MA201 Mathematics III

Solutions to Complex Analysis Tutorial 01

Complex Numbers and Complex Algebra

1. Find the modulus, argument, principal value of the argument, and polar form of the given
complex number: √
√ 1−i 3 1−i (2 + i)2
(i) 3 + i (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) −100 (vi) −3i
2 1+i (3 − i)2
Answer:
√
(i) 3 + i
√ q√ √
Modulus: | 3 + i| = ( 3)2 + 12 = 4 = 2.
√ √ π
argument: arg( 3 + i) = tan−1 (1/ 3) + 2kπ = + 2kπ where k ∈ Z.
√ 6
π
Principal value of argument: Arg ( 3 + i) = .
 π 6
Polar form: (r, θ) = 2, .
6
√
1−i 3
(ii)
2
 1 − i √3  u √ !2
  v 
2 √
 u 1 3
Modulus:  =t + = 1 = 1.

 2  2 2
√ !  √ 
1−i 3 −π
argument: arg = tan−1 − 3 + 2kπ = + 2kπ where k ∈ Z.
2 3
√ !
1−i 3 −π
Principal value of argument: Arg = .
2 3
 
−π
Polar form: (r, θ) = 1, .
3
1−i
(iii)
1+i
1−i 1−i 1−i
Observe that = × = −i
 1 + i 1 + iq 1 − i
1 − i √
Modulus:   = |−i| = (−1)2 = 1 = 1.
1 +i 

1−i −π
argument: arg = arg (−i) = + 2kπ where k ∈ Z.
1+i  2 
1−i −π
Principal value of argument: Arg = Arg (−i) = .
  1+i 2
−π
Polar form: (r, θ) = 1, .
2
(2 + i)2
(iv)
(3 − i)2
(2 + i)2 3 + 4i 3 + 4i 8 + 6i i
Observe that 2
= = × =
(3 − i) 8 − 6i 8 − 6i 8 + 6i 2

1
    s 2 r
 (2 + i)2   i 

1 1 1
Modulus:  2
= = = = .
(3 − i)   2  2 4 2
(2 + i)2
   
i π
argument: arg = arg = + 2kπ where k ∈ Z.
(3 − i)2 2 2 
(2 + i)2
  
i π
Principal value of argument: Arg 2
= Arg = .
  (3 − i) 2 2
1 π
Polar form: (r, θ) = , .
2 2
(v) −100 q √
Modulus: |−100| = (−100)2 = 10000 = 100.
argument: arg (−100) = π + 2kπ = (2k + 1)π where k ∈ Z.
Principal value of argument: Arg (−100) = π.
Polar form: (r, θ) = (100, π).

(vi) −3i q √
Modulus: |−3i| = (−3)2 = 9 = 3.
−π
argument: arg (−3i) = + 2kπ where k ∈ Z.
2
−π
Principal value of argument: Arg (−3i) = .
  2
−π
Polar form: (r, θ) = 3, .
2

 
 1  1
2. Show that if |z| = 2, then  4 ≤ .
z − 4z 2 + 3  3
Answer:
Observe
 4 that|4z 2 − 3| ≤ 4 |z|2 + 3 =  16 + 3 = 19 for |z| = 2.
z − 4z + 3 = z 4 − (4z 2 − 3) ≥  |z|4 − |4z 2 − 3|  ≥ |24 − 19| = 3 for |z| = 2.
2
 
 1  1
≤ .
Therefore,  4
z − 4z 2 + 3  3
 
 z1 − z2 
3. If either |z1 | = 1 or |z2 | = 1, but not both, then prove that    = 1. What exception
1 − z1 z2 
must be made for the validity of the above equality when |z1 | = |z2 | = 1?
Answer:
Case I: |z1 | = 1 and |z2 | = 6 1

 z1 − z2 2 |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 − 2<(z1 z2 ) 1 + |z2 |2 − 2<(z1 z2 )

 
  = = =1.
 1 − z1 z2  1 + |z1 z2 |2 − 2<(z1 z2 ) 1 + |z2 |2 − 2<(z1 z2 )
Observe that the denominator 1 + |z1 z2 |2 − 2<(z1 z2 ) 6= 0 if |z1 | = 1 and |z2 | =
6 1.

Case II: |z2 | = 1 and |z1 | =

6 1
It can be worked out similarly as in the previous case.

2
 Case III: |z1 | = 1 and |z2 | = 1
 z1 − z2 2 2 − 2<(z1 z2 )

Then,   = = 1 if the denominator 2−2<(z1 z2 ) 6= 0. That is, <(z1 z2 ) 6=
1 − z1 z2  2 − 2<(z1 z2 )
1 if and only if z1 6= z2 . So, the exception is to be made for the validity of the above equality
in this case is z1 6= z2 .

4. If z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 are complex numbers of unit modulus, prove that

|z1 − z2 |2 |z3 − z4 |2 + |z1 + z4 |2 |z3 − z2 |2 = |z1 (z2 − z3 ) + z3 (z2 − z1 ) + z4 (z1 − z3 )|2

Answer:
Since |zi | = 1 for i = 1, 2, 3 and 4, we have |zi |2 = 1 =⇒ zi = 1/zi .
Let u = (z1 − z2 )(z3 − z4 ), v = (z1 + z4 )(z3 − z2 ) and w = z1 (z2 − z3 ) + z3 (z2 − z1 ) + z4 (z1 − z3 ).
Then, we need to show that |u|2 + |v|2 = |w|2 .
First observe that,

u+v = (z1 −z2 )(z3 −z4 )+(z1 +z4 )(z3 −z2 ) = − (z1 (z2 − z3 ) + z3 (z2 − z1 ) + z4 (z1 − z3 )) = −w .

Now,

|w|2 = ww = (− (u + v)) (− (u + v))

= (u + v) (u + v)
= uu + vv + uv + uv
= |u|2 + |v|2 + uv + uv

Now, we will show below that uv + uv = 0.

uv + uv = (z1 − z2 )(z3 − z4 )(z1 + z4 )(z3 − z2 ) + (z1 − z2 )(z3 − z4 )(z1 + z4 )(z3 − z2 )

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= (z1 − z2 )(z3 − z4 )( + )( − ) + ( − )( − )(z1 + z4 )(z3 − z2 )
z1 z4 z3 z2 z1 z2 z3 z4
1
= [(z1 − z2 )(z3 − z4 )(z1 + z4 )(z2 − z3 ) + (z1 + z4 )(z3 − z2 )(z2 − z1 )(z4 − z3 )]
z1 z2 z3 z4
1
= ×0
z1 z2 z3 z4
= 0

5. Prove that equation of the circle whose diameter is formed by joining z1 and z2 is
2zz − z(z1 + z2 ) − z(z1 + z2 ) + z1 z2 + z1 z2 = 0.
Answer:
Let z be any point lying on the circle. Then, the points z, z1 and z2 form a right angle triangle
with hypotenuse as the diameter which is the line segment joining z1 and z2 .
By Pythagorean theorem,
|z1 − z2 |2 = |z − z1 |2 + |z − z2 |2
(z1 − z2 )(z1 − z2 ) = (z − z1 )(z − z1 ) + (z − z2 )(z − z2 )
z1 z1 − z1 z2 − z2 z1 + z2 z2 = zz − zz1 − z1 z + z1 z1 + zz − zz2 − z2 z + z2 z2

3
 −z1 z2 − z2 z1 = 2zz − zz1 − z1 z − zz2 − z2 z
2zz − z(z1 + z2 ) − z(z1 + z2 ) + z1 z2 + z1 z2 = 0
Thus, the equation of the circle whose diameter is formed by joining z1 and z2 is

2zz − z(z1 + z2 ) − z(z1 + z2 ) + z1 z2 + z1 z2 = 0 .

6. Interpret geometrically the following relations:

(i) {z ∈ C : |<(z)| + |=(z)| = 1}.
(ii) |z − a| − |z + a| = 2c where a and c are real constants with c > 0
Answer:
(i) {z ∈ C : |<(z)| + |=(z)| = 1}
In the first quadrant, x + y = 1. It is a straight line segment joining (0, 1) and (1, 0).
In the second quadrant, −x + y = 1. It is a straight line segment joining (−1, 0) and (0, 1).
In the third quadrant, −x − y = 1. It is a straight line segment joining (−1, 0) and (0, −1).
In the fourth quadrant, x − y = 1. It is a straight line segment joining (0, −1) and (1, 0).

(ii) |z − a| − |z + a| = 2c where a and c are real constants with c > 0

First we observe that |2a| = | − 2a| = |(z − a) − (z + a)| ≥ ||z − a| − |z + a|| = |2c|. This gives
that |a| ≥ |c| = c > 0.
Let z = x + iy.
|z − a| − |z + a| = 2c =⇒ |z − a| = 2c + |z + a|
That is, p p
(x − a)2 + y 2 = 2c + (x + a)2 + y 2
p
(x − a)2 + y 2 = 4c2 + (x + a)2 + y 2 + 4c (x + a)2 + y 2
p
x2 + a2 − 2ax + y 2 = 4c2 + x2 + a2 + 2ax + y 2 + 4c (x + a)2 + y 2
p
−4ax = 4c2 + 4c (x + a)2 + y 2
−ax − c2 p 2
= x + a2 + 2ax + y 2
c
a2 x 2 2 2axc
2
+ c + = x2 + a2 + 2ax + y 2
c c
 2 
2 a
x 2
− 1 = (a2 − c2 ) + y 2
c
x2 2
2
(c − a2 ) + y 2 = c2 − a2
c
x2 y2
+ =1
c2 (c2 − a2 )
The above equation represents a hyperbola.

2 a2
If a = c then the equation x c2 − 1 = (a2 −c2 )+y 2 gives that y = 0. Further |x−c|−|x+c| =
2c gives that x ≤ −c. Thus, the given set describes the set {z = x + iy ∈ C : x ≤ −c and y =
0}.
If a = −c then the given set describes the set {z = x + iy ∈ C : x ≥ c and y = 0}.

4
7. Find all the roots or all the values of the following:
√
(i) Cube roots of i (ii) Fourth roots of (−2 3−2i) (iii) Fourth roots of (−1) (iv) Sixth
2
roots of 8 (v) The values of (i) 3
Answer:
(i) Cube roots of i
h π  π i
i = 1 cos + 2kπ + i sin + 2kπ where k ∈ Z .
2 2
 π  π 
1 1
2
+ 2kπ 2
+ 2kπ
(i) = 1
3 3 cos + i sin where k = 0, 1, 2 .
3 3

π  π  √
3 i
k = 0 gives that cos + i sin = +
6 6 2 √2
   
5π 5π − 3 i
k = 1 gives that cos + i sin = +
6 6 2 2
   
3π 3π
k = 2 gives that cos + i sin = −i
2 2
√ √
3 i − 3 i
Thus, the cube roots of i are + , + and −i.
2 2 2 2
√
(ii) Fourth roots of (−2 3 − 2i)
√
    
7π 7π
−2 3 − 2i = 4 cos + 2kπ + i sin + 2kπ where k ∈ Z .
6 6
 √  14 1
  7π
+ 2kπ
  7π
+ 2kπ

6 6
−2 3 − 2i = 4 4 cos + i sin where k = 0, 1, 2, 3 .
4 4

√
    
7π 7π
k = 0 gives that 2 cos + i sin
24 24
√
    
19π 19π
k = 1 gives that 2 cos + i sin
24 24
√
    
31π 31π
k = 2 gives that 2 cos + i sin
24 24
√
    
43π 43π
k = 3 gives that 2 cos + i sin
24 24

(iii) Fourth roots of (−1)

−1 = 1 [cos (π + 2kπ) + i sin (π + 2kπ)] where k ∈ Z .

    
1 1 (2k + 1)π (2k + 1)π
(−1) = 1
4 4 cos + i sin where k = 0, 1, 2, 3 .
4 4

5
 π  π  1 i
k = 0 gives that cos + i sin =√ + √
4 4 2 2
   
3π 3π −1 i
k = 1 gives that cos + i sin =√ + √
4 4 2 2
   
5π 5π −1 i
k = 2 gives that cos + i sin =√ −√
4 4 2 2
   
7π 7π 1 i
k = 3 gives that cos + i sin =√ −√
4 4 2 2

1 i −1 i −1 i 1 i
Thus, the fourth roots of (−1) are √ + √ , √ + √ , √ − √ and √ − √ .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(iv) Sixth roots of 8

8 = 8 [cos (0 + 2kπ) + i sin (0 + 2kπ)] where k ∈ Z .

    
1 1 2kπ 2kπ
(8) 6 = 8 6 cos + i sin where k = 0, 1, · · · 5 .
6 6

1 1
k = 0 gives that 8 6 [cos (0) + i sin (0)] = 8 6
h π   π i
" √ #
1 1 1 3
k = 1 gives that 8 6 cos + i sin = 86 + i
3 3 2 2
     " √ #
1 2π 2π 1 −1 3
k = 2 gives that 8 6 cos + i sin = 86 + i
3 3 2 2
1 1
k = 3 gives that 8 6 [cos (π) + i sin (π)] = − (8) 6
     " √ #
1 4π 4π 1 −1 3
k = 4 gives that 8 6 cos + i sin = 86 − i
3 3 2 2
     " √ #
1 5π 5π 1 1 3
k = 5 gives that 8 6 cos + i sin = 86 − i
3 3 2 2

Thus, the
" sixth √
roots
# of 8"are √ # " √ # " √ #
1 1 1 3 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3 1 1 3
86 , 86 + i , 86 + i , − (8) 6 , 8 6 − i and 8 6 − i .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
(v) The values of (i) 3
2
1 1
(i) 3 = i2 3 = (−1) 3 .

−1 = 1 [cos (π + 2kπ) + i sin (π + 2kπ)] where k ∈ Z .

    
1 1 (2k + 1)π (2k + 1)π
(−1) 3 = 1 3 cos + i sin where k = 0, 1, 2 .
3 3

π  π  √
1 3
k = 0 gives that cos + i sin = + i
3 3 2 2
6
 k = 1 gives that cos (π) + i sin (π) = −1
    √
5π 5π 1 3
k = 2 gives that cos + i sin = − i
3 3 2 2
√ √
12 3 1 3
The values of (i) are + i
3 , −1 and − i .
2 2 2 2

Limit and Continuity

|z|2
8. Show that lim = 0.
z→0 z
Answer:
We know that as z → 0, z → 0. To see this, for a given  > 0, choose δ = . Then,
0 < |z − 0| = |z| < δ =  implies that |z − 0| = |z| = |z| < .
Now,
|z|2 zz
lim = lim = lim z = 0 .
z→0 z z→0 z z→0

9. Let f (z) = z 2 /|z|2 .

(a) Find the value of limit of f (z) as z = (x + iy) → 0 along the line y = x.
(b) Find the value of limit of f (z) as z = (x + iy) → 0 along the line y = 2x.
(c) Find the value of limit of f (z) as z = (x + iy) → 0 along the path y = x2 .
(d) What can you conclude about the limit of f (z) as z → 0.
Answer:
(a)
x2 − x2 2x2
lim f (z) = lim 2 2
+ i = lim 0+ i = i.
(x, y)→(0, 0) (x, y)→(0, 0) x + x x2 + x2 (x, y)→(0, 0)
y=x y=x y=x

(b)
x2 − 4x2 4x2 −3 4
lim f (z) = lim 2 2
+ i 2 2
= + i .
(x, y)→(0, 0) (x, y)→(0, 0) x + 4x x + 4x 5 5
y=2x y=2x

(c)
x2 − x4 2x3 x2 (1 − x2 ) 2x3
lim + i = lim + i = 1.
(x, y)→(0, 0) x2 + x4 x2 + x4 (x, y)→(0, 0) x2 (1 + x2 ) x2 (1 + x2 )
y=x2 y=x2

(d) Since f (z) approaches different values as z approaches 0 along different paths, we conclude
that the limit of f (z) as z → 0 does not exist.

10. The following functions are defined for z 6= 0. Which of these functions can be defined at
z = 0 so that it becomes continuous at z = 0.
<(z) z z<(z) <(z 2 ) z2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
|z| |z| |z| |z|2 |z|

7
Answer:
<(z) x
(a) =p
|z| x2 + y 2
x 1 x 1
lim √ = √ and lim √ = √ .
(x, y)→(0, 0) x2+x 2 2 (x, y)→(0, 0) x2 + 4x 2 5
y=x y=2x

Since f (z) approaches different values as z approaches 0 along different paths, we conclude
that lim f (z) does not exist and hence f (z) can not be continuous at z = 0.
z→0

z x + iy
(b) =p
|z| x2 + y 2
x + ix 1+ i x + i 2x 1 + 2i
lim √ = √ and lim √ = √ .
2
x +x 2 2 2
x + 4x 2 5
(x, y)→(0, 0) (x, y)→(0, 0)
y=x y=2x

Since f (z) approaches different values as z approaches 0 along different paths, we conclude
that lim f (z) does not exist and hence f (z) can not be continuous at z = 0.
z→0

z<(z) (x + i y)x x2 + i xy
(c) = p =p
|z| x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
Suppose that we define f (0) = 0. Then,
 
 z<(z)  |z| |<(z)|
|f (z) − f (0)| =  − 0 = = |<(z)| .
|z| |z|
We know that |<(z)| ≤ |z|.
Given  > 0, choose δ = . Then,
|z − 0| = |z| < δ =  implies that |f (z) − f (0)| = |<(z)| ≤ |z| <  .
z<(z)
Therefore, by defining f (0) = 0, we can make the function f (z) = is continuous at
|z|
z = 0.

<(z 2 ) x2 − y 2
(d) =
|z|2 x2 + y 2
x2 − x2 x2 − 4x2 −3
lim = 0 and lim = .
(x, y)→(0, 0) x2 + x2 (x, y)→(0, 0) x2 + 4x2 5
y=x y=2x

Since f (z) approaches different values as z approaches 0 along different paths, we conclude
that lim f (z) does not exist and hence f (z) can not be continuous at z = 0.
z→0

z2 (x2 − y 2 ) + i 2xy
(e) = p
|z| x2 + y 2
Suppose that we define f (0) = 0. Then,
 2
 |z 2 | |z|2

z
|f (z) − f (0)| =  − 0 =
  = = |z| .
|z| |z| |z|

8
Given  > 0, choose δ = . Then,

|z − 0| = |z| < δ =  implies that |f (z) − f (0)| = |z| <  .

z2
Therefore, by defining f (0) = 0, we can make the function f (z) = is continuous at z = 0.
|z|