RAY MARSTON

THIS LAST ARTICLE ON BIPOLAR

junction transistors (BJT) is a
potpourri of circuits. Some are
practical and some are not so
practical, but they can be great
fun for experiments. With these
circuits you can amplify sig-
nals, filter high and low fre-
quencies, generate white noise,
and flash lamps. You can also
boost DC voltage levels, locate
hidden metal objects, and de-
tect rising water. One circuit
will even demonstrate the fun-
damentals of lie detection!
Last month's article concen-
trated on the operating princi-
ples and design options for
audio power amplifiers. Earlier
topics in this series have in-
cluded descriptions and sche-
matics for low-power amplifiers,
preamplifiers, tone -control cir-
cuits, multivibrators, and vari-
ous oscillators.
More power amplifiers
Today the easiest way to build
a low- to medium -power audio
amplifier is to pick an inte- ;Áiur
-i'''.iNitticash**0040,44q0IM6n4Wl °.1ihw,, lÏo
grated circuit amplifier from a
manufacturer's data book and
supplement it with additional
components recommended in
the applications notes in the
PRACTICAL
data book. However, if you just
want to learn amplifier princi-
ples by experimentation or you
have a simple application in
ANSISTOR
mind. you should build the am-
plifier with discrete transistors.
Figure 1 is a schematic for a
general -purpose, low- power,
CUITS
high -gain amplifier based on
discrete transistors. A Class A
amplifier, it can drive a load
such as a speaker or headset Build these circuits that can amplify,
with an impedance greater than
65 ohms. The amplifier draws a filter, generate white noise, flash lamps,
quiescent current of about 20
milliamperes. However, this locate hidden metal-and perhaps even
drain can be reduced by in-
creasing the value of R3.
detect lies.
Transistors Q1 and Q2 are lector voltage of Q1. AB complementary amplifier
configured as common -emitter The base bias for Q1 is derived which can drive about 1 Watt
amplifiers: the output of Q1 is from Q2's emitter through R2. into a 3 -ohm speaker load.
directly coupled to the input of With this configuration, the Transistor Q1, which is config-
Q2. This circuit has an overall bias is stabilized by negative DC ured as a common -emitter am-
voltage gain of about 80 dB. feedback. Input potentiometer plifier. drives a load that is the
Notice that resistor R3, the R4 serves as the circuit's volume sum of speaker SPKR1. resistor
emitter load of Q2, is decoupled control. R1 and potentiometer R5. Its
by capacitor C3 so that the Q2 Figure 2 is the schematic for a output voltage is followed and
emitter_ follows the average col- simple. three -transistor. Class boosted in power by the compie- 63
 the output of the amplifier to scratch and rumble are no lon-
increase circuit stability. The ger universal problems, the
amplifier should be set up ini- techniques for eliminating
tially as was described for the them are still interesting.
circuit in Fig. 2. Scratch noise is essentially
sound at a frequency greater
Scratch/rumble filters. than 10 kHz picked up from the
Today, with the widespread disc's surface, while rumble is
acceptance of compact discs sound at a frequency typically
(CDs), 331/2 rpm long-playing less than 50 Hz caused by varia-
(LP) and 45 rpm records are tions in turntable drive motor
considered to be obsolete. Nev- speed. Each of these noises can
ertheless, many people still own be effectively eliminated or at-
large collections of these rec- tenuated by passing the audio
ords, and when played on quali- output from the record player
ty record players, they can still through a filter that rejects the
FIG. 1 -AUDIO AMPLIFIER with two provide many hours of listening annoying parts of the audio
transistors offers high gain.
pleasure. spectrum.
mentary emitter-follower stage Back when those records The rumble filter in Fig. 4 is a
made up of Q2 and Q3. were popular, unless the record high -pass filter that provides
The output of the amplifier is player amplifiers were properly unity voltage gain for all fre-
fed through capacitor C2 to the filtered, scratch and rumble quencies greater than 50 Hz.
junction of SPKR1 and R1 where noises could interfere with re- However, it provides 12 dB per
it provides a low -impedance ception. This interference was octave rejection to all frequen-
drive for SPKR1. It simulta- even more evident in the playing cies below 50 Hz. For example,
neously bootstraps the value of of older 78 rpm discs. While attenuation is 40 dB at 5 Hz.
R1 so that the circuit has high - Transistor Ql is configured as
voltage gain. The output is also an emitter - follower biased at
fed back to Ql's base through +9V TO +18V
about half the supply value from
R4 so that it produces a base the low- impedance junction
bias through a negative feed- SPK1 R1
Q2
TIP31A
C2 1 formed by resistors RI and R2
back loop. 30 4700 470µF
in parallel with capacitor C3.
Carefully adjust trimmer po- However, negative feedback
tentiometer R5 to minimize au-
D1
1N4148 R2
applied through the filter net-
dible signal crossover distortion -C3
1OO,.F
10 work of R3, C2, Cl, and R4
so that it is consistent with 1W
R3
causes an active filter response.
lowest quiescent current con- R5
1000
10 The rolloff frequency of the cir-
sumption that can be mea- (SET BIAS)
1W
cuit can be altered, if desired, by
sured. To obtain a reasonable Q3 changing the values of capaci-
value, set the quiescent current R6
TIP32A
tors Cl and C2-provided that
from 10 to 15 milliamperes. o 4.7K
1+
Cl they are kept equal. For exam-
Figure 3 shows a more com- INPUT 10µF Q1 R4
150K
ple, if the values of Cl and C2
2N3904
plex audio power amplifier that are reduced 50% from 0.220 to
can deliver about 10 watts into 0.110 microfarads, the rolloff
an 8 -ohm load when powered FIG. 2 -AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER with frequency will be doubled to 100
from a 30 -volt supply. This cir- three transistors has a 1 -watt output. Hz.
cuit includes four, high -gain,
quasi -complementary output
stages (Q3 to Q6). 1Yansistor Q1 30V

functions as an adjustable am- R1 R2

plified diode output biasing de- 1K 3.9K
vice in this circuit. R10 as
The main load resistor R2 of 1K TIP31A
the Q2 common -emitter ampli- c2
22µF
fier stage is bootstrapped by C2
and DC biased by R3. This net-
work should set the quiescent
output voltage at about half the
R3
470K
C4
10001.IF
i t
R8
OSl

power supply value. If it does R9

04
SPKR1
4.7K
not, alter the value of R3. The Cl TIP32A
upper frequency response of the O
INPUT
10µF Q2
2N3904
R7 % C5
amplifier is restricted by C3, o
0.4712 I .047

which enhances circuit sta-

bility. In addition, capacitor C5
64 is wired in series with R8 across FIG. 3 -AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER WITH SIX TRANSISTORS has a 10 -watt output.
 The scratch filter circuit of sections so that the filters can
Fig. 5 acts as a low-pass filter easily be switched in and out of +12V TO +18V R2 R1
that provides unity voltage gain circuit. This change is illus- 47K 4.7K
to all frequencies below 10 kHz, trated schematically in Fig. 6. D1
but it rejects all frequencies It's worth noting that if the 6.8V
above 10 kHz at 12 dB per oc- circuits of Figs. 4 and 5 are built 01
OUTPUT
tave. This circuit resembles Fig. Cl EY
on a single board, three compo- 1µF
2N3904
4 except that the positions of nents can be saved by making
the resistors and capacitors are the biasing network composed a
transposed in the network con- of resistors R1 and R2 and ca-
sisting of C2, R4, C4, and R5. pacitor C3 common to both fil-
The rolloff frequency of that ter circuits. +12V TO +18V R2 R1

circuit can be altered, if desired, 47K 4.7K

by changing the values of C2 Noise circuits

and C4. For example, if both are White noise is a steady hiss-
increased from 0.0022 to ing sound obtained by mixing a OUTPUT

0.0033 microfarads, the rolloff full spectrum of randomly gen-

frequency is reduced from 10 erated audio frequencies, each
kHz to 7.5 kHz. having equal sound power b
The circuits of Figs. 4 and 5 when averaged over time. White
can be combined to make a FIG. 7 -WHITE NOISE GENERATORS
noise can be heard by tuning an with a transistor and Zener diode (a),
composite scratch and rumble FM radio receiver to that part of and one with two transistors (b).
filter. The output of the high - the band where no nearby sta-
pass filter is connected to the tions can be heard. It is inten- verse -biased to its breakdown
input of the low -pass filter. If de- tionally generated for testing level. This breakdown typically
sired, bypass switches can be audio- and radio -frequency am- occurs in a 2N3904 small -signal
installed in the individual filter plifiers. It can also be an effec- BJT at about 6 volts. Figure 7 -b
tive sleep aid because it masks shows the schematic of a two -
random background noises transistor, white -noise gener-
from voices, passing vehicles, ator. In this circuit Q1 acts as a
car horns, closing doors, and Zener diode.
01
other sources. Audio noise can be annoying,
2N3904
C4
Figure 7 -a is the schematic especially if you are trying to lis-
+ 4.711F
for a simple but useful white ten to a very weak broadcast sta-
noise generator based on the in- tion. You might find that the
Rs
3.3K
herent white -noise generation peaks of unwanted background
OUTPUT capability of a reverse -biased noise completely swamp the
Zener diode. In this circuit, re- broadcast signal, making it un-
sistor R2 and Zener diode D1 intelligible. It is possible to over-
FIG. 4 -HIGH -PASS FILTER eliminates form a negative- feedback loop come this problem with the
50-Hz record player "rumble ".
between the collector and base noise limiter circuit shown in
of common -emitter amplifier Fig. 8.
+9v TO +18V Q1. In this circuit, both the signal
This loop stabilizes the DC and the noise are fed to ampli-
01
2N3904
working levels of the circuit, fier Q1 through potentiometer
and capacitor Cl decouples the R3. Transistor Q1 amplifies
G5
AC. As a result, D1 becomes a both waveforms equally, but di-
4.7µF white -noise source in series odes D1 and D2 automatically
+ with the base of the Q1, which limit the peak-to -peak output
amplifies that noise to a useful swing of Ql to about 1.2 volts. If
level of about 1 volt, peak -to- R3 is adjusted so that the signal
peak. output is amplified to this peak
The base -emitter junction of level, the noise peaks will not
any silicon transistor can func- exceed signal output. There-
FIG. 5 -LOW -PASS FILTER eliminates tion as a noise -generating fore, the received signal will be
10-kHz record player scratch noise. Zener diode if its junction is re- far more intelligible.
Astable multivibrators
50Hz 10kHz The astable multivibrator or
HIGH -PASS IN LOW -PASS ON
OUTPUT square -wave generator circuit
FILTER S1 FILTER S2 is versatile. Figure 9, for exam-
IFIG.41 RUMBLE IFIG.51 SCRATCH
OFF ple, shows how it can flash two
light- emitting diodes (LED)
about once per second. Its flash
FIG. 6- COMPOSITE SWITCHABLE SCRATCH AND RUMBLE filter circuit. rate is controlled by the time- 65
 position 2, the circuit is config-
R1 C3
+9V TO +18V ured as a cascaded pair of com-
R2
Cl 1MEG 4.7K mon- emitter amplifiers. The
10uF
C2 PROBE input feeds the base of Q1
10µF and Q2's output driving head-
R3
10K
phone Z1. Consequently, any
o D1 D2 weak audio signal fed to the
Q1 1N4148 1N4148
INPUT
2N3904 OUTPUT PROBE will be amplified directly
o and heard in the headphone.
Similarly, any amplitude -
FIG. 8 -NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT improves the reception of weak broadcast stations. modulated radio-frequency sig-
nals that are fed to the PROBE
+6V TO +9V sistors Q1 and Q2 are config- will be demodulated by the non-
3 ured as a 1 -kHz astable multi - linear response of transistor Ql,
LEDI R4 * LED2 vibrator. With that setting, a and the resulting audio signal
39K sharp squarewave signal is sent will be amplified and heard in
R1 * R3 82 to the PROBE terminal through the earphone. If the PROBE is
4700 39K 4700 R1 and Cl. connected at suitable test
Cl C2 That waveform, which is rich points in a radio, the tracer can
10µF 10µF in harmonics, will produce an troubleshoot faults.
101 02 4,0 audible output through a ra-
dio's loudspeaker if it is injected
2N3904 2N3904 LC oscillators.
into any audio- or radio -fre- Many applications can be
-Jr quency stage of an amplitude - found for inductance-capaci-
FIG. 9 -TWO -LED FLASER circuit can at-
modulated radio. By selecting a tance (LC) oscillators in test
tract attention.
suitable injection point, the in- equipment and practical cir-
jector can help in troubleshoot- cuits. Figure 12 is a local os-
constant values of resistive -ca- ing a defective radio. cillator or beat frequency os-
pacitive combinations of R4 When Si is switched to TRACE cillator (BFO). Transistor Q1 is
and Cl and R3 and C2. configured as a conventional
The LEDs are in series with Hartley oscillator with a modi-
S1
the collectors of transistors Ql +6V TO +9V d
(SWITCH OR fied 465 kHz intermediate fre-
and Q2, and they flash on and MORSE KEY) quency transformer as its
off symmetrically out -of-phase collector load.
with each other. The flash rate If the internal tuning capaci-
can be changed by altering the tor of the transformer is re-
values of either R4 and C 1 or R3 moved, variable capacitor Cl
and C2. You can also replace one becomes the tuning control of a
of the LEDs with a short circuit variable- frequency oscillator.
to make the circuit a one -LED The output frequency can be
flasher. varied from well below 465 kHz
Figure 10 is a simple variation to well above 1.7 MHz.
of the Fig. 9 astable multi - Any radio capable of receiving
vibrator. This circuit generates broadcast band frequencies will
an asymmetrical waveform at *SUM OF SPKR1 R+ RX = 1000 detect the oscillation frequency
about 800 Hz, which is fed to FIG. 10 -MORSE -CODE PRACTICE os- if it is placed near the signal
speaker SPKR1 and limiting re- cillator is a multivibrator with a tele- generator circuit. If the signal
sistor RX in the collector circuit grapher's key. generator is tuned to the inter-
of Q2. A monotone audio signal
is generated when switch Si is
closed.
This circuit becomes a simple R2 R3 R4 Z1 R5
sound generator if S1 is a simple 470K 4.7K 470K
2
4.7K
on -off switch, or it can be a 3 o f31
Morse -code practice oscillator if a 30
telegrapher's key is substituted C2
S1 -a
0^%
S1-b
for SI. The frequency of the gen- R1
.0022
C3
erated tone can be changed by PROBE iK .0022
altering the values of either or o )I V1h + 131
Q2 + 9V
Cl
both capacitors Cl and C2. 01
Q1 2N3904
C4
2N3904
Figure 11 shows how an asta- CHASSIS 4 7µF
ble multivibrator can act as a o T
SWITCH S1 POSITIONS: 1= INJECT, 2= TRACE, 3 =OFF
signal injector- tracer for testing
radio receivers. When Si is in FIG. 11- AUDIO -RADIO SIGNAL INJECTOR and tracer will help in troubleshooting
66 the INJECT position 1, tran- ailing radios.
mediate frequency of a radio, a bobbin about 1 inch long. It be- +12V
beat note can be heard. This will comes a search head or sens-
permit continuous -wave or sin - ing coil when it is connected to
gle-sideband transmissions to the circuit with a 3 -wire cable. PROBES
OUTPUT
be detected. The search head or sensor
Figure 13 is a modification of can be mounted at the end of a R1 D1
Fig. 12 without a transformer long wooden or plastic handle if 10K 1N4001
RY1
12V
secondary. When the circuit is you want to use the circuit as a >1200
functioning with a nearby radio classic ground- sweeping metal
receiver acting as a detector and detector. Similar circuits can Q1 2N3904
amplifier, it becomes a simple detect buried treasure or mili-
metal object locator. Oscillator tary mines that include at least
coil L1 is made by winding 30 some metal parts. However, the
turns of wire tightly on a 3- to fl- complete circuit can be housed
FIG. 15 -RELAY CIRCUIT IS activated
inch diameter plastic core or in a handheld case if you want when probes are immersed in water.
to locate metal pipes or wiring
that are hidden behind walls
that are made of brick, wood, or
plasterboard.
The operation of the object lo-
cator circuit in Fig. 13 depends
on the presence of a metal object R5
that will interfere with coil L1's 4.7K
(SET ZERO)
electromagnetic field. The inter-
fering object changes both the R2
27K
inductance value of L1 and the
frequency of the field. The pres- PROBES
ence of the metal object can be
FIG.12- BROADCAST BAND SIGNAL detected by a battery- portable
generatori beat -frequency oscillator. broadcast band radio held close
to the locator circuit. It senses 2N3904
the frequency shift and gives
out an audible screech. FIG. 16- SIMPLE "LIE DETECTOR" cir-
To detect a hidden metal ob- cuit is suitable for experiments and fun.
ject, first tune the radio to a lo-
cal station, and then adjust C1 mary forms the inductance (L)
15T so that a low- frequency beat or part of the oscillator.
chirp is heard from the radio's The supply voltage is stepped
15T
speaker. This beat note will up to a peak of about 350 volts
change significantly if the lo- at Ti's secondary. This wave-
cator circuit is placed near the form is rectified by half-wave
hidden metal object. rectifier diode D1, and it
Figure 14 shows the Hartley charges capacitor C4. With a
oscillator used as a DC -to -DC permanent load, the output
converter. It is capable of con- falls to about 300 volts at a load
verting the output of a 9- volt current of a few milliamperes.
battery to 300 -volts DC. Trans- Caution: Without a permanent
FIG. 13 -METAL OBJECT locator can former T1 is a 9 -0- -9 -volt to load across C4, the capacitor
hunt for hidden metal pipes or wires. 250 -volt transformer. Its pri- can deliver a powerful but non-
lethal shock to the unwary.
D1
1N4006
Conductive water switch
A relay switch in a circuit that
R1
100K
can be activated when a pair of
probes come in contact with
water can be very useful around
the home or on a boat. It might.
+300V
OUTPUT
for example, indicate flooding of
Cl a basement. or water in the
100µF bilges of a boat. Figure 15 is a
conductive -water-operated re-
lay. Transistors Q1 and Q2 are a
Darlington pair configured as a
common -emitter, and relay coil
FIG. 14- DC -to -DC CONVERTER CIRCUIT BOOSTS 9 volts to 300 volts. RY1 is the collector load. 67
 The circuit relay is normally is based on the knowledge that null on milliammeter M1. The
open (NO), but it is activated the resistance of human skin subject can then be questioned
when the probes are placed changes as a result of changes about the truth or falsity of
across a resistance path that in the emotional state of the emotionally loaded or embar-
has a value generally less than subject. rassing subject -in fun, of
several megohms. Most potable The bridge of this detector cir- course.
tap water has a bulk resistances cuit is formed by resistor R1 and The subject's skin resistance
below this value, so this circuit potentiometer R5 in one arm, will change in response to ques-
will work as a water-level relay R3 in a second arm, R4 in a tions of that kind if they are
switch. Relay RY1 can activate a third arm, and transistor Q1 phrased correctly. The bridge
pump or alarm. However, the (with a probe in its base circuit) should be unbalanced if the
presence of salt in the water (or in the fourth arm. subject reacts emotionally to
sea water) has higher con- A milliammeter with its zero the questions. Experiments of
ductivity, and it can enhance point at the center of the scale is this kind are often performed by
the effectiveness of the detec- connected across the bridge. It students taking college -level ex-
tion circuit. serves as a bridge -imbalance perimental psychology lab
Because the conductivity of detector. Resistor R2 in series courses, but the equipment
human skin has about the with the second probe is at- that they use is usually more so-
same resistance range as ordi- tached to the junction between phisticated and sensitive than
nary tap water, placing the Q1's collector and the low side of this circuit.
probes in contact with human potentiometer R5. Large bare Professional lie detectors typ-
skin can also serve to activate copper bars or silver spoons can ically factor in changes in the
the relay. be used to make suitable subject's respiration and pulse
probes. rate measured by other sensors
Lie detector The probes should be taped or to supplement the skin- resis-
Figure 16 is a simple Wheat- strapped directly to the skin on tance changes. The output of
stone bridge "lie detector." How- the subject's hand or arm, sepa- the machine is in the form of
ever, because of the possible rated by at least several inches. pen traces on a moving paper
errors in the output of this cir- When the subject is relaxed and strip. Nevertheless, you might
cuit, its use should be confined his or her skin resistance be surprised with the results
to games or informal experi- reaches a stable value, adjust you get experimenting with this
ments. The circuit's operation potentiometer R5 to obtain a simple circuit. Si

NEW LITERATURE 1000 AutoCAD Tips and you'll learn about AutoLISP
Tricks: Third Edition; by programs that speed up
continued from page 29 George O. Head and Jan work, and 3D shortcuts
Doster Head. Ventana and enhancements.
ate, audio, video, and radio Press, P. 0. Box 2468, Chap- This third edition con-
frequencies. You will also el Hill, NC 27515; Phone: tains three new chapters
find linear and switching 919 -942 -0220; Fax: that discuss AutoCAD re-
power supplies, digital, and 919- 942 -1140; $27.95. lease 12. They include hun-
optoelectronic circuits. This tips and tricks book CIRCLE 329 ON FREE dreds of never-before pub-
Moreover, amplifiers, reg- is based on the authors' INFORMATION CARD lished tips, and a new
ulators, oscillators, and years of accumulated trial manipulate new drafting section filled with hints and
signal waveform gener- and error experience in tools such as grips and in- tips for working with Auto -
ators are covered. And working with AutoCAD. stant "hot" keys. The text CAD Windows. Pur-
you'll find information on The book is organized into explains how to pass infor- chasers of the book are
voltage -to-frequency, ana - a compendium of practical mation directly from Auto - eligible to receive two free
log-to- digital and digital -to- techniques and shortcuts CAD to a database with newsletters that keep
analog conversion, temper- covering AutoCAD ver- Automatic Sequel Exten- users informed on Auto -
ature sensing, and machine sions through Release 12. sion, and how to take ad- desk updates.
control. Arranged by skill level in vantage of the user-friendly
All the circuits are "Beginning," "Intermedi- features of the Windows WordPerfect 6.0 for IBM PC
grouped by function, and a ate," and 'Advanced" sec- version of AutoCAD. The Quick Reference Guide; by
specific troubleshooting tions, it offers useful advice book illustrates the cre- Deborah J. Miller. DDC Pub-
approach is outlined for on all the newest AutoCAD ative use of AutoShade lishing, 14 East 38th Street,
each circuit category. The features. renderings and PostScript New York, NY 10016; Phone:
book also lists proven com- For example, you'll learn images inside the Auto - 800-528 -3897; $8.95.
ponent values the circuits, how to use state -of- the -art CAD drawing and output- This spiral- bound,
and includes suppliers of dialog boxes for functions ting to a variety of reader pocket -size reference
those components and ranging from plotting to formats. Drawing and edit- book on WordPerfect 6.0 is
68 their mailing addresses. programming and how to ing tips are included, and Continued on page 74