelling units
• Accommodating working women’s hostels and old age homes in the primary
residential areas
• Proposing transfer of development rights in cases of road widening
• Providing for restricted developments in aquifer recharge area
• Reducing plot extent or side setback requirements
• Allowing multi-storey buildings (MSBs) along 12 m and 15 m wide roads with
limitations on FSI and height
• Reservation of 10 percent of land for EWS/LIG with dwelling sizes not exceeding 45
sqm, in the case of special buildings, group developments, multi-storeyed buildings on
land of extent exceeding 1 hectare either within the site proposed for the development
or in a location within a radius of 2 km from a site under reference
• Allowing additional FSI 0.25 in cases of special buildings and group developments
with dwelling units each not exceeding 45 sqm floor area

Further there are projects in store for the immediate future such as

• Elevated expressway;
• Extension of Corporation limit by including 8 Municipalities, 8 Town Panchayats and
25 Village Panchayats in CMA;
• Truck terminal at Karunakaracheri and Annambedu villages near Thiruninravur along
Outer Ring Road;
• Sea water desalination plants; and
• Extension of jurisdiction of Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board
for providing water supply and sewerage facilities in villages outside city limit.

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LAND USE ANALYSIS

Land use regulation under Master Plan for CMA, 1975: The land use plan was
enforced through a set of regulations under Development Control Rules, which formed
part of the master plan. Any person intending to make any development is required to
apply under Tamil Nadu Town and Country Planning Act, 1971, and obtain Planning
Permission

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Spatial Strategy the objectives of the plan are to provide for:

a) Optimum utilization of land by channelizing the developments considering the latest

policies and programmes of the Government.
b) The future needs of the metropolitan area by recognising the existing growth trends
and by suitable allocation of land uses and strengthening the infrastructure facilities
c) Preservation and conservation of the ecologically sensitive areas in CMA.
d) Wide scope for employment generation and economic development
e) A conducive climate/environment to make Chennai as a primate city.
f) The sustainable development and improving the quality of life
g) Efficient transportation networks integrating the land use patterns for balanced
developments.

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TRAFFIC & TRANSPORTATION

The issues that need to be addressed immediately are the following:

• Capacity of almost all roads in the present system is reduced due to poor quality of
riding surface, inadequate pedestrian pavement, poor lighting conditions and lack of
properly designed intersections.
• Establishment of large of number of IT (Infosys, Wipro, TCS) and IT enabling service
establishments is bound to increase car ownership in the CMA thereby adversely
affecting the traffic condition.
• The parking shortage is acute in the CBD area. The demand for parking in CBD is 1.5
to 2 times the supply and the acute shortage of parking supply is pronounced in the
commercial areas of Anna Salai, T.Nagar, Purasawalkam and Mylapore. Parking is
inadequate along the major arterial roads.

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Conclusions

In the context of rapid urbanization, planning for development of the metropolitan

area deserves utmost importance on par with the city area. Since the urban areas abutting
the city area are targeted by the urbanization process, projection of future population,
planning for achieving a balanced growth in terms of population density, planning for
provision of adequate infrastructure facilities, strengthening of the institutional mechanisms,
monitoring and enforcing of regulatory measures, planning for in-built mid-course corrective
measures and futuristic planning for adjacent areas outside the metropolitan area need
emphasis.

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SITE SELECTION CRITERIA

For this purpose all lands in the Metropolitan area have been categorised under the following
use zone.

1. Primary residential use zone

2. Mixed residential use zone
3. Commercial use zone
4. Light industrial use zone
5. General industrial use zone
6. Special and hazardous institutional use zone
7. Institutional use zone
8. Open space and recreational use zone
9. Agricultural use zone
10. Non-urban use zone

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA FOR HOUSING DEVELOPMENT

AFFORDABLE HOUSING SITE DESIGN

The cost of new development is a concern for many communities and many have found that
key people in the community can no longer afford to live there. Zoning and land development
ordinances are prescriptions for development. Development costs are a function of many
factors, but among them are the local development standards, which ultimately are passed
on to new-home buyers. All the while that communities have been trying to find ways to
increase the number of affordable homes, they have been learning that the developments
produced by their local standards are not only inconsistent with the character of their
communities, they are also contributing to unwelcome sprawl.

DESIGN SECURITY

In recent years there has been an increasing awareness of the role the design of public
spaces plays in crime prevention and general security. While it is important to note that there
are many social and economic influence with more impact, it has been demonstrated that
design may play an important role in heightening the security of a community, particularly as
part of efforts to improve distressed communities.
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ELEMENTS OF BETTER RESIDENTIAL SITE

 Narrow, shorter streets

 Smaller lots with less restrictive setbacks and lot width requirements
 Increased allowable lot coverage
 Increased use of effective stream buffers
 Increased infiltration of storm water
 Grass-lined swales used instead of pipes and paved gutters

TOWN PLANING SCHEME CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO RULES

(i) Residential use zone (clause I to III (i) Primary Residential use zone
where it is specified)

(ii) Shops, business Premises, (ii) Mixed Residential use zone

commercial use, Bazaar

(iii) School, other public buildings, (iii) Institutional use zone

theatres

(iv) Parks, playground and open (iv) Open space and recreational use zone
spaces

(v) Markets (v) Commercial use zone

(vi) Hutting area class IV area, poor (vi) Economically weaker section area

class area assigned plans

(vii) Controlled industrial area (vii) Light Industrial use zone

(viii) General Industrial use zone

(viii) Industrial area
(ix) Non -urban use zone.
(ix) Burial ground

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PRIMARY RESIDENTIAL USE ZONE

In the Primary Residential use zone, buildings or premises shall be normally permitted only
for the following purposes and accessory uses. Permissible non-residential activity shall be
limited to one in a sub division.

i. Any residence including dwelling detached, semi-detached, tenements or flats.

ii. Professional consulting offices of the residents and incidental uses there to occupying
a floor area not exceeding 40 square metres.
iii. Petty shops dealing with daily essentials including retail sale of provisions, soft drinks,
cigarettes, newspapers, tea stalls, confectionary retail shops, mutton stall and milk
kiosks, cycle repair shops, tailoring shops and trades declared as non-offensive as per
G.O. Ms. No.2771, Rural Development and Local Administration dated the 22nd
December 1962 (as amended from time to time) may be permitted subject to the
restrictions contained in the said order occupying a floor area, not exceeding 20
square metres.
iv. Nursery, primary and high schools.
v. School of commerce including tutorial institutions occupying a floor area not exceeding
40 square metres.
vi. Parks and playgrounds occupying an area not exceeding 2 hectares.
vii. Taxi stands and car parking.
viii. Farms, gardens, nurseries occupying an area not exceeding 2 hectares.
ix. Installations of motor for pumping water, air conditioning and lifts.
x. Cottage industries listed in G.O. Ms. Nos.565 and 566, dated the 12th March 1962 as
amended run by power upto 5 horse power. Also craft centres and assembly of
electronic parts for manufacture of radios transistors, television sets, computer chips
and such others with installations not exceeding 5 HP and the number of employees
not exceeding 25.
xi. Storage of domestic cooking gas cylinders subject to the conditions prescribed in G.O.
Ms. No.329, dated the 24th February 1977, namely, necessary clearance should be
obtained by the parties concerned from the Director of Fire Service and the
Department of Explosives of the Government of India.

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The construction of godowns for the storage of cooking gas cylinder should also conform to
the building rules and other development control rules.

CONTINOUS TOWNSHIP& METROPOLITAN

BUILDINGS MUNICIPAL AREAS AREAS

A. Minimum extent 90 Square metres except in area specifically set apart for
of plot continuous buildings where it shall not be less than 80 square
metres. For housing economically weaker sections, it shall not
be less than 20 square metres within the Chennai City and 40
square metres in rest of the Chennai Metropolitan Area

B. Minimum plot 6 metres except in area set apart for continuous buildings,
frontage where it shall not be less than 4.5 metres and for housing
economically weaker section it shall not be less than 4 metres.

C. (i) Maximum 1.50 1.50 1.50

F.S.I

(ii) Maximum plot

65 percent 65 percent 65 percent
coverage

For Economically Weaker section plots, the coverage shall not

exceed 75 percent.

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FOR ECONOMICALLY WEAKER SECTIONS

 Structure like a lavatory, lumber room, garage, etc., not intended for human habitation
and servant quarters may be permitted in the rear set back:
 Provided that such structures do not occupy more than one third of the rear width of
the site and 6 metres of the depth of the site:
 Provided further that the height of such structures does not exceed 4 metres
measured from the ground level of the site:
 For economically weaker section plots rear set back space shall be 1.5 metres.
 Side set back - Nil

MIXED RESIDENTIAL USE ZONE

In the Mixed Residential use zone buildings or premises shall be normally permitted only for
the following purposes and accessory use.

 All uses permissible under sub-rules (a) and (b) of rules 7.

 Banks and safe deposit vaults, offices occupying floor area not exceeding 500 square
metres.
 Restaurants occupying floor area not exceeding 500 square metres.

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DESCRIPTION MINIMUM WIDTH REMARKS

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AREAS UNDER MIXED RESIDENTIAL ZONE

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CHENNAI CITY

TERMS AND CONDITIONS

 Cluster — Plots or dwelling units or housing grouped around an open space.Ideally

housing cluster should not be very large. In ground and one storeyed structures
not more than 20 houses should be grouped in a cluster
 Cluster Court Town House—A dwelling in a cluster plot having 100 percent or
nearly 100 percent ground coverage with vertical expansion, generally limited to
one floor only and meant for self use
 Dwelling Unit/Tenement — An independent housing unit with separate facilities for
living, cooking and sanitary requirements
 Group Housing — Housing for more than one dwelling unit, where land is owned
jointly (as in the case of co-operative societies or the public agencies, such as local
authorities or housing boards, etc) and the construction is undertaken by one
Agency.
 Row Housing/Row Type Building — A row of buildings, with only front, rear and
interior open spaces where applicable.

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In the case of special housing schemes for low income group and economically weaker
section of society developed up to two storeyed row/cluster housing scheme, the pedestrian
pathway width shall be 3 m

The pedestrian pathway shall not serve more than 8 plots on each side of the pathway; the
length of the pathway shall be not more than 50 m.

GROUP HOUSING

• Group housing development may be in low rise house clusters or multi-storeyed

apartments for high density development. No limit to floors and height shall be
applicable, but the coverage and floor area ratio for various densities may be as given
in Table unless otherwise provided in the Master Plan and local development control
rules.

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Site Analysis and 4. Site
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• The minimum size of the site for group housing multi-storeyed apartment shall be
3000 m2

• The number of dwelling units are calculated on the basis of the density pattern given
in the Development Plan taking into consideration a population of 4.5 persons per
dwelling unit.

• The basement may vary between 33.33 to 50 percent of the plot area and is to be
used for parking, servicing and for essential household storage without counting in
FAR

• One car parking space for every two flats up to 90 m2 floor area and one for every flat
for 100 m2 or more shall be provided.

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SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LOW INCOME HOUSING

 In these planning standards, the general master plan requirement for community open
spaces estimated at 0.3 ha for thousand persons is provided; road areas are worked
out between 10 and 20 percent of the site area; one nursery school of 0.1 ha is
provided for a population of 1 500 and shopping centres at 4 shops per thousand
population are also covered. It is emphasized that this type of development should
apply to clusters of 400 dwelling units, so distributed in the development under
consideration as to maintain the overall densities of the master plan for the area.
 Plot Area
 Plot Size The minimum plot size with ground coverage not exceeding 75 percent, shall
not be less than 40 m2 in small and medium town and not less than 30 m2 in
metropolitan cities. Plot sizes below 30 m2 but not less than 15 m2 may be permitted
in case of cluster planning, however, in such cases the ground coverage and FSI shall
be 100 percent and 2 percent respectively (see also Annex E for Special requirements
for cluster planning for housing).
 Minimum Frontage The minimum frontage of the plot shall be 3.6 m in width

 Height of Building The height of building shall not exceed 15 m.

 1 For buildings up to the height of 15 m, there is no need to provide lifts.
 2 Housing for the low-income group shall preferably be up to a maximum of two
storeys.
 3 Buildings for housing beyond 15 m in height should be resorted to in exceptional
circumstances and it should be governed by provisions laid down in this Code
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 Plinth The minimum height of plinth shall be regulated on the basis of environmental
and topographical condition and higher plinth height may be required in areas prone to
flooding.

CONSIDERATIONS OF SITE

Site analysis and design

Site selection, analysis, and design are all important to achieving goodbuilding air quality.
Following are some of the key points of an effective approach to this phase of design:

- Evaluate air, water, soil for contaminants.

- Evaluate surrounding and historical uses.

- Determinate impact of climate, wind.

- Locate buildings, site features to minimize negative impacts.

- Specify filtration and air cleaning requirements based on the assessmentof the
surrounding environment.

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HOUSING TYPES

HOUSING TYPES

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INFRASTRUCTURE

 TAMIL NADU HOUSING BOARD

 ANNA NAGAR – CHENNAI (Named for ARIGNAR ANNA)
 Location- it is located in the north-western part of Chennai and forms a part of the
Aminjikarai taluk and the Anna Nagar Zone.
 Total AREA – 5 km2 (2 sq.mi)
 Developed – 1970s
 Importance - It is one of the prime residential areas in Chennai.
 Significance - Anna Nagar is the first and the only township in Chennai to follow a
standard addressing system followed in the western world.
 Landmarks - One of the primary landmarks in Anna Nagar is the Anna Nagar Tower,
built in 1968 as part of the World Trade Fair. Other important locations include the
Anna Arch, Chinthamani, Blue Star, 14 shops, Shanthi Colony, Thirumangalam
junction, Padi Grade Separator, Anna Nagar East, and the Anna Nagar West bus
depot.

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 Infrastructure - Anna Nagar has several established schools and colleges, places
of worship, shopping areas with both independent shops and chain stores and
numerous restaurants. The 2nd avenue is an arterial road in Anna Nagar which
has emerged as a hub for several restaurants and shops. There are also a number of
midsize hospitals and nursing homes catering to the local population.
 Originated - Anna Nagar originated as a suburban village called Naduvakkarai. It
was called Mullam Village and is still referred to like that by the Land and revenue
department for all official purposes
 Designed - Anna Nagar was developed by the Tamil Nadu Housing Board in the early
1970s following the World Trade Fair in the area in 1968. The board developed
residential plots, apartments, commercial complexes, wide roads, school zones, bus
terminus and large parks.
 Road - Anna Nagar has two bus terminuses, Anna Nagar West and Anna Nagar
East.
 The East terminus is located near the Anna Nagar Roundtana while the West terminus
is situated on the Inner Ring Road.
 The West terminus is one of the largest bus terminuses in the city. Buses to different
parts of the city begin from the West Terminus.
 The roads in Anna Nagar are designed based on a matrix structure similar to roads
in developed countries in the western world; all the roads are laid parallel and
perpendicular to each other. In addition, a standardized naming nomenclature is
adopted. In Anna Nagar, 2nd, 4th and 6th Avenues run East-West and 1st, 3rd, 5th
and 7th Avenues run North South. All the streets are interconnected to these avenues.
Areas expanded after the formation of the initial 1970 layouts do not follow the
standard nomenclature.
 Anna Nagar Roundtana - The Anna Nagar Roundtana located at the intersection of
2nd Avenue and 3rd Avenue is a sprawling and burgeoning high-scale commercial
neighborhood. This was initially developed for the Madras EXPO during the 1970s and
was named "Round Turn Over", whose name has colloquially changed to
"Roundtana" with the use of Tamil Language.
 Railway- The Anna Nagar railway station was inaugurated in the year 2003. It is
located on the Thirumangalam road, a road that connects Anna Nagar West
with Villivakkam. The railway line stretches for 3.09 kilometers and links Anna Nagar

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with the Tiruvallur-Chennai suburban line. Between 2003 and 2007, five suburban
trains were operated from Anna Nagar to Chennai Beach via Villivakkam. The station
was closed in 2007 for the construction of the Padi elevated rotary. However, after the
completion of the rotary in 2009, the station remained closed owing to its low
patronage. There were plans to reopen the station in 2011. None of them materialized,
however. Three underground metro stations, two in Anna Nagar and one in Anna
Nagar East, which form a part of the Chennai Metro.

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA FOR COMMERCIAL PROJECTS

A commercial building is a building that is used for commercial use. Types can include office
buildings, warehouses, or retail (i.e. convenience store, ‘big box stores, shopping malls, etc.).
In urban locations, a commercial building often combines functions, such as an office on
levels 2-10, with retail on floor 1. Local Authorities commonly maintain strict regulations on
commercial zoning, and have the authority to designate any zoned area as such. A Business
must be located in a commercial area or area zoned at least partially for commerce.

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GENERAL CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF SITE FOR ANY OFFICE SPACE

• Customer priority
• Competitor proximity
• Legal, financial and marketing considerations
• Land requirements for initial project and future expansions
• Utility requirements (water, sewer, gas, electricity), current and future
• Workforce reinforcements
• Technical labour skills required
• Training strategies and requirements
• Recurring costs (state and local taxes, wages, payroll taxes, utilities, etc.)
• Proximity to airport and required service level

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BANKS

Banks are places for a proper security & dignity transulation buildings.

OPERATIONS

Proof department, Fire proof record vault, Data processing store, Safety deposit vault, Trust
department should be kept secured and private.

Secure rooms, auditorium, drive-in, walk-up tellers can be kept for public use.

PUBLIC SPACE

a) Lobby : accessible by all users.

b) Officers platform : private cubicle with public interaction
c) Circulations to vaults

SPACE REQUIREMENTS

For a given installation can be finally determined only by a layout of the work flow and of the
machine themselves. In addition to the space for the system proper, auxiliary areas are
needed for air conditioning equipment, testing, storage and the like. Space is often required
for printer from stands, card files, work tables, desks. Storage must usually be provided for
permanent master document files. EDP cards (or in newer machines, magnetic tapes).
These areas should be carefully located to minimize unnecessary travel time. A bulk storage
room is usually required for the storage of spare filters, transformers and other large parts.

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ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING (EDP)

The EDP is private room which can be used only for data processing.

The units which compose an EDP system are heavy. Point loads on the floor may often run
as high as 1000 pounds. Even when the loads can be distributed, it is usually necessary to
design the floors for 150 per loadings, or more.

HOTEL

The primary function of a hotel has not changed from the earliest recorded hostelry to tire
present-day hotel, whether that be a hotel of 100 rooms or 3000 rooms, whether it be an in-
city hotel or a resort hotel, whether it be a convention hotel or a family-type hotel. The earliest
hostelry offered ‘bed and board’ as well as pleasant surroundings in which to enjoy both
commodities.

Building height is indicated by the number of stories above ground. The results of a survey of
125 hotels are shown on the graph, plotted with logarithmic co-ordinates. The curve rises
rapidly, showing the typical 200 – room hotel to be 10 stories high, and then tends to level
off, showing the typical hotel of 2000 to 3000 rooms to be about 25 stories high. Ground-floor
area is shown with the plotted points widely scattered on the graph. The available ground
area and the number of guest rooms to be placed on it account for the wide dispersion. In
general, the more guest rooms, the greater the ground-floor area. (“M” is the abbreviation for
1000). Typically guest-floor area usually covers about 55 percent of the ground-floor area.

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MOTEL

• A Motel can be defined as any type of sleeping accommodation designed and

operated especially for the traveller who travels by car.
• It may be the most primitive structure, or a virtual place. It may be called a cabin, a
court, a lodge, an inn or simply a motel.
• They have had a phenomenal growth, paralleling that of the automobile and the
highway.
• Long characterized by small units located on the open highway, motels are now
growing larger and moving into the fringes-and even the downtown areas-of large
cities.
• The average size, which was only 15 rooms in 1952, had by 1959 increased to 35
rooms.

SITE LOCATION – AIRPORT

• The airport inn is built at a major, usually intercontinental, airport. A relatively large
and high-class operation, this type of motel often has 150 to 300 rooms.
• They are two-storey guest-room buildings, and a site is at least 10 acres. Business is
supplied by airline patrons, motorists and guests from the metropolitan area served by
the airport
• Site area – 10 acres.

SITE LOCATION – MOTORISTS

• Site location is of paramount importance

• Geographically, it should be at the end of a day’s run for the motorist in order to attract
transient business.
• The average motorist is not interested in stopping for the night except at the end of his
day’s run.
• The typical motorist covers about 300 miles in a day, plus or minus up to 100 miles,
depending upon personal preferences and highway conditions.

SITE LOCATION – HIGHWAY

• Traffic surveys showing the daily volume of value only if they indicate the number of
potential customers passing the site during the critical few hours of the end of the day.

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• The total 24-hour volume of trucks, local passenger traffic, and whatever else comes
along very little.
• A tally of all passenger-car license plates that passed in each direction during the end-
of-the-day period, disregarding, if possible, those issued within a radius of about 200
miles.
• The highway motor hotel furnishes room side parking for the traveller en route.
This type of motel is usually one or two stories high, with a site of at least three acres
• If space permits, not more than 15 percent of the site area is used for buildings and
parkings.
• Site acres – 3 acres

OFFICE

EXTERIOR

The primary advantage of an exterior core arrangement is that it leaves the entire floor area
of the building available for tenant use. In addition, the core does not complicate the floor
plan either functionally or structurally. With this type of arrangement, maximum flexibility is
achieved with respect to tenant distribution, office depth and layout.

TYPES OF OFFICES

• Insurance companies
• Medical offices
• Dental offices
• Law offices

LOCATION

Central (Interior)

• This location has a number of advantages.

• It allows all window spaces to be utilized as rentable office space and depending upon
the configuration of the building plan will permit offices of varying depths to receive
natural light.

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Off-Center (Interior)

• Like the central-interior core, the off-center interior core permits all window or building
perimeter space to be used for offices. However, it presents somewhat more flexibility
in maximum depth and arrangement of spaces.
• This can be particularly desirable where large open spaces such as secretarial or
electrical pools are required
• This core location may present some problems of access. But it is off-center, it is
somewhat remote and thus less convenient to the far sides and corners of the
building.

OTHER PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

• Employees performing close work should be in the best-lighted areas.

• Clothes lockers in an office layout are out of date and wasteful
• Heavy equipment generally should be placed against walls or columns in order to
avoid floor overloading.
• Be safety conscious. Do not obstruct exits, corridors, or stairways.
• Where frequent interviews with the general public are required, as in personnel offices
• In operations which require employees to work away from their offices, with only
infrequent visits there to file reports etc.,

RADIO & TV STATIONS

TELEVISION BROADCASTING FACILITIES

Television broadcasting facilities range from a tiny station serving a small community to a
major network facility with multiple studios and extensive supporting facilities providing
programming to hundreds of city and regional markets.

SITE SELECTION

• Site selection has much in common with radio studios, but it will also depend on the
planning factors.
• The site for an audience studio is planned much as it that for a theatre, with
considerations of parking, transportation and audience egress.

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• All studios require truck loading facilities for delivery and removal of heavy cameras
and electronic equipment and if dramatic or variety programming is planned-scenery
and properties.
• Insofar as possible, avoid a site subjected to vibration, such as that caused by a
highway.

AREA REQUIRED

1. For an AM station, the site must be large enough to contain the antenna array plus the
guys and ground radials
2. Tower guys required a radius of about two-thirds the tower height, while the ground
radials should be about half the length of the station’s wavelength
3. For an FM station, the site need only be large enough to contain the tower base (or
the guys, in the case of a guyed tower) plus a small transmitter room
4. Thus, a tall building that can support the required mast makes a good FM transmitter
site
5. A TV tower that can carry an additional antenna is also a good location

AM Transmitters :for an AM transmitter, the main structures will include the towers and their
foundations, the guy anchorages (usually three, spaced radially at 120 o about each tower
base), and the transmitter building, which will be discussed subsequently.

There is also a small building, of concrete or block, at the base of the tower, known as the
“tuning house” or “coupling house”, which houses equipment for matching the transmitter and
its transmission line to the impedance of the antenna.

FM Transmitters :FM facilities are limited to the antenna, which is usually mounted on a
tower or most, plus the transmitter itself. The main requirement for an antenna is height to
clear the surrounding terrain

LOCATION

1. Location is largely a function of planning factors that is, type of programming,

relationship to talent sources, and relation to the public.
2. If extensive interviews or panel discussions are planned, the station should be
convenient to the prospective participants.
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3. Where the station desires maximum exposure to the general public, it should be easily
reached by public transportation
4. Where these factors are less significant or good transportation is available, advantage
may be taken of lower-cost suburban areas.
5. Where studio and transmitter are combined in one building, the technical requirements
of transmitters will govern the site selection

ENVIRONMENT

1. Although studio design can compensate for a hostile noise environment, reasonable
freedom from excessive noise and vibration is desirable
2. Within a building, the area selected for studios should be free of overhead building
pipes and ductwork to prevent noise and water leaks
3. Surroundings tenancies should be free of objectionable noise

UTILITIES

A reliable power source and access to telephone and telex communications lines are
essential

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. Site selection for a transmitter facility is highly technical end is best entrusted to a
consulting engineer specializing in this kind of work unless the station itself possesses
the necessary expertise.
2. In addition to studies of ground conductivity (for AM), careful analysis must be made of
potential interference with other stations, all in accordance with detailed FCC
regulations.
3. Air traffic patterns must also be considered, as must local zoning regulations.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to the necessary technical considerations, the site should have:

• All-weather access
• Reliable power supply
• Reliable telephone service
• Parking space

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PARKING

Parking (or garage space) for station vehicles used for “remote” (off-premises) broadcasting
is particularly important.

Desire for liberal parking facilities may conflict with the need for a “downtown” location
convenient to visitors, talent sources and VIPs.

TELEVISION & BROADCASTING FACILITIES

Television broadcasting facilities range from a tiny station serving a small community to a
major network facility with multiple studios and extensive supporting facilities providing
programming to hundreds of city and regional markets

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA

• Site selection has much in common with radio studios, but it will also depend on the
planning factors
• The site for an audience studio is planned much as is that for a theatre , with
considerations of parking, transportation and audience egress.
• All studios require truck loading facilities for delivery and removal of heavy cameras
and electronic equipment and-if dramatic or variety programming is planned-scenery
and properties.
• Insofar as possible, avoid a site subjected to vibration, such as that caused by a
highway.

SHOPPING CENTRES

TYPES OF SHOPPING CENTRES

1. Neighbourhood Center (Suburban)

 This is a row of stores customarily in a strip, or line, paralleling the highway and with
parking between the line of store fronts and the highway.
 Ranging from 20,000 to 100,000 ft of space, these projects usually contain a
supermarket and a drugstore.

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 They cater to a very limited trade area and are not normally competitive with the major
centers.
 A few of the newer of these centers have their retail units clustered around an
enclosed “mini-mall”.
2. Intermediate or Community-Size Center
 This also is usually a strip of stores but substantially larger than the neighbourhood
center and using containing a so-called “junior” department store as the major unit.
 This type is vulnerable to competition from the larger centers and hence has declined
in desirability.
 The parking pattern is normally similar to that of the neighbourhood centre.
3. Regional Centre (Suburban)
 This contains one to four department store plus 50 to 100 or more satellite shops and
facilities, all fronting on an internal pedestrian mall or shopping walkway.
 Parking completely surrounds the building group so that all store face inward to the
mall with their “backs” to the parking.
 With today’s rising land costs and diminishing supply of suitable large tracts, there has
been a growing trend toward double-decked parking to save land area and to keep
horizontal walking distances within reason.
4. Renewal Projects (Downton)
 The multilevel malls may connect directly or by bridges to other shopping facilities,
hotels, office buildings, theatres and parking garages.
 Because of high landcosts, all parking is normally multidecked and can be above,
below, or better, laterally continguous to the shopping facilities.
 The downtown trend is toward a multilevel pattern interconnecting the essential parts
of the central business district.

SELECTING THE SITE

LOCATION

The term “location” indicates the general area in which to select a shopping center site. The
merits of location, whether the land as already been acquired or is being sought, must always
be subjected to careful economic analysis. If the site has already been acquired, the
economist characteristics of the location in an effort to decide whether the particular property
should be developed as a shopping centre project, and if so, what its size and character

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should be. If the size has not yet been acquired , the economist must make a study of the
general area within which the most suitable location can be pinpointed. This over-all study
may involve as large an area as the metropolitan area of a large city. First, an analysis is
made of the total available economic potential of the general area. The search is gradually
narrowed down through analysis of various segments of the larger area: a specific area
within the chosen segment that seems to offer the most advantageous potential is then
examined, and finally, a defined location within this specific area is chosen. If properly
undertaken, this procedure will usually establish the most suitable location for a shopping
centre. Inherent in any analysis is a study of the following factors:

 Population
 Income
 Purchasing power
 Accessibility
 Population

Considerations must be given to such factors as existing population density, zoning

restrictions, physical or man-made barriers to the development of new residential areas
(mountains, waterways, industrial areas, public parks, cemeteries, airports) and other land
uses that would forestall residential development. The composition of the population in the
trade area, as far as racial or economic characteristics are concerned, is important in various
regions of the country. In areas where strong traditions or prejudices exist, it may be
unreasonable to expect that various ethnic groups will shop together.

TRADE AREA

The term “trade area” is normally defined as “that area from which is obtained the major
portion of the continuing patronage necessary for the steady support of the shopping centre”.
The defining factors used in delineating a trade area vary from centre to centre. They include,
but are not limited to the size and influence of the proposed retail facilities, planning and
design characteristics, travel time to and from the location, the existence of natural or man-
made barriers such as railroads and rivers –that would limit accessibility either in fact or
psychologically and the existence of competitive facilities. Thus the trade areas for various
locations will not necessarily assume similar shapes or sizes.

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SITE QUALIFICATIONS

1. The site must be located in the most desirable general area as established by the
economic survey.
2. The site must be owned or controlled by the developer or offer the possibility of
acquisition
3. Land cost must be in keeping with overall economic considerations
4. Existing zoning must permit shopping centre development
5. The site must contain sufficient land to permit construction facilities to meet the sales
potential
6. The land must be in one piece, free of intervening roadways, rights-of-way,
easements, major waterways or other obstacles that would force development
inseparated portions
7. The topography and shape of the site must permit advantageous planning and
reasonably economical construction
8. The surrounding road pattern and accessibility must follow utilization of the business
potential
9. The structure must be visible from major thoroughfares
10. Surrounding land uses should be free of competitive developments, and if possible
should be of a nature that enhances the operation of the shopping centre.

Other criteria that are desirable but not essential include:

 Adequate site area for future expansion

 Proximity to public transportation (in case of larger cities)
 Possibility of integrating the land with other mutually beneficial uses such as town
centres, recreation housing etc.,
 Protection of the project from undesirable neighbouring developments through
achievement of suitable zoning of adjacent land

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Organization of vehicular and pedestrian circulation, types of roads, hierarchy of

roads, networks, road widths and parking, regulations. Turning radii & street
intersections
Site Analysis and 5. Site Planning and Site Layout
Planning Principles
GUIDELINES FOR SUBDIVISION STREETS, ESTABLISHES THE FOLLOWING
CRITERIA IN THE DESIGN OF LOCAL STREET SYSTEMS:

 Safety- for both vehicular and pedestrian traffic.

 Efficiency of Service- for all users.

 Economy- of land use, construction, and maintenance

 Adequate vehicular and pedestrian access should be provided to all parcels.

 Streets should be designed to minimize through traffic.

 Elements in the local circulation system should not have to rely on extensive traffic

regulations in order to function efficiently and safely.

 Planning and construction of residential streets should clearly indicate their local

function.

 The local street should be designed for a relatively uniform low volume of traffic.

 Local streets should be designed to discourage excessive speeds.

 Pedestrian-vehicular conflict points should be minimized.

 Minimum amount of space should be devoted to street use.

 There should be a minimum number of intersections

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VEHICULAR CIRCULATION

The parking row

The most common unit of parking is the two-way aisle with 90-degree stalls and exits at
both ends

Advantages:

 Accessible stalls are easily incorporated into the design

 The wide aisles increase separation between cars and pedestrians in the aisle
 The two-way aisles allows drivers to exit efficiently
 Does not require aisle directional signs and markings.

Disadvantages:

 Two-way traffic may increase the conflict between pedestrians and cars
 This pattern cannot be fitted into all constrained sites.

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Planning Principles
ONE-WAY SLOT

Advantages:

 This pattern can be fitted into narrow sites

 One-way entrance and exit simplifies circulation and reduces required curb cut width
 Pedestrian/car conflict reduced
 Angle parking is perceived as the easiest in which to park.

Disadvantages:

 Drivers cannot recirculate within the lot;

 Signage of one-way entrance and exit required;
 Stalled or slow vehicle blocks entire system;
 Requires an alley or must run block face to block face.

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HERRINGBONE

 The one-way slot can be expanded into multiple one-way bays with the herringbone
pattern.
 The advantages and disadvantages are similar to the one-way slot except that
because cars cannot recirculate within the lot and cannot pass by all the stalls, there
may be significant inefficiency in parking.

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Planning Principles
ONE-WAY LOOP

 The advantages and disadvantages of the one-way loop are similar to the one-way
slot.
 The exit should be “downstream” of the entrance.
 A cross aisle can be added to allow cars torecirculate within the lot.

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Planning Principles
DEAD END LOTS

Dead-end lots should be limited to 10-12 cars for public parking and 40 cars for low-turnover
employee or contract parking and should have back-out stubs at the dead end.

Advantages

 All stalls are along edges allowing pedestrians to avoid crossing traffic
 With a small lot the curb cut width can be minimal.

Disadvantages:The size

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Planning Principles
DROP-OFF TURNABOUTS

Advantages

 Removes the activity of dropping-off and picking-up from the street

 Allows architectural design of the place of arrival and departure.

Disadvantages:Can be less time- and land-efficient than on-street drop-offs.

ACCESSIBLE CORNERS

 The corners of parking lots can provide good access routes to accessible stalls.
 The advantages and disadvantages are dependent on the layout of the entire lot and
must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

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Planning Principles

ENTRANCE AISLE

 Lots that are likely to generate significant traffic, such as grocery store lots or other
high-turnover, large lots, should have entrance aisles.
 These aisles provide a place to slow down cars as they enter the car commons and
space for cars waiting to exit the lot.
 They can also provide direct pedestrian paths that do not cross parking areas.

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Site Analysis and 5. Site Planning and Site Layout
Planning Principles
TYPES OF ROADS

ROADS

FREEWAY HIGHWAYS STREETS NON – DRIVABLE TYPES OF SEGMENTS

MAJOR HIGHWAYSSERV ICE ROAD WALKING TRAILS

MINOR HIGHWAYSSTREET PEDESTRIAN

BOARDWALKS

RAMPSDIRT STAIRWAY

PRIMARYSTREETPARKING LOT ROAD RAILROAD

PRIVATE ROAD RUNWAY/ TAXIWAY

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Site Analysis and 5. Site Planning and Site Layout
Planning Principles
FREEWAYS

(expressways) have strict classification rules.

 Multi-Lane, divided road

 No cross traffic.
 No stop lights (except for ramp meters).
 No stop signs.
 No parking.
 No stopping (except for toll booths, freeway access metering)
 Highest speed limits. (relative to region)
 Some have minimum speed limits; Limited access
 Access restrictions vary by state but some typical restrictions are:
 No pedestrians
 No bicycles
 No mopeds
 Entrance ramps are typically designed with an acceleration zone so that cars can acce
lerate up to freeway speeds before merging into freeway traffic.
 Exit ramps are typically designed with a deceleration zone so that traffic can exit the fr
eeway at freeway speeds without obstructing traffic, then have sufficient distance to
slow down before any turns.

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Planning Principles
HIGHWAYS

aretypically numbered or named roads that can be followed to get from one city to another.

 There are two main Highway labels, Major and Minor.

 One differentiation between Major and Minor is the design and use of the road.
A Major Highway is purpose built for the expedience of thru traffic.
 A Minor Highway could have a diverse range of priority placed on the flow of thru
traffic.
o Indian Highways should typically have a Major Highway or Minor Highway road
type.
o All Indian State Highways deserve a Highway road type.

MAJOR HIGHWAYS:

 Higher speeds.
 Speed limits should be near or equal to Interstate or Freeway
 speed limits in the same area. (typically within 10-20 Kmph)
 Multiple lanes in each direction.
 Separated directions of travel.
 Turning traffic is typically limited to spec

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

 ified turn lanes or freeway style ramps to minimize obstructions to thru traffic.
 Partially limited access with few minor streets intersecting with this road.
 Intersections are most often with primary roads or other highways.
 Can have stoplights or freeway style interchanges.
 No stop signs. Pedestrian crossings may be limited.
 Local business access is often restricted to frontage roads or other streets.

Typically roads with numerous side streets, parking lot accesses, residential driveways, low s
peed limits, undivided, or shared centre turn lanes are not Major Highways.

MINOR HIGHWAYS

 Minor Highways vary widely from large multi-lane roads with stoplights and higher
speed limits, to small residential streets with stops signs.
 Some minor highways may zigzag thru an area with many turns on local streets.
 A Minor Highway thru the main street of a small town often retains focus on local
access with pedestrian traffic and on street parking.

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RAMPS

 All entrances to or exits from freeways.

 A proper freeway style ramp onto or off of a Highway.
 Not for at grade "street" connectors.
 Not for turn lanes.
 Roads connecting a highway with a rest/service/parking area should be treated as
ramps as well and named accordingly (e.g. "Exit to Service Area").
 Ramp names do not appear on the client application map, but only in the text for
route directions.

PRIMARY STREETS

 Major roads used to get across a neighbourhood or city.

 Usually given higher priority for right of way with traffic controls.
 Primary streets may have less residential driveways.
 A town’s “Main Street,” if it is not a highway, is typically a primary street.

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A primary designation is very relative to population and traffic densities.

In the smallest rural town, a primary street may barely be wide enough for
two cars heading opposite directions to pass each other.

In dense urban areas primary streets may need to be a divided road with multiple lanes of
traffic in each direction having traffic controls at every intersection.

STREETS:

Usually for local travel within a town

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SERVICE ROADS

 Also often known as a frontage road.

 A smaller street found running alongside a limited access highway or other primary
street.
 Service roads allow local traffic to enter and exit driveways, parking lots, and
intersecting streets without congesting thoroughfare traffic.
(NOTE: Service Roads should NOT be confused with what is often called a "service al
ley"Service Roads will not prevent routing.)

STREET

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 Any road that traffic will be routed onto.
 At grade connectors & turn lanes when separated by enough distance from the
streets that one is needed for proper GPS tracking.

DIRT

A road that is not paved.

PARKING LOTS

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 Parking lots, along with other publicly accessible roads such as alleys that should not

be used for traffic routing unless directly at the start or end point of a route.

 Do not map the rows within parking lots because it clutters the map.

 Parking Lot roads have a transition penalty when exiting the Parking Lot road segment

 Use Parking Lot road type for all necessary segments in the Parking Lot.

The proper use of parking lot roads can also help to avoid automated traffic jam reports as

well as Map Problems related to users driving in unmapped parking lots. Draw in the

drivable portions of the parking lot that are near streets and other roadways. This will

prevent the one’s routing server from assuming you must be on the main road when in fact

you are stopped in the parking lot stopped.

PRIVATE ROADS

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Private roads are useful for the following situations:

 Gated communities with controlled access

 Schools and Universities

 Military Bases

 Roads within apartment complexes and trailer parks

 Businesses with controlled access (gates / guard)

Private roads function in a similar way to Parking Lot roads using a transition penalty

when leaving the private

road. This transition penalty tokeep users from incorrectly routing through a private area as a

shortcut.When mapping Private roads, all of the road segments withinthe Privatearea should

be of the Private Road type.

NON - DRIVABLE

 These may be useful for points of reference when navigating such as seeing on a map

where a turn is in relation to a railroad crossing.

 When users travel on a nonvehicle route such as a bicyclist or mass

transit rider, marking these routes can be useful to explain the GPS traces that result.

 If a map scan has non-drivable routes on it, it is important to mark these to prevent

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traffic routing onto them.

 Non-drivable routes should not have any type of junction with a drivable road.

crossing a drivable road, the non-drivable road shouldbe bridged across without a

junction between them and set at a different level.

NON – DRIVABLE

 Railroad:
 Trains, Light Rail
 Runway/Taxiway
 For aircraft at airports

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TYPES OF SEGMENTS (ROUNDABOUTS)

Roundabouts have few principals:

 The first one, each node on the roundabout can only be connected to no more than
one segment.
 Each connection has a spectrum that exists in order to notify the Client on how to
define the message (Go straight, exit through the 2nd / 3rd / 4th exit).
 The system will include the radius border from the centre and notify the user
accordingly.

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HIERARCHY OF ROADS

ARTERIAL ROADS

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 No frontage access, no standing vehicle, very little cross traffic.

 Design Speed : 80km/hr
 Land width : 50 – 60m
 Spacing 1.5km in CBD & 8km or more in sparsely developed areas.
 Divided roads with full or partial parking
 Pedestrian allowed to walk only at intersection

SUB ARTERIAL

 Bus stops but no standing vehicle.

 Less mobility than arterial.
 Spacing for CBD : 0.5km
 Sub-urban fringes : 3.5km
 Design speed : 60 km/hr
 Land width : 30 – 40 m

COLLECTOR STREET

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 Collects and distributes traffic from local streets

 Provides access to arterial roads
 Located in residential, business and industrial areas.
 Full access allowed.
 Parking permitted.
 Design speed : 50km/hr
 Land Width : 20-30m

ACCESS ROAD

 Design Speed : 30km/hr.

 Land Width : 10 – 20m.
 Primary access to residence, business or other abutting property
 Less volume of traffic at slow speed Origin and termination of trips.
 Unrestricted parking, pedestrian movements. (with frontage access, parked vehicle,
bus stops and no waiting restrictions)

CUL–DE- SAC

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Dead End Street with only one entry access for entry and exit.Recommended in Residential
areas

ROAD NETWORK

GRIDIRON PATTERN

Advantages

 It is systematic, easy, provides equal, rectangular building sites.

 Easy provision of infrastructure services
 Regularity and Orderliness in planning is easy brought
 Economical
 It allows a numbering system for easy location.

Disadvantages

Not responding to topography

 Monotonous
 Intersection created

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RADIAL PATTERN

In this type of pattern the network of roads is in the form of circles emanating from the centre
of the area.

The paradigm of radial pattern can be found at the Federal B Area of Karachi.

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Advantages

 Travel between 2 points distinct

 Public centers prominent
 Adapts to Topography

Disadvantages

 Layouts Irregular
 Wastage of spaces
 Services costlier

CURVILINEAR STREETS

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Advantages

 Intentionally Speed slow

 Journey pleasurable
 Dynamic views

Disadvantages

 Difficult in laying
 Services costlier
 Plots varying size

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PARKING
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 Parking accumulation: It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given

instant of time. Normally this is expressed by accumulation curve. Accumulation curve

is the graph obtained by plotting the number of bays occupied with respect to time.

 Parking volume: Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given

duration of time.

 Parking load : Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve. It can also

be obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles with the time interval. It is

expressed as vehicle hours.

 Average parking duration: It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of

vehicles parked.

 Parking turnover: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the

number of parking bays available.

 Parking index: Parking index is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is defined as

the ratio of number of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space available. It

gives an aggregate measure of how effectively the parking space is utilized. Parking

index can be found out as follows:

ILL EFFECTS OF PARKING

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CONGESTION:

 By parking, there will be loss in the street space which leads to the lowering of the

road capacity. Hence speed will be reduced, journey time and delay will also

subsequently increase.

 The operational cost of the vehicle increases leading to great economical loss to the

community.

ACCIDENTS:

 Careless maneuvering of parking and un-parking leads to accidents which are referred

to as parking accidents.

 Common type of parking accidents occur while driving out a car from the parking area,

careless opening of the doors of parked cars, and while bringing in the vehicle to the

parking lot for parking.

OBSTRUCTION TO FIRE FIGHTING OPERATIONS:

 Parked vehicles may obstruct the movement of fire fighting vehicles.

 Sometimes they block access to hydrants and access to buildings.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

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 They also cause pollution to the environment because stopping and startingof vehicles

while parking and un-parking results in noise and fumes.

 They also affect the aesthetic beauty of the buildings because cars parked at every

available space creates a feeling that building rises from a plinth of cars.

PARKING REQUIREMENTS

 For residential plot area from 101 to 300 sq.m only community parking space is

required.

 For residential plot area from 500 to 1000 sq.m, minimum one-fourth of the open area

should be reserved for parking.

 For offices, at least one space for every 70 sq.m should be kept aside for parking

facility of vehicles.

 One parking space is enough for 10 seats in a restaurant where as theatres and

cinema halls need keep only 1 parking space for 20 seats.

 For education institutions, Bus, Cars, Two wheelers , Cycles

 For Hospitals, Car, Vans, Cars, Two wheelers , Cycles

 For Factories, Trucks, Bus, Cars, Two wheelers , Cycles

Recommendations on the Provision of Parking Spaces for Urban Areas

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Source: Special Publication “Tentative Recommendations on the Provision of Parking

Spaces For Urban Areas”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

PARKING - TYPES

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ON STREET PARKING

means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself, controlled by government
agencies itself. As per IRC the standard dimensions of a car is taken as 5 x 2.5 and that for a
truck is 3.75 x 7.5 sq.m

Parallel parking

30o Parking

45o Parking

60o Parking Right angle Parking

OF STREET PARKING:

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Some area exclusively allotted for parking which will be at some distance away from the main
stream of traffic .They may be operated by either public agencies or private rms.

TURNING RADII

The turning radius of a vehicle is the radius of the smallest circular turn (i.e. U-turn) that the
vehicle is capable of making.

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ROAD INTERSECTIONS

 Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads.

 This area is designated for the vehicles to turn to different directions to reach their
desired destinations.
 This is because vehicles moving in different direction want to occupy same space at
the same time

TYPES

1. Grade-separated intersections orinterchanges

2. At-grade intersections

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Key elements of road intersection

GRADE-SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS OR INTERCHANGES

 It is a bridge that eliminates crossing conflicts at intersections by vertical separation of

roadways in space.
 Route transfer at grade separations is accommodated by interchange facilities
consisting of ramps.
 The interchange configurations are designed in such a way to accommodate
economically the traffic requirements of flow, operation on the crossing facilities,
physical requirements of the topography, adjoining land use, type of controls, right-of-
way and direction of movements.

Objective

The ultimate objective of grade separated intersections is to eliminate all grade crossing
conflicts and to accommodate other intersecting maneuvers by merging, diverging and
weaving at low relative speed.

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CLASSIFICATION OF GRADE-SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS

One of the distinctions made in type of Interchange is between the directional and the non -
directional interchange.

 Directional interchanges are those having ramps that tend to follow the natural
direction of movement.
 Non directional interchanges require a change in the natural path of traffic flow.

MAJOR INTERCHANGES

 Underpass
 Overpass
 Trumpet Interchange
 Diamond Interchange
 Cloverleaf Interchange
 Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
 Directional Interchange
 Bridged Rotary

UNDERPASS

 An underpass or a tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed

except for opening ingress and egress, commonly at each end.
 A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic.

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OVERPASS

 An overpass also known as a flyover, is a bridge, road, railway or similar structure that
crosses over another road or railway.
 A pedestrian overpass allows pedestrians safe crossing over busy roads without
impacting traffic.

TRUMPET INTERCHANGES

 Trumpet interchanges have been used where one highway terminates at another
highway.
 These involve at least one loop ramp connecting traffic either entering or leaving the
terminating expressway with the far lanes of the continuous highway.
 The principal advantages are low construction cost and are useful for highways as
well as toll roads.

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DIAMOND INTERCHANGE

 A diamond interchange is a common type of road junction, used where a freeway

crosses a minor road.
 The diamond interchange uses less space than most types of freeway interchange,
and avoids the interweaving traffic flows that occur in interchanges such as the
cloverleaf.
 Diamond interchanges are most effective in areas where traffic is light.

CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE

 A cloverleaf interchange is a two-level interchange in which left turns are handled by

ramp roads .
 To go left (in right-hand traffic), vehicles first continue as one road passes over or
under the other, then exit right onto a one-way three-fourths loop ramp (270°) and
merge onto the intersecting road.

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PARTIAL CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE

 Partial clover leaf is a modification that combines some elements of a diamond

interchange with one or more loops of a cloverleaf to eliminate only the more critical
turning conflicts.
 It provides more acceleration and deceleration space on the freeway.

DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGE

 A Directional interchange provides direct paths for left turns.

 These interchanges contain ramps for one or more direct or semi direct left turning
movements.
 Interchanges of two freeways or interchanges with one or more very heavy turning
movements usually warrant direct ramps, which have higher speeds of operation and
higher capacities, compared to loop ramps.

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AT GRADE INTERSECTIONS

 At-grade intersections in which all the exchanges between the roads take place on the
same plane.
 These are of two main types:

- Standard at- grade intersections

- Round about at-grade intersections.

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FLARED INTERSECTIONS

 Flared intersections expand the cross-section of the street.

 The flaring is often done to accommodate a left-turn lane, so that left-turning bicycles
and motor vehicles are removed from the through-traffic stream to increase capacity at
high-volume locations, and safety on higher speed streets.
 Right-turn lanes, less frequently used than left-turn lanes, are usually a response to
large volumes of right turns.

SIMPLE INTERSECTIONS

 Simple intersections maintain the street’s typical cross-section and number of lanes
throughout the intersection, on both major and minor roads
 Simple intersections are best-suited to locations where auxiliary (turning) lanes are not
needed to achieve the desired level-of-service

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CHANNELIZED INTERSECTIONS

 Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to definite paths by islands, marking

etc. and this method of control is called channelization.
 Channelized intersection provides more safety and efficiency.
 It reduces the number of possible conflicts by reducing the area of conflicts available
in the carriageway.
 If no channelizing is provided the driver will have less tendency to reduce the speed
while entering the intersection from the carriageway.

ROUNDABOUT INTERSECTIONS

 A roundabout is a type of circular intersection or junction in which road traffic flows

almost continuously in one direction around a central island.
 It provides maximum safety in all types of intersections.

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REFERENCES

REQUIRED READING:

1. Kevin Lynch, “Site planning”, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984.

2. Edward. T. Q., “Site Analysis”, Architectural Media, 1983.

REFERENCES:

1. B.C.Punmia, Ashok K. Jain, Ashok Kr. Jain, Arun Kr. Jain, “Surveying”, Vol.I,

Firewall Media, 2005.

2. P.B.Shahani, “Text of surveying”, Vol. I, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co, 1980

3. Joseph De.Chiarra and Lee Coppleman, “Urban Planning Design Criteria”, Van

Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1982

4. Storm Steven, “Site engineering for landscape Architects”, John wiley& Sons Inc,

2004.

5. Second Master Plan – Development Regulations – CMDA, 2008

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