Curriculum Development

Curriculum (Bauzon, 2009) is:

 from the Latin root currere, which means to run; the course of the race.
 the sum of all learning content, experiences and resources that are purposely selected, organized and implemented by the
school in pursuit of its peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development.

Curriculum development. It is defined as the process of selecting, organizing, executing, and evaluating learning experiences on the
basis of the needs, abilities, and interests of learners and the nature of the society or community.

Criteria of a Good Curriculum

1. The curriculum is continuously evolving.

2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the people.
3. The curriculum is democratically conceived.
4. The curriculum is the result of long-term effort.
5. The curriculum is a complex of details.
6. The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter.
7. The curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs in the community.
8. The curriculum has educational quality.
9. The curriculum has administrative flexibility.

Criteria for Selecting Curriculum Content

1. Self-sufficiency 5. Learnability
2. Significance 6. Interest
3. Validity 7. Utility
4. Feasibility

Curriculum From Different Points of View

Traditional Points of View:

Curriculum is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to learn. A "course of study" and
"syllabus." It is a field of study. It is made up of its foundations (philosophical, historical, psychological and social foundations;
domains, of knowledge as well as its research and principles.

Progressive Points of View:

Curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. This is anchored on John Dewey's definition of experience and
education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but
tested by application.

Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

 RECOMMENDED CURRICULUM - Proposed by scholars and professional organizations. May come from DepEd, CHED, DOST
or any organization who has a take on education.
 WRITTEN CURRICULUM - Appears in state and locally produced documents such as state standards, district curriculum
guides, course of study or syllabi handed down to schools for implementation. Mostly made by curriculum experts with the
participations of teachers. Ex: Basic Education Curriculum (BEC), written lesson plan
 TAUGHT CURRICULUM - What the teachers implement or deliver in the classrooms. Refers to the different planned
activities which are put into action in the classroom. Varies according to the learning styles of students and teaching styles
of teachers.
 SUPPORTED CURRICULUM - Refers to resources that support or help in the implementation of the curriculum. Includes
material resources such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playground, zoos and other
facilities.
  ASSESSED CURRICULUM - Refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. Series of evaluation are being done by teachers to
determine the extent of teaching or if the students are progressing. Ex. Pencil-and paper test, state test, district tests
 LEARNED CURRICULUM - Is the bottom-line curriculum – the curriculum that students actually learn. Refers to the learning
outcomes achieved by the students. Indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior – cognitive, affective,
psychomotor.
 HIDDEN CURRICULUM - Is the unintended curriculum. Is not deliberately planned but may modify behavior or influence
learning outcomes. Factors: school environment, physical condition, peer influence, teacher-learner interaction, mood of
teachers, etc.

Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophical Foundations of the Curriculum

Philosophy of education functions to give guiding principles and directives to knowledge concerning the aims of education by which
they are actualized. The philosophical beliefs that one upholds in relation to the ultimate aims, objectives, purposes of existence and
of education determine not only the materials of the curriculum, but also their organization and the methodology employed. From
one’s philosophy of education is derived a series of principles that serve as standards in the planning, designing, revision and
evaluation of the curriculum.

The curriculum is the content of education. It is the medium through which a philosophy of life is transformed into reality. It
converts potency into act. The curriculum reflects the values of the society and the medium through which values are being
transmitted.

Basic Philosophical Proponent(s) Fundamental Idea(s) Curricular Influences on

System Implications Present Educ’l.
System
Idealism Plato Importance of mind Subject Values education,
Froebel and spirit and of matter/Content GMRC, religious
Herbart developing them in focused on believing education
Buther the learner. that this is essential to
Hegel Reality is in the ideas mental and oral
Berkeley independent of sense development.
and experience.
Realism Aristotle Truth can be tested/ Curriculum is subject- Use of realia,
Aquinas proven. centered, organized fieldtrips,
Broudy Knowledge is derived from simple to immersion and
Martin from sense complex, stressing fieldwork
Pestalozzi experience. mastery of facts and
development of
process and objective
skills.
Focused to Science
and Mathematics
Pragmatism Dewey, Rousseau, The world is a world of Provisions for direct Experiential
W. James, Pierce change. Man can experiences. learning,
know anything within Activity (process)- & OJT/internship.
his experience. learner-centered.
Belief in “learning by Project-/Problem-
doing.” based learning.
Existentialism Sartre, Marcel, Reality is a matter of Curriculum stresses Use of group
Mowes, individual existence. activity. dynamics as well
Soderquist Focus on conscious Recognition of as individualized
awareness of choice. individual differences learning; flexible
and opportunities for learning
making choices.
 2
Perennialism Human beings are Subject matter
rational and their consists of perennial
existence remain the basic education of
same throughout rational men: history,
differing 3Rs, science, arts.
environments.
1,2
Essentialism There are certain Curriculum focused Study of
ideas that men should on assimilation of anthropology,
know for social prescribed basic sociology and
stability. subject matter: 3Rs, other social
Acquisition of culture; history, civics, culture, sciences.
cultural literacy for science, mathematics
personal benefit.
3
Reconstructionism Brameld, James, Schools are the chief Curriculum is child, Politics and social
Pierce means for social subject & human work
awareness and reaction-centered.
reforms towards Curriculum should
building new social include subjects that
order. deal with social and
cultural crises.
Progressivism/ Education is viewed as Promote self- Humanities as a
Humanism human development actualization. course, arts
that starts from the Apply problem-solving
needs and interests of in daily life.
the learners.
Develop the human
potential

Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning process. Education and the
curriculum depends to a great extent upon psychology because the nature and the kind of education that the learner may acquire is
conditioned by his psychological attributes, e.g. general mental ability, temperament, aptitude, interest and physical condition.

Psychological Implications and Influences on Proponent Theory Characteristics

Perspective the Curriculum
Behaviorism or Curriculum should be Edward Thorndike connectionism Simplistic, linear
association theories organized so students Ivan Pavlov classical conditioning and mechanical
(stimulus and experience success in (passive; association) learning.
reinforcement) mastering the subject matter B.F. Skinner operant conditioning Stimulus –
Prescriptive and diagnostic (active; reinforcement) response and
approach Albert Bandura social cognitive theory reinforcement.
Uses step-by-step structured (modelling)
methods of teaching including Robert Gagné Hierarchical learning
careful analysis and (behaviors are based
sequencing of learners’ needs on prerequisite
and behaviors conditions)
Jerome Bruner & Hilda Discovery learning
Taba
Cognitive-information Learning constitutes a logical Jean Piaget Cognitive development Practices
processing theories method for organizing and (stages of reflective
interpreting learning development; thinking, creative
assimilation, thinking, and
accommodation and discovery learning
equilibration) among others
Lev Vygotsky Social Constructivism
(Zone of Proximal
 Development, MKO)
Howard Gardner Multiple Intelligences
Phenomenology/Humani Curriculum is concerned with Koffka, Wertheimer Gestalt (patterns , Insights, mental
stic theories process not the products; and Kohler shapes, forms and structures and
personal needs not subject configurations) patterns of
matter; psychological Abraham Maslow Self-actualization relationship.
meaning not cognitive scores. theory (hierarchy of Learning through
needs) perception,
Carl Rogers Nondirective and motivation and
Therapeutic learning achievement.
(Counselling
procedures for
facilitating learning)

Historical Foundations of Curriculum.

Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918 with the publication of Franklin Bobbit's book
"The Curriculum".

Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced back to the glorious history. Of all foreign
educational systems, the American educational system has the greatest influence on our educational system.

The following six curriculum theorists contributed their views on curriculum:

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)- presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on students' need.
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) - considered curriculum also as a science which is based on students' need, and the teachers plan
the activities.
3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - viewed curriculum as purposeful activities which are child-centered.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) - emphasized social studies in the curriculum and the teacher plans the lesson in advance.
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and earner's
interests.
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy. based on students' need
and interests.

A review of significant goals in the history of education and a summary of content should provide more objective means of analyzing
present practices in the schools.

Pre-Spanish Practical training – satisfy basic needs and Broad/not written

to transmit social ideas, beliefs and Reading and writing; study of Koran
traditions.
Spanish Learning of the Christian Doctrine Parochial schools; vernacular
American Public school system 3Rs, GMRC, hygiene and sanitation,
English instruction
Commonwealth Development of moral character, Filipino as medium, elementary (6 years),
personal discipline and vocational double-single sessions, Filipino subject
efficiency introduced
Japanese Prosperity sphere educational objective Diffusion of elementary education
Promotion of vocational education
Termination of the use of English as
medium of instruction
Third Republic 1935 Constitution
New Society National development goals, manpower Bilingual education policy
training, high level professions and self- Development of moral character, self-
actualization discipline, scientific efficiency, love of
country and good citizenship
Fourth Republic Rights of all citizens to quality education Teaching of values
Emphasis on the basics in the new
elementary and secondary schools
curriculum

Social Foundations of Education.

Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula. The relationship of curriculum
and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and
its aspirations. At the same time, society should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institutions called schools.

Curriculum Approaches

Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in planning, implementing and evaluating the
curriculum. Even textbook writers or instructional material producers have different curricular approaches.

1. Behavioral Approach. This is based on a blueprint, where goals and objectives are specified, contents and activities are also
arranged to match with the learning objectives. The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the
beginning. This approach started with the idea of Frederick Taylor which is aimed to achieve efficiency. In education, behavioral
approach begins with educational plans that start with the setting of goals or objectives. These are the important ingredients in
curriculum implementation as evaluating the learning outcomes as a change of behavior. The change of behavior indicates the
measure of the accomplishment.
2. Managerial Approach. In this approach, the principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time instructional leader who is
supposed to be the general manager. The general manager sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of change and
innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and instruction. School administrators are less concerned about the content
than about organization and implementation. They are less concerned about subject matter, methods and materials than improving
the curriculum. Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the resources and restructure
the schools.

Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors are the following:

a. help develop the school's education goals
b. plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders
c. design programs of study by grade levels
d. plan or schedule classes or school calendar
e. prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area
f. help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks
g. observe teachers
h. assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum
i. encourage curriculum innovation and change
j. develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation

3. Systems Approach. This was influenced by systems theory, where the parts of the total school district or school are examined in
terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart of the school represents a systems approach. It shows the line-staff
relationships of personnel and how decisions are made. The following are of equal importance: a) administration b) counseling c)
curriculum d) instruction e) evaluation.

4. Humanistic Approach. This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered movement. It considers the
formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum. It considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the
total development of the individual is the prime consideration. The learner is at the center of the curriculum.

Elements/Components of the Curriculum

The nature of the elements and the manner in which they are organized may comprise which we call a curriculum design.
Component 1: Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives
Aims: Elementary, Secondary, and Tertiary
Goals: School Vision and Mission
Objectives: educational objectives
Domains:
1. Cognitive – knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation
2. Affective – receiving, responding, valuing, organization, characterization
3. Psychomotor – perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, origination

Component 2: Curriculum Content or Subject Matter

Information to be learned in school, another term for knowledge ( a compendium of facts, concepts, generalization, principles,
theories.

1. Subject-centered view of curriculum: The Fund of human knowledge represents the repository of accumulated discoveries and
inventions of man down the centuries, due to man’s exploration of his world
2. Learner-centered view of curriculum: Relates knowledge to the individual’s personal and social world and how he or she defines
reality.

Jerome Bruner: “Knowledge is a model we construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience”

Criteria used in selection of subject matter for the curriculum:

1. self-sufficiency – “less teaching effort and educational resources, less learner’s effort but more results and effective learning
outcomes – most economical manner (Scheffler, 1970)
2. significance – contribute to basic ideas to achieve overall aim of curriculum, develop learning skills
3. validity – meaningful to the learner based on maturity, prior experience, educational and social value
4. utility – usefulness of the content either for the present or the future
5. learnability – within the range of the experience of the learners
6. feasibility – can be learned within the tile allowed, resources available, expertise of the teacher, nature of learner

Principles to follow in organizing the learning contents (Palma, 1992)

1. BALANCE . Content curriculum should be fairly distributed in depth and breath of the particular learning are or discipline. This will
ensure that the level or area will not be overcrowded or less crowded.
2. ARTICULATION. Each level of subject matter should be smoothly connected to the next, glaring gaps or wasteful overlaps in the
subject matter will be avoided.
3. SEQUENCE. This is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the deepening and broadening of content as it is
taken up in the higher levels.
4. INTEGRATION. This is the horizontal connections needed in subject areas that are similar so that learning will be related to one
another.
5. Learning requires a continuing application of the new knowledge, skills, attitudes or values so that these will be used in daily
living. The constant repetition, review and reinforcement of learning is what is referred to as CONTINUITY.

Component 3 – Curriculum Experience

Instructional strategies and methods will link to curriculum experiences, the core and heart of the curriculum. The instructional
strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the content in order to produce an outcome.
Teaching strategies convert the written curriculum to instruction. Among these are time-tested methods, inquiry approaches,
constructivist and other emerging strategies that complement new theories in teaching and learning. Educational activities like field
trips, conducting experiments, interacting with computer programs and other experiential learning will also form part of the
repertoire of teaching.

Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some guide for the selection and use, Here are
some of them:
1. teaching methods are means to achieve the end
2. there is no single best teaching method
3. teaching methods should stimulate the learner’s desire to develop the cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual
domain of the individual
4. in the choice of teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be considered
5. every method should lead to the development of the learning outcome in three domains
6. flexibility should be a consideration in the use of teaching methods

Component 4 – Curriculum Evaluation

To be effective, all curricula must have an element of evaluation. Curriculum evaluation refer to the formal determination of the
quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process, and product of the curriculum. Several methods of evaluation came up. The
most widely used is Stufflebeam's CIPP Model. The process in CIPP model is continuous and very important to curriculum managers.

CIPP Model – Context (environment of curriculum), Input (ingredients of curriculum), Process (ways and means of implementing),
Product accomplishment of goals)- process is continuous.

Regardless of the methods and materials evaluation will utilize, a suggested plan of action for the process of curriculum evaluation is
introduced. These are the steps:
1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be subject area, the grade level, the course, or the degree program?
Specify objectives of evaluation.
2. Collect or gather the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding the object of evaluation.
3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing and retrieving data for interpretation.
4. Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized.
5. Report the information. The report of evaluation should be reported to specific audiences. It can be done formally in conferences
with stakeholders, or informally through round table discussion and conversations.
6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modifications and adjustments to be made.
Source:

Glatthorn, Allan A. The Principal as Curriculum Leader: Shaping What Is Taught and Tested. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.:
Corwin Press 2000.

Purita P. Bilbao, et al. Curriculum Development. Quezon City: Lorimar Pub., c2008