Oral Communication

First Semester – Unit I

LESSON 1:
Fundamentals of Communication
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
 Derived from the two Latin words COMMUNIS, means “commonness”, and
COMMUNICARE means “to share”
 Process of sharing and conveying of messages or information.
 Can be expressed through words (verbal), actions (nonverbal) or both.
 Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding.
EXAMPLES:
- Face to face interaction - Meeting or interview
- Phone conversation - Class recitation
- Group discussion
Five (5) Factors for Successful Communication
1. Language
2. Knowledge
3. Interest
4. Experience
5. Culture

Nature of Communication
1. Communication is a process
2. Communication occurs between two or more people (speaker and receiver).
3. Communication can be expressed through words (verbal), and actions (non-verbal), or
both at the same time.

Elements of Communication
1. Speaker – the source of information or message.
2. Message – the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in
actions.
 3. Encoding – the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms
that the speaker understands.
4. Channel – the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal or
nonverbal, in which the encoded message is conveyed.
5. Decoding – the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the
receiver.
6. Receiver – the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message.
7. Feedback – the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver.
8. Context – the environment where communication takes place.. There are types of
context;
9. Barrier – the factors that affect the flow of communication.

The Process of Communication

PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION EXAMPLE

The speaker generates an idea. Ashley loves Richard as a friend.

The speaker encodes an idea She thinks of how to tell him using
or converts the idea into their native language.
words or actions

The speaker transmits or sends She tells him, "Richard, mahal

out a message kita bilang kaibigan."

The receiver gets the message Richard hears what Ashley says.

The receiver decodes or

interprets the message He tries to analyze what she means,
based on the context and he is heartbroken.

The receiver sends or He frowns and does not say

provides feedback something because he is in pain.

Models of Communication
 Refers to the conceptual explanation of the human communication process

1. Linear Communication Model

 One-way process
 Speaker speaks and the listener listens
 Used for mass communication
 No Feedback
 Concept of noise
PROS CONS
- Good at audience - Communication is not continuous as no
persuasion and concept of feedback
propaganda setting - No way to know if communication was
- Intentional results effective

EXAMPLES OF LINEAR COMMUNICATION MODEL:

a. Aristotle Model of Communication
o Aristotle, acient philosopher
o Importance of the audience – age, education, etc
o Focus on public speaking

b. Shannon and Weaver Model

o The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude
Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories.
o Conceived to improve technical communication
o “Noise” affect communication
c. Berlo’s Model
o In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949)
linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of
Communication. 
o The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication
separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded.
2. Interactive Communication Model
 Used for new communications like internet
 Slower feedbacks in turns
 Concept of field of experience
 Known as convergence model
 Communication becomes linear if receiver does not respond.
PROS CONS
- Feedback even in mass - Feedback can take a very long time
communication - Send and receiver might now know
- New communication channels who the other person is

EXAMPLES OF INTERACTIVE MODEL:

a. Schramm’s Model
o Wilbur Schramm (1955) came out with a more interactive model.
o Receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker.

b. Helical Model
 o Frank Dance, American Communication professor
o “Helix” means object with three dimensional shape
o Assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes
communication process to be two way.

3. Transactional Communication Model

 Communication are interdependent.
 Each person acts both a speaker and a listener
 Simultaneously sending and receiving messages.
 Used for interpersonal communication
 Senders and receivers interchange roles
 Simultaneous feedback
 Context of environment and noise
 Feedback is taken as a new message
PROS CONS
- Simultaneous and instant - Encourages non-verbal communication
feedback - More noise due to communicators
- No discrimination between talking at the same time
sender and receiver

Implications of Transactional Model:

 “Transactional” means ongoing and continuously changing process.
 Interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no
message without a source.
 Each person reacts depending on factors such as their background, prior
experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.

EXAMPLE OF TRANSACTIONAL MODEL:

 a. Barnlund Model of Communication
o Dean Barnlund (1970)
o Individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and
receiving of messages.
o Barnlund’s model is very complex.
o Both the sender and receiver must understand the codes sent by
the other. So they must each possess a similar "code book". (The
concept of code book is not mentioned in the model but
understood.)

Functions of Communication
 How people use language for different purposes.
 How language is affected by the different time, place, and situation.
1. Regulation/Control
 Used to control the behavior of people.
 Used to regulate the nature and amount of activities
EXAMPLES:
o Doctor’s Prescription
- “Take you medicine three times a day.”
o Friends giving advice on what to do
- “Move on. He doesn’t love you anymore.”
o Parents’ Instruction to their Child
- “Wash the dishes now, or elese I won’t allow you to go to the
party later.”
2. Social Interaction
  Allows individuals to interact with others
 Used to produce social relationships.
 Used to develop bonds, intimacy, relations, and connections with other
people.
EXAMPLES:
o Invitation
- “Would you like some coffee?”
o Greetings
- “Hi! It’s nice to see you.”
3. Emotional Expression
 Facilitates people’s expression of their feelings and emotions
EXAMPLE:
o Appreciation
- “I’m so glad that you came into my life”
o Expressing a need
- “I need you in my life”
o Expressing prayers
- “We pray for those who suffered”
4. Motivation
 Motivates and encourages people to live better
 Used to express preferences, desires, needs, wants, decisions, goals, and
strengths.
EXAMPLES:
- “Don’t let yesterday take up too much of today”
- “We may encounter many defeats but we must not be defeated”
5. Information Disseminantion
 Used for giving and getting information.
 To convey information
EXAMPLES:
o Giving Information
- “I am small, but I have big dreams.”
- “Did you know that there’s a secret apartment at the top of the
Eiffel tower?”
o Getting Information
- “Where did you get that notebook?”
- “Teach me how to answer well.”
- “I don’t know where my classmate lives.”

Features of an Effective Communication

- In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center
(2012) list the 7 Cs of Effective Communication. This list is widely used today, especially
in public relations and advertising.
 FEATURES OF AN
MEANING
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Complete communication is essential to the
quality of the communication process in general.
Completeness Hence, communication should include
everything that the receiver needs to hear for
him/ her to respond, react, or evaluate properly.
Conciseness does not mean keeping the
message short, but making it direct or straight to
Conciseness the point. Insignificant or redundant information
should be eliminated from the communication
that will be sent to the recipient.
To be effective, the speaker should always
consider relevant information about his/her
receiver such as mood, background, race,
Consideration
preference, education, status, and needs,
among others. By doing so, he/she can easily
build rapport with the audience.
Effective communication happens when the
message is concrete and supported by facts,
Concreteness figures, and real-life examples and situations. In
this case, the receiver is more connected to the
message conveyed.
The speaker shows courtesy in communication
by respecting the culture, values, and beliefs of
Courtesy
his/her receivers. Being courteous at all times
creates a positive impact on the audience.
Clearness in communication implies the use of
simple and specific words to express ideas. It is
Clearness also achieved when the speaker focuses only on
a single objective in his/her speech so as not to
confuse the audience.
Correctness in grammar eliminates negative
Correctness impact on the audience and increases the
credibility and effectiveness of the message.

Barriers to Communication

Barrier – the factors that affect the flow of communication

MAIN TYPES OF BARRIER:

1. Internal Noise
- Fatigue - Problem at home - Fear
- Attitude toward sender - Negative attitude - Mistrust
- Lack of interest - Poor listening skill - Stress and Anger
2. External Noise
- Noise - Environment
- Distraction - Language different
- Emails not working - Bad signal connection
 CATEGORY OF BARRIERS:
a. Language Barriers – use of jargons and abbreviations, regional colloquialisms
and expressions may be misinterpreted
b. Psychological Barriers – stress and/or anger
c. Psysiological Barriers – reduced hearing
d. Physical Barriers – geographic distance between sender and receiver
e. Systematic/Organizational Barriers – lack of understanding of the roles and
responsibilities for communication, poor structured message.
f. Attitudinal Barriers – personality conflict, poor management or lack of motivation.

WAYS TO OVERCOME BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION:

BARRIER EXAMPLE SOLUTION

Recognize these kinds of emotions,
You are having a bad day
and politely ask the other person to
or you feel frustrated.
give you a moment so you can relax
Emotional
or calm yourself
Barriers
Recognize this kind of attitude, reset,
You sit in a meeting or class
and reflect on how you can be
where you think the speaker
interested in what the speaker is
is boring,
pointing out.
Jargon refers to the set of specialized
You are a scientist
vocabulary in a certain field. To avoid
discussing a certain
Use of Jargon communication breakdown due to lack
weather phenomenon with
of clarity, adjust your language; use
your neighbor who does not
layman’s terms or simple words.
know much about the topic.
Develop self-confidence by joining
You are asked to share organizations where you can share
Lack of something about your day and develop your interests. Look for
Confidence or weekend, but you are opportunities in your school or
hesitant because you are community that will help you find your
shy. strengths and improve your abilities.
Recognize that noise is a common
You are having a
Noisy barrier. Make some adjustments by
conversation with some
Environment asking someone to minimize the
friends when a song was
volume or by looking for a quiet area
played loudly.
where you can resume the
NOTE: That these are only some of the barriers; many others may arise out of context,
language, physical restrictions, and the like.

DIMENSION OF COMMUNICATION
- Communication breakdown or Miscommunication – is brought about by lack of
awareness of the dimension of communication
Communications runs along four pairs of dimensions:
1. Verbal and Nonverbal
 Encompass the use of language, words chosen (verbal) and facial
expression, gestures and body movements (nonverbal).
 Verbal and nonverbal must be used together to clearly impart the message.
 Misunderstanding may happen if words contradict actions.

a. Nonverbal – system that is often used to aid the listener in interpretation

of the sender’s message
Importance of Nonverbal
o It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus
making it more meaningful, truthful, and relevant.
o It can communicate feelings, attitudes, and perceptions without
you saying a word.
o It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in
the speech.
o It gives the audience a preview to the type of speaker you are.
o It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery.
o It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.
o It helps make your speech more dramatic.
o It can build a connection with listeners.
o It makes you a credible speaker.
o It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a monotonous
delivery.

Different Nonverbal
I. Kinesic
o Comes from “Kinesis” means movement.
o Study of hand, arms, body, and face movement.
o This outline the gestures, head movement and postures,
eye contact, and facial expression
 Gestures – movement of some parts of the body
such as head, shoulders, and arms to convey
meaning and emphasis
 Movement – speaker’s way of attracting audience –
from the time he walks till he finish the speech
 Posture – way of holding oneself when sitting or
standing
II. Paralinguistics
o Vocalic
o Focused on how statement is said.
o To tone, intonation, the pitch, the volume.
Example:
- raising of voice at the end of the sentence indicating
question or exclamation.
 III. Oculesics
o Eye contact
o Latin “oculus” means “eye”
o “The eye is the window of the soul”
IV. Proxemics
o Space uses when communicating.
o Distance between two or among people communicating is
influenced by:
- social norms,
- cultural expectation,
- level of familiarity,
- situational factors and
- personality characteristics.
V. Haptic
o Message transmitted through “touch”
Example:
- Mother hugging her baby.
- Man touches the hand of woman.
- Man holding woman’s forearm.
VI. Chronemics
o Refer “time”
o Communicates the characteristics of a person.
VII. Olfactics
o Transmission of message thru “smell”
o Can make you remember memories.
Example:
- You can tell who among your family member walked
by without seeing tem but by just smelling their
perfume.
VIII. Chromatics
o Message through “color”
o Important to consider the culture because one color may
vary from one country to another.
Example:
- Black is for mourning; for India white is for grieving.
IX. Gustorics
o Nonverbal symbols for taste.
o Communicate pleasure, displeasure and warning.
Example:
- You love to eat spicy food but your friend might not
tolerate the taste.
b. Verbal Communication – spoken or written message used by person to
express himself
TO HAVE EFFECTIVE AND SUCCESSFUL VERBAL:
o Appropriateness
- Language must be suitable to environment and occasion
(formal or informal)
o Brevity
- Simple yet precise and powerful words. Be more direct,
avoid fillers and insubstantial expressions.
o Clarity
- Clearly state the message and express your ideas and
feelings.
o Ethics
- Consider gender, roles, ethnicity and status of person.
o Vividness
- Find ways to charm your audience through the use of vivid
words.
VOICE PRODUCTION
 Voice – the most important elements of communication. Sound
produced when speaking and singing.
Process of Voice Production

I. Respiration – compression and simple breathing

II. Vibration – phonation, production of the voice sounds. Air
hits the wind pipe, pass through larync or voice box.
III. Resonation – amplifying of sound, resonators allow the
sounds to echo-throat, sinuses, chest activity
IV. Pronunciation – articulation of the sound, last phase of
production. It involves changing the shape and dimension
of oral cavity in mouth.
 Pitch – highness and lowness of voice
 Loudness – volume
 Duraiton – length of time sound is produce
 Quality – tone of human voice
THE ENGLISH SOUND
 English is not pronounce as it written
 Classification of English Sound
I. Vowel
o Pronounced with open vocal tract.
o Tongue does not touch the lips, teeth or the roof of
the mouth.
 o No attempt to block the outgoing breath.
o It is voiced speech sound.
o Vocal chords vibrate
o English vowels has about fourteen to fifteen.
o IPA (International Phonetic Alphabets) – used by
non-native speakers of English to learn the sounds
of English language .

II. Consonant
o Produced by partially or completely stopping the
breath.
o Can be voiced or voiceless (no vibration).
o Classification according to organ
 Place of articulation
- Involved sound production (lips, teeth, etc)

I. Plosive or Stops – momentary blocking

of airflow and suddene release
(p,b,t,d,k,g)
II. Fricatives – forcing air through the
narrow channel made by placing two
articulators together (f, v,s, z, h, ʃ, Ʒ)
III. Nasal – with lowered velum in the
mouth and escaped freely through the
nose (m,n,ŋ).
 IV. Lateral – tongue is raised to the roof of
the mouth that the air flows in both side
of the tongue
V. Glides – constricting the vocal tract but
not really obstructing (hw, w, j)
VI. Affricates – stopping the flow of air and
then releasing it, friction sound is
produced (tʃ, dʒ).
 Manner of articulation
- Describes how sounds is made

I. Bilabial – used of upper and lower lip

pressured together or almost closed
(p, b, m).

II. Labio-Dental – lower lip touching the

upper teeth (f, v)
III. Lingua-Dental – tongue contacting the
teeth (th)
IV. Lingua-Alveolar – tongue touches the
alveolar ridge or roof of mouth (t, d, s,
z, n, l, r)
V. Lingua-Palatal – tongue contact the
hard palate (ʓ)
VI. Lingua-Velar – tongue is raised and
touches the soft palate (k, g)
VII. Glottal – closing of glottis or opening of
vocal chord (h)

III. Diphthongs
o From Greek word, diphthongsos means two sounds
or two tones.
o Transcribed as two vowel symbols
Example:
- Ai & Au
- Oi & Ou
2. Oral and Written
 Spoken communication (oral) and transcription of thoughts and ideas
(written).
 Verbal talks about the use of language and the choice of words to convey
written message, the oral dimension imparts the message following the
principles of delivery.
 The written takes care of putting down words while oral takes care of
delivering those words.
 3. Formal and Informal
 Formal means the meticulous observation of appropriateness in dress,
language, and setting.
 Informal is the opposite, it uses on more casual approach with no regard to
formalities.
4. Intentional and Unintentional
 Intentional is why we communicate in the first place.
 Unintentional is the one want to say something, but what one may intend may
not be the actual result
LESSON 2:
Intercultural Communication
Intercultural communication happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and create
meanings while bringing in their varied cultural backgrounds.
 Inter comes from the Latin word for between
 The dictionary defines communication as exchanging information
Culture
▪ Sending and receiving of messages across languages and culture
▪ Is a way of life of a group of people
▪ Cumulative deposit of knowledge experience, etc.
▪ Totality of a person
 When speaking, speech is accompanied by gestures, expression, etc.
Examples:
- Nodding = Yes (Indian, Iran, most Europe, Latin and North America)
- Nodding = No (Greece, Syria, Bulgaria, Turkey, Macedonia & Albania)
12 Ways People Greet Each Other Around the World
 Not everyone has a word for “Hello” or “Hi” or do they wave their hand to greet people.
 For example, muslims greet other muslims (and sometimes, non-muslims) by saying
“As-salam alaykom” which literally means “may peace be upon you”. 

COUNTRY WAYS OF GREETING

Tibet Sticking your tongue out
Oman Nose “kisses”
India Namaste
New Zealand Hongi
Japan Bowing
Philippines Mano
Botswana Handshake “Lae kae?”
Kenya Adamu
Malaysia Salam
Greenland Kunik
Thailand Wai
British Commonwealth Tuvalu
Common Customs that are considered offensive in other countries
 There are a number of customs and gestures that Americans use without thinking twice.
 But when traveling abroad, they will not only out you as a tourist, but could get you in hot
water in other countries.

 But in Japan and South Korea tipping is seen as an insult.

Tipping  Workers feel they are getting paid to do their job, and take
pride in doing it well; they don't need an added incentive.
 In the Middle East, Latin America, Western Africa, Russia, and
Throwing a
Greece, a thumbs-up basically has the same meaning as
Thumbs-Up
holding up a middle finger does for Americans.
 In Japan, laughter that exposes your pearly whites is
Laughing with your
considered horse-like and impolite — sort of like noisy, open-
Mouth open
mouthed eating is considered rude to Americans.
 On the other hand, many Latin American cultures, notably
Argentina, would consider it bad form if you showed up to a
Being on time
dinner party right on time, akin to someone arriving an hour
early in America.
 Not all cultures have or use toilet paper, and tend to use their
left hand in lieu of it.
Using your left hand
for anything  Accepting gifts, eating, or doing pretty much anything with
your left hand in much of Africa, India, Sri Lanka and the
Middle East is like a (disgusting) slap in the face.
 In foodie cultures like France, Italy, Spain, and Japan, asking
for ketchup, hot sauce, soy sauce, or salt to alter your meal
Altering your meal may raise some eyebrows.
 Before you ask for a condiment, see if there are any on the
tables — if not, you should probably refrain.
 In many Arab, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist countries,
showing the soles of your feet is a sign of disrespect.
Showing the soles
of your feet  As they're considered the lowest and dirtiest part of the body,
since they touch the dirty ground.
 Men should cross their legs with caution.
 While you probably think you're doing the world a favor by
Keeping your keeping your socks under wraps.
shoes on  In most Asian and Caribbean cultures it is expected that you
take your shoes off when entering someone’s home.
Eating anywhere that
 In Japan, it is considered rude to eat anywhere that isn't a
doesn’t serve food
restaurant, bar, or hotel.
 Americans are notoriously friendly, but hugging and touching
Touching others, even if only on the arm, is offensive in places like
China, Thailand, Korea, and the Middle East.
 Respect that personal space varies from country to country.
 Asking "what do you do" is a common American icebreaker,
but is often considered insulting, especially in countries with
Asking certain social-welfare systems, like the Netherlands. People feel that
question it's a way of pigeonholing them, and of being classist. You
 might as well just ask someone you just met what their salary
is.
 To Americans, finishing a meal shows the host how much they
enjoyed the meal.
Polishing off
your meal  In other countries, like China, Thailand, and Russia, it signifies
that you're still hungry and that they failed to provide you with
enough food
 In countries like China, France, Japan, Saudi Arabia,
Blowing your Nose and Turkey, blowing your nose in public is not only rude, but
considered repulsive.
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS)

Stage 1: Denial. The individual does not recognize cultural differences

An individual in the denial stage might be heard saying:

“All cities are the same; they all have tall buildings, fast food chains, and coffee shops.”

Stage 2: Defense. The individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is intimidated by
them, resulting in either a superior view on own culture or an unjustified high regard for the new
one.

An individual in the defense stage might be heard saying:

“This culture does not view life the way we do; our culture is certainly better.”
“Their ways are better than my own; I wish I were one of them.”

Stage 3: Minimization. Although individuals see cultural differences, they bank more on the
universality of ideas rather than on cultural differences.

An individual in the minimization stage might be heard saying:

“Once we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same!”

Stage 4: Acceptance. The individual begins to appreciate important cultural differences in

behaviors and eventually in values.

An individual in the minimization stage might be heard saying:

“These people and I have different values and experiences, and I think we can learn
from one another

Stage 5: Adaptation. The individual is very open to world views when accepting new
perspectives.

An individual in the adaptation stage might be heard saying:

“To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to consider both my own and my
counterpart’s background.”

Stage 6: Integration. Individuals start to go beyond their own cultures and see themselves and
their actions based on multifarious cultural viewpoints.
 An individual in the integration stage might be heard saying:
“I can look at things from the perspective of various cultures.”

Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators

 World Bank (2010) identifies the following traits that define a competent intercultural
communicator.
1. flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty
2. reflectiveness or mindfulness
3. open-mindedness
4. sensitivity
5. adaptability
6. ability to engage in divergent thinking (or thinking creatively) and systems-level
thinking (or thinking how each one in a system or organization influences each
other)
7. politeness
Note that in addition to culture, other elements such as gender, age, social status, and religion
must also be taken into consideration when communicating with others. Refrain from showing
bias when talking to someone by following the tips below.
 Avoid stereotypes, i.e., generalizations about a certain group.
 Challenge gender norms; avoid using “he” and “man” to refer to a general group of
people. To remedy this, you may use plural pronouns or rewrite a sentence to avoid
using pronouns. The use of his/her is also acceptable.
 Do not talk down on younger people and the elderly.
 Be sensitive to the religious practices of others.
 Be polite at all times; do not belittle people you perceive to be on a lower social class
than you.

LESSON 3:
Strategies in Various Speech Situation
Communicative Competence

 Coined by Dell Hymes (1966)

 Language user’s grammatical knowledge of;

o Syntax – structure of words and phrases

o Morphemes – smallest unit of word
o Phonemesi – sounds
o Semantic – meaning
o Lexical – usage/function

 Speech – spoken expression of ideas, opinions, and others. It is vocalized form of

communication.

The distinguishing characteristics include the following:

  Number of communicators (one through many)

 Physical proximity of the communicators in relation to each other (close or

distant)

 Immediacy of the exchange, whether it is taking place either

a. Live or in apparently real time

b. On a delayed basis

TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT

1. Intrapersonal Communication
 Form of “thinking out loud” or “soliloquy”
 Takes place within a single person, often for the purpose of clarifying
ideas or analyzing a situation
 Other times, it is undertaken in order to reflect upon or appreciate
something
Three aspects of intrapersonal communication
a. Self-Concept
b. Perception
c. Expectation
Different levels of communication activity
a. Internal discourse
b. Solo vocal communication
c. Solo written communication
2. Interpersonal Communication
 This refers to communication between and among people and
establishes personal relationship between and among them.
 It can be categorized by the number of participants
a. Dyadic Communication
b. Group Communication
 Another way of categorizing interpersonal communication is on the
function or setting of the communication
a. Organizational Communication
b. Family Communication
 The purposes are to influence, help and discover ,as well as to share,
and play together
 Involves not only the words used but also the various elements of
nonverbal communication
3. Public Communication
 Involves a large group with a primarily one-way monologue style
generating only minimal feedback
 Information sharing, entertainment and persuasion are common
puposes of public communication
 Example:
- Lecturing in university class
4. Mass Communication
 Is a more public form of communication between an entity and a
large and diverse audience, mediated by some form of technology
 This may be either real time or on tape delay basis, or it may be
rooted in the usually recent past
Example:
- Radio and television
- Newspaper and magazines

TYPES OF SPEECH STYLE

 The context dictates and affects the way people communicate, which may results
in various speech styles.
1. Intimate – this is a private style, occurs between or among close family
members of individuals. The language in this style is not to be shared in
public.
Example:
- Cousins asking advice about a serious matter
- Best friends sharing their deepest secrets to each other
2. Casual – common among peers and friends where jargon, slang, street
language and gay language or vulgar are words that are used here
Example:
- Two gays are talking using gay language
- Boys are talking about their crushes
3. Consultative – the standard style where professional and mutually
acceptable language is a must in this style
Example:
- Communication between teachers and students
- Patient consulting the doctor
4. Formal – used in formal setting, unlike consultative, this is a one-way,
most often seen in writing than in speaking
Example:
- SONA
- Sermons of priests and ministers
5. Frozen – frozen in time and remains unchanged that mostly occurs in
ceremonies
Example:
- Lord’s Prayer
- Wedding
SPEECH ACT
 Is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect
 Some of the functions which are carried out using speech acts are offering an:
apoloygy, greeting, request, complaint, or refusal.
 It contains just one word, several words or sentences
Example:
- Thanks and Thank you (Both show appreciation regardless of the length
of the statement)

Types of Speech Act

▪ According to J.L Austin – a philosopher of language and the developer of
the speech act theory.

1. Locutionary Act
o Saying something (locution)
o Actual acts of uttering (what is said)
Example:
- “Please do the dishes”
2. Illocutionary Act
o Social function of what is said
o Performance of an act and speakers’ intent
Example:
- By uttering the locution/ “Please do the dishes”
▫ The speaker request the addressee to wash
the dishes
3. Perlocutionary Act
o The resulting act of what is said
o The effect is based on the particular context in which the
speech act is mentioned
Example:
- “Please do the dishes” would lead the addressee
washing the dishes.

Performatives
▪ Austin: statements enable the speaker to perform something just
by stating
▪ Verbs that execute the speech act that they intend to effect
▫ Note: it is said by a right person under right circumstances
result a change in the world.
Example:
- I pronounce you husband and wife” when uttered by
an authorized person will have the actual effect of
binding a couple in marriage.
 ▫ However, if the same phrase is uttered by a
robot – who is not authorized, there is no effect
because the conditions was not met.

Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts

▪ As a response to Austin, John Searle, a professor from the
University of California
Categories of Illocutionary Act
1. Assertive – which the speaker expresses belief
about the truth of the proposition
▫ Affirming ▫ Denying
▫ Believing ▫ Describing
▫ Putting Forward ▫ Boasting
Example:
- “No one makes better pancakes than I do”
2. Directive – which the speaker tries to make the
addressee perform in actions
▫ Asking ▫ Inviting
▫ Ordering ▫ Advising
▫ Requesting ▫ Begging
Example:
- “Please close the door”
3. Commissive – comits the speaker to do something
in the future.
▫ Promising ▫ Vowing
▫ Planning ▫ Betting
Example:
- “From now on, I will participate in our group
activity”
4. Expressive – speakers expresses their feelings or
emotional reaction
▫ Thanking ▫ Welcoming
▫ Apologizing ▫ Deploring
Example:
- “I am sorry for not helping out in our project
and letting you do all the work”
5. Declaration – bring change in external situation,
bring into existence or cause the state affair which
they refer to
▫ Blessing ▫ Passing a sentence
▫ Firing ▫ Excommunicating
▫ Baptizing
Example:
- “You are fired!”