CHAPTER EIGHT CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF GOVERNMENTS

Introduction

This chapter is designed purposely to help us understand the various forms of governments that
have been adopted right from the ancient times to the most contemporary period. Forms of
governments is sometimes referred to as systems of governance. We shall start by understanding
the meaning of governance, forms of government and go further to discuss these forms of
governments in detail. A deliberate attempt has been made to classify various forms of
governments based on the source or the motive behind its formation. As you will see, our emphasis
will be on democracy which today is the most recommended form of government.

By governance we mean the totality of institutions, systems, organization, parties, trade unions or
lobby groups or unions involved in shaping policy, decision making and decision execution about
the life of the people in a state. Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy,
aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy and tyranny. The main aspect of any
philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being
electoral contest and hereditary succession

Forms of government can be distinguished based on the cause, the motivation and the need upon
which they are built. There are three categories of these forms

 Forms of government by power source

 Forms of government by power structure
 Forms of government by ideology
 Forms of government by socio-economic attributes
 Forms of government by geo- cultural attributes

Forms of Government by Power Structure

a) Anarchy

An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power is concentrated in the hands of

one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized
mechanisms of popular control except perhaps for the implicit threat of a coup d'état or mass
revolution

A society without a publicly enforced government or political authority. Sometimes said to be non-
governance; it is a structure which strives for non-hierarchical, voluntary associations among
agents. Anarchy is a situation where there is no state, especially from the point of view of political
power, administration and governance.

This can be a natural, temporary result of civil war in a country, when an established state has been
destroyed and the region is in a transitional period without definitive leadership. Alternatively, it
has been presented as a viable long term choice by individuals known as anarchists who oppose
the state and other forms of coercive hierarchies. These individuals typically think people should
organize in non-hierarchical, voluntary associations where people voluntarily help each other.
There are a variety of forms of anarchy that attempt to avoid the use of coercion, violence, force
and authority, while still producing a productive and desirable society.

b) Confederation
A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign states, united for
purposes of common action often in relation to other states. Usually created by a treaty,
confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issues, such as defense,
foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with the general government being required to provide
support for all its members. Confederalism represents a main form of inter-governmentalism, this
being defined as ‘any form of interaction between states which takes place on the basis of sovereign
independence or government. Confederation is almost as a Federation with the Federal
Government being as a combination or alliance of all the states.
c) Federation
A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially
self-governing states or regions under a central (federal) government. In a federation, the self-
governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the
central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral
decision of either party, the states or the federal political body. Alternatively, federation is a form
of government in which sovereign power is formally divided between a central authority and a
number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal
affairs.
d) Unitary state
A unitary state is a state governed as a single power in which the central government is ultimately
supreme and any administrative divisions (sub-national units) exercise only the powers that the
central government chooses to delegate. The majority of states in the world have a unitary system
of government. Of the 193 UN member states, 165 are governed as unitary states. Autocracy is a
system of government in which supreme power (social and political) is concentrated in the hands
of one person or polity, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor
regularized mechanisms of popular control

Forms of Government by power Source

a) Autocracy
Autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power (social and political) is concentrated
in the hands of one person or polity, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints
nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of a coup
d'état or mass insurrection). Absolute monarchy (such as Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates,
Oman, Brunei and Eswatini) and dictatorships (also including North Korea) are the main modern
day forms of autocracy.
b) Oligarchy
Oligarchy, meaning rule of the few, is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small
number of people. These people might be distinguished by nobility, wealth, family ties, education
or corporate, religious or military control. Such states are often controlled by families who
typically pass their influence from one generation to the next, but inheritance is not a necessary
condition for the application of this term.
c) Democracy
Democracy, meaning rule of the people. Therefore, a Democracy is a system of government in
which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form
a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as rule of the majority
. Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants
do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes. This does include citizens being
able to vote for different laws and leaders.
d) Demarchy or Sortition

Variant of democracy; government in which the state is governed by randomly selected decision
makers who have been selected by sortition from a broadly inclusive pool of eligible citizens.
These groups, sometimes termed policy juries, citizens juries, or consensus conferences,
deliberately make decisions about public policies in much the same way that juries decide criminal
cases. Demarchy, in theory, could overcome some of the functional problems of conventional
representative democracy, which is widely subject to manipulation by special interests and a
division between professional policymakers (politicians and lobbyists) vs. a largely passive,
uninvolved and often uninformed electorate. According to Australian philosopher John Burnheim,
random selection of policymakers would make it easier for everyday citizens to meaningfully
participate, and harder for special interests to corrupt the process.

More generally, random selection of decision makers from a larger group is known as sortition
(from the Latin lottery). The Athenian democracy made much use of sortition, with nearly all
government offices filled by lottery (of full citizens) rather than by election. Candidates were
almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of wealth and status.

Forms of Government by Power Ideology

a) Constitutional
A constitutional government is a government which powers are limited by a constitution. A
constitution is normally used so the people of that government has civil and ethical rights.
b) Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a group, generally a family representing a dynasty,
embodies the country's national identity and its head, the monarch, exercises the role of
sovereignty. The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic (crowned republic),
to partial and restricted (constitutional monarchy), to completely autocratic (absolute monarchy).
Traditionally the monarch's post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication. In contrast, elective
monarchies require the monarch to be elected. Both types have further variations as there are
widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy. For example, in some elected
monarchies only pedigrees are taken into account for eligibility of the next ruler, whereas many
hereditary monarchies impose requirements regarding the religion, age, gender, mental capacity,
etc. Occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to
effective election. There have been cases where the term of a monarch's reign is either fixed in
years or continues until certain goals are achieved: an invasion being repulsed, for instance.
c) Republic
A republic (Latin: res publica) is a form of government in which the country is considered a public
matter, not the private concern or property of the rulers. The primary positions of power within a
republic are not inherited, but are attained through elections expressing the consent of the
governed. Such leadership positions are therefore expected to fairly represent the citizen body. It
is a form of government under which the head of state is not a monarch. In American English, the
definition of a republic can also refer specifically to a government in which elected individuals
represent the citizen body, also known as a representative democracy (a democratic republic) and
exercise power according to the rule of law (a constitutional republic).

Forms of government by socio-economic attributes

Historically, most political systems originated as socio-economic ideologies. Experience with

those movements in power and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government
can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.

Historically, most political systems originated as socioeconomic ideologies. Experience with those
movements in power and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government can
cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves

a) Anarchism
A system that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often
described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as
institutions based on non-hierarchical or free associations, while others have advocated for
stateless societies with the inclusion of private property, property rights and hierarchical groups,
so long as membership and association with those groups are entirely voluntary. Anarchism holds
the state to be undesirable, unnecessary and/or harmful anarch.
b) Capitalism
A system in which the means of production (machines, tools, factories, etc.) are owned by private
individuals, workers then negotiate with those individuals to use those means of production in
exchange for a portion of what they produce, usually in the form of capital (money). The owners
of the means of production are entitled to whatever portion of the products of the workers labor
that is agreed upon by the two parties.
c) Communism
A socialist system in which the means of production are commonly owned (either by the people
directly, through the commune, or by a communist state or society), and production is undertaken
for use, rather than for profit. Communist society is thus, in theory, stateless, classless, moneyless,
and democratic — it is usually regarded as the final form of a socialist or anarchist society.
d) Despotism

A system in which the laws and resources of a nation are controlled by one individual, usually a
monarch or dictator, who holds absolute political power. Examples include the pharaohs of
Ancient Egypt and the Roman emperors.

(Often used as a slur by republicans to refer to all monarchical systems, monarchists conversely
use the term to refer to systems in which monarchs have overstepped their boundaries, or to refer
to some of the more totalitarian republican systems)

e) Distributism
A variant of capitalism which views widespread property ownership as fundamental right; the
means of production are spread as widely as possible rather than being centralized under the
control of the state (as in state socialism), or a few individuals/corporations (as in what proponents
of distributism call crony capitalism ) Distributism fundamentally opposes socialism and
capitalism which distributists view as equally flawed and exploitative. In contrast, distributism
seeks to subordinate economic activity to human life as a whole, to our spiritual life, our
intellectual life, our family life

f) Feudalism
A system of land ownership and duties common to medieval Europe. Under feudalism, all the land
in a kingdom belonged to the king. However, the king would give some of the land to the lords or
nobles who fought for him. These presents of land were called manors. Then the nobles gave some
of their land to vassals. The vassals then had to do duties for the nobles. The lands of vassals were
called fiefs.

A similar system is the Iqta, used by medieval Islamic societies of the middle east and north Africa.
This functioned much like the feudal system but generally had titles that weren't granted to a family
dynasty but to individuals at the behest of the sultan and generally only required a tax from the
lower classes, instead of military service and/or manual labour like in the feudal system.

g) Minarchism
A variant of capitalism which advocates for the State to exist solely to provide a very small number
of services. A popular model of the State proposed by minarchists is known as the night-watchman
state, in which the only governmental functions are to protect citizens from aggression, theft,
breach of contract, and fraud as defined by property laws, limiting it to three institutions: the
military, the police, and courts.

h) Monarchism
A system in which the government is headed by an agreed upon head of the nobility who is known
as the monarch, usually in the form of a king or emperor (but also less commonly a queen or
empress). In most monarchical systems the position of monarch is one inherited from a previous
ruler by bloodline or marriage, but in other cases it may be a position elected by the nobility
themselves, as was the case in the ancient Roman Kingdom and the medieval Holy Roman Empire.
 i) Republican
A system in which the laws and governmental policies of the state are considered a public matter
and decided by the citizens of the society, whoever they may be. Most modern nation-states are
examples of republics, but other examples include those of ancient Rome and Athens

j) Socialism
A system in which workers, democratically and/or socially own the means of production. The
economic framework may be decentralized and self-managed in autonomous economic units, as
in libertarian systems, or centrally planned, as in authoritarian systems. Public services such as
healthcare and education would be commonly, collectively, and/or state owned.

k) Totalitariasm
A system in which the land and resources of a nation are controlled by a centralised authoritarian
state that holds absolute political power, usually under a dictatorship or single political party.
Examples include Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.

l) Tribalism
A system based on a small complex society of varying degrees of centralisation that is led by an
individual known as a chief

Form of Government by geo- cultural attributes

Governments can also be categorized based on their size and scope of influence
a) National government

The government of a nation-state and is a characteristic of a unitary state. This is the same thing as a
federal government which may have distinct powers at various levels authorized or delegated to it by
its member states, though the adjective 'central' is sometimes used to describe it. The structure of
central governments varies. Many countries have created autonomous regions by delegating powers
from the central government to governments at a sub national level, such as a regional, state or local
level. Based on a broad definition of a basic political system, there are two or more levels of
government that exist within an established territory and govern through common institutions with
overlapping or shared powers as prescribed by a constitution or other law.

b) City state
A sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country that usually consists of a
single city and its dependent territories. Historically, this included cities such as Rome, Athens,
Carthage, and the Italian city-states during the Renaissance. Today only a handful of sovereign city-
states exist, with some disagreement as to which are city-states. A great deal of consensus exists that
the term properly applies currently to Singapore, Monaco, and Vatican City. City states are also
sometimes called micro-states which however also includes other configurations of very small
countries.
c) Commune
From the Medieval Latin communia. An intentional community of people living together, sharing
common interests, often having common values and beliefs, as well as shared property, possessions,
resources, and, in some communes, work, income or assets.

d) Inter-governmental organization

Also known as international governmental organizations (IGOs): the type of organization most
closely associated with the term international organization these are organizations that are made up
primarily of sovereign states (referred to as member states). Notable examples include the United
Nations (UN), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Council of Europe
(COE), International Labour Organization (ILO) and International Police Organization
(INTERPOL). The UN has used the term intergovernmental organization instead of international
organization for clarity.

e) World government

The notion of a common political authority for all of humanity, yielding a global government and a
single state that exercises authority over the entire Earth. Such a government could come into
existence either through violent and compulsory world domination or through peaceful and voluntary
supranational union.

Democracy and Historical Development

Etymologically the term Democracy – comes from two Greek words- Demos cratos (krator ) rule
or strength. It was founded by Cleisthenes in 508-507. Democracy literally means Rule of the
people, population, popular-demos. Democracy generally describes a type of covenant where
people have direct say in the decisions the government makes. Grace is thought to be the first
place where democracy was exercised approx. 500BC.

Politically, democracy is system of government by the whole population or all the eligible
members of a state. Democracy implies – role by majority. Here, the government is the supreme
and it is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through system of
representatives. Representative can be in executive and legislative.

Fundamental questions about democracy

In developing an understanding about democracy. It is important to answer the following questions

1. What is the appropriate unit or association within which a democratic government should
be established? This is ideally to seek clarification to the unit of understanding that
democracy can precisely be used. We have three levels (Town, City, Universal)
2. Who should enjoy fuel citizenship- The reason why this is important is because, in Democracy,
only citizens will express their will through voting (aliens & foreigner do not participate)

3. How will governance be done? The idea here is to establish the necessary political organization,
structure and institutions that will be required in such a democracy.

4. How to solve the problem of difference in opinion. The issue here is lay down the procedure to
be followed especially when people in the society are not agreeing amongst themselves on any
issue. For instance, who should carry the day? Is the:

a) Majority simply 2/3

b) Rationality
c) Equity
d) Minority
5) If the majority should always carry the day what will constitute the majority?

a) Women/ me? Elite/ ignorant

b) Simply /high majority?
c) Delegates
d) Citizens
e) Registered?

Principles of Democracy
Democracy as a political systems is anchored in firm principles of them are. All must be fulfilled
in order for an organizational unit to be regarded as democratic
a) Rule of law.
This principle emphasize that in order for democracy to exist the operation and activities of the
state and government must be based on rules that have been agreed and made by the people. The
laws are a manifestation of the will of the people. President or government official must not be
allowed to operate on their own wishes and interest. They should be limited by law (Art, section
I, 47, 48, 49, 50)
b) Freedom of expression
In order to have proper and constructive democracy, freedom of expression should be granted,
protected and reinforced by the constitution and not one person can decide otherwise (A33)
c) Freedom of media
In a democracy, it is the people who are ultimtetely in control (sovereignty is to the people)
freedom of media and freedom of information should be protected and granted by the constitution
in order to enjoy the fruit of democracy. Kenya Const. Article 34 (media) (35) (information).
d) respect of human rights
Today the measure of a democracy in a particular country is in the level or degree in which rights
and fundamentals freedom are respected and adhered to in the country. In Kenya constitution right
are from– (art 26- Art. 51) all specify rights that are to be reinforced, protected & granted to the
citizens.
e) Enlighted citizen
One of the principle that is often jeopardized or taken for granted is the extent to which the citizens
are educational, informed and knowledgeable before making decision on any matter. They need to
understand the purpose of democracy, why and how to grow it should be emphasized.
Due to this in ancient terms Plato and Aristotle preferred Aristocracy than democracy
Plato- for him be preferred a rule of the minority and small group who can be able to work for the
nation.
The people must be those who are able to see the ideas of governance. He insisted on the wise,
educated and the morally up right (Meritocracy)
Aristotle- Saw the best governance to be through Aristocracy. He presents three best and three
worse from of governance.

Monarch tyranny

Aristocracy oligarchy

Polity democracy

Types of democracy

Direct democracy

This is when citizen are consulted on everything and they get to vote individually for any policy,
decision or choice of leadership. It is direct. They do it without intermediate representatives.
People are often consult on any step & law. It is best when the population is small and well
educated (Switzerland, USA doesn’t use direct democracy.

Representative democracy

Commonly used in the modern would dese to increased population. People elect representatives
to represent them in decision making in senate or house of representative. It is believed that when
one is elected he represents all, majority and minority defends their rights.

Liberal Democracy- system where the right and the wishes of the minority are assured and
protected. Majority have their way but minority are socially, economically & politically protected.
They value individual needs & goals are protected than the state.

Presidential Democracy
Is have the president is elected by the people directly or indirectly (USA- delegate)
The president after elective cannot just be removed by the act of legislature. He because the head
of state & government.

Parliamentary Democracy

This is the democracy that gives more power to legislature. The executive only derives its power
from legislature. This is common in India and UK. This happen when elected parliamentarian
elects or choose the head of government (prime minister) and may remove him at any time through
vote of no confidence. The president is head of state and prime ministers is head of government.
This makes prime minister to wield a lot of power and president is just weak Monarch (UK) or
ceremonial head (India).

Islamic Democracy
This is the democracy within Muslim country where the Islamic law is applied to public policy.
Leaders are elected, everyone the include leaders are subject to Sharia law, the leaders are subject
to Sharia law. They must have (SHURA) special consultation practiced by Prophet Muhammad
(political body for consultation.

Participatory Democracy

Where people are encouraged to make meaningful participation on public matter. Here opportunity
of given to all equally.

It empowers small community based network for decision making.

Social Democracy

It is the kind of democracy that guarantees the social and economic rights of the people in a state
and protects them from international multinational corporation that may infiltrate and injuire their
productivity. This democracy ensures that sovereignty and mobility that no government can
counter form outside.

Democracy as a founding principle of UN

Democracy is a core value in UN. The UN Agenda on democracy has always remained
unwavering especially in the following:

i) Promotion of good governance

ii) Monitors election
iii) Support civil society
iv) Strengthens democratic institutions
v) Supports accountability
vi) Ensure self-determination
 vii) Assist in drafting new constitutions
Support for democratic Activities are done by

- UNDP- United Nation Development program

- UNDEF- Un democracy Fund
- DPO- Development of Peace Operation
- DPPA- Developoment of Political & Peacebuilding Affair
- UN – women
United Nation Charters – Emphasizes that “we the people of the of the world (nations)- which
shows Democratic ownership.

UN emphasizes that any form of government taken by a country must take democratic values like

 Equality
 Inclusivity
 Security
 Human direct
 Participation and involvement,
 Respect for human rights,
 Freedom of expression &media

RECAP

What is meant by political governance?

Governance has been defined as the rules of the political system to solve conflicts between actors
and adopt decision (legality). It has also been used to describe the proper functioning of
institutions and their acceptance by the public (legitimacy)

What do we mean by governance?

Governance refers to a process whereby elements in society wield power, authority and
influence and enact policies and decisions concerning public life and social upliftment. Many of
the elements and principles underlying "good government" have become an integral part of the
meaning of governance.

What are the 4 P's of corporate governance?

That's why many governance experts break it down into four simple words: People, Purpose,
Process and Performance. These are the Four Ps of Corporate Governance, the guiding
philosophies behind why governance exists and how it operates. Let's have a look at exactly
what each of the Ps means

What are the four systems of government?

Aristocracy, oligarchy, monarchy, and democracy are old concepts of government which can be
traced back to Ancient Greece. Aristocracy is rule by the best, and the concept comes from
Plato's Republic.
What is an organized government?
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state,
but also other entities like for example companies, especially in the case of colonial companies.
In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature,
executive, and judiciary.

What is the role of government?

Governments provide the parameters for everyday behavior for citizens, protect them from
outside interference, and often provide for their well-being and happiness. The Federal Reserve.
In the last few centuries, some economists and thinkers have advocated government control over
some aspects of the economy.

Summarize the functions of government

The government (1) provides the legal and social framework within which the economy operates,
(2) maintains competition in the marketplace, (3) provides public goods and services, (4)
redistributes income, (5) corrects for externalities, and (6) takes certain actions to stabilize the
economy.

What makes a government a democracy?

According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key
elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair
elections; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of
the human rights of all citizens.

Self-test Assessment

1) Compare and contrast the various forms of government that you have learnt?
20mks
2) Why did Aristotle reject democracy? 20mks
3) Thomas Aquinas saw the best form of government to be a hybrid one. Discuss
20mks
4) Why has democracy not yielded social economic and political development to the
extent that it should? 20mks
5) How far do you agree that the fundamental principles of democracy have been
implemented in the African context? 20mks