CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES

(Notes)

• CRITERIA TO DECIDE IF SOMETHING IS ALIVE:
® Movements:
1. Visible Movement- growth, locomotion
o An organism might not always show visible movement.
2. Invisible Molecular Movement- transportation of O2, CO2, glucose in the body.
o Molecular movements are needed for life to maintain well-organized body
structures.

• LIFE PROCESSES:
® The basic functions/processes performed by living organisms to maintain life are called
life processes.
® Nutrition, Respiration, Transportation and Excretion.

v NUTRITION:
® The transfer of source of energy from outside the body of the organism to the inside is
called nutrition.
® Most food sources are carbon-based.

• MODES OF NUTRITION:
1. Autotrophic Nutrition- The mode of nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food
from simple inorganic compounds present in the atmosphere and convert it into organic
compounds.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition- The mode of nutrition in which the organism is dependent on
the food produced by autotrophs.

• AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION:
® The autotrophs include green plants and some bacteria.
® Their carbon and energy requirements are met by photosynthesis.

• PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
® Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophs take in substances from the
environment i.e. CO2 and H2O and convert them into stored forms of energy i.e.
carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.

Chlorophyll
6CO2 + 12H2O
Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

® The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of starch,
which serves as the internal energy reserve to be used as and when required by the
plant.
® In the human body, food is stored in the form of glycogen.

• RAW MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
1. Carbon dioxide- taken from atmosphere through stomata

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2. Water- absorbed from the soil by roots

3. Nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium- absorbed from the soil by
roots. Nitrogen is taken up in the form of nitrates or nitrites or organic compounds
prepared by bacteria like Rhizobium.
4. Sunlight- Atmosphere
5. Chlorophyll- green coloured pigment found in the chloroplast of a plant cell responsible
for trapping solar energy for photosynthesis.

• EVENTS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
1. Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
2. Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
3. Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
® These steps need not take place one after the other immediately.

• STOMATA AND ITS FUNCTION:
® Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves.
® Function: Massive amounts of gaseous exchange takes place in the leaves through
stomata for the purpose of photosynthesis.
® Feature: Since large amounts of water can also be lost through stomata, the plant closes
these pores when it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

• GUARD CELLS AND THEIR FUNCTIONING:
® The kidney-shaped cells surrounding/guarding the stomatal pore are called guard cells.
® Function: Opening and closing of the stomatal pore.
® Functioning: The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal
pore to open. Similarly, the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.

• HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION:
® There are mainly three types of Heterotrophic Nutrition:
1. Saprophytic Nutrition- The mode of nutrition in which the organisms break-down the
food materials (dead and decaying matter) outside the body and then absorb it is
called Saprophytic Nutrition.
o Saprophytes secrete enzymes from their body which digest and break down the
complex decaying organic matter into simpler forms. These soluble end products are
then absorbed by the saprophytes, generally by their body surface.
o Eg: fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushroom.
2. Parasitic Nutrition- The mode of nutrition in which the organism lives either on or
inside the body of another organism (host) and derives nutrition from them without
killing them is called Parasitic Nutrition.
o Parasites living inside the body – Endoparasites
o Parasites living outside (on surface) the body – Ectoparasites
o Eg: cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.
3. Holozoic Nutrition- The mode of nutrition in which the organisms take in the whole
(complex) food material and breaks it down into simpler forms inside their body is
called Holozoic Nutrition.

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o Herbivores (plant-eaters), Carnivores (meat-eaters) and Omnivores (both plant and

meat-eaters) possess Holozoic Nutrition.

• STEPS IN HOLOZOIC NUTRITION:
1. Ingestion- Intake of food
2. Digestion- Breakdown (conversion) of complex food to simpler food molecules
3. Absorption- Passing of digested food into the blood
4. Assimilation- Distribution of digested food products to each and every cell of the body to
release energy (and use it for its activities)
5. Egestion- Elimination of undigested food
- In unicellular organisms, absorption and assimilation are considered only as one process of absorption as they have only one cell.

• NUTRITION IN AMOEBA:
1. Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions of the cell surface called
pseudopodia which fuse over the food particle forming a food-vacuole. (Ingestion)
2. Inside the food-vacuole, complex substances are broken down into simpler ones.
(Digestion)
3. The simpler food material then fuses into the cytoplasm. (Absorption)
4. The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.
(Egestion)

• NUTRITION IN PARAMECIUM:
® In Paramecium (unicellular organism), the cell has a definite shape and food is taken in
at a specific spot called the oral groove.
® Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia which cover the entire surface of
the cell.
® Egestion occurs through a temporary opening in the cell surface.

• NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS:
® The alimentary canal is a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus.
® It contains many different parts:

1. MOUTH:
® Once food enters the mouth (INGESTION), it is crushed with our teeth.
® It is also wetted by saliva to make its passage smooth.
® Saliva secreted by salivary glands contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks
down starch to give simple sugar. (DIGESTION STARTS)
® The food is mixed thoroughly with saliva and moved around the mouth while chewing
by the muscular tongue.

2. OESOPHAGUS (FOOD PIPE):
® It is a thin and long muscular pipe through which the food is taken from the mouth to
the stomach.

o PERISTALSIS:
-The rhythmic contractions and relaxations by the muscles of the lining on the
alimentary canal to push the food forward are called peristaltic movements.

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3. STOMACH:
® The stomach is a large organ which expands when food enters it.
® The muscular walls of the stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with digestive
juices which are secreted by the gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach.
® They release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin, and mucus.
o Hydrochloric Acid-
a) creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of pepsin.
b) kills any harmful germs present in the food.
o Pepsin-
a) helps in the (partial) digestion of proteins i.e. breaks down proteins into smaller
protein molecules.
o Mucus-
a) protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of hydrochloric acid
under normal conditions.
® The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which releases it in
small amounts into the small intestine.

4. SMALL INTESTINE:
® It is the longest part of the alimentary canal which is fitted into a compact space because
of extensive coiling.
-The length of small intestine differs in various animals depending on their diet. (Herbivores – longer intestine, Carnivores – shorter)
® The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and
fats.
® It receives the secretions of the liver (Bile juice) and pancreas (Pancreatic juice
containing enzymes Trypsin and Lipase) for this purpose and itself (intestinal wall
contains glands which) secretes Intestinal juice as well.
o Bile juice-
a) makes the food coming from the stomach (which is acidic) alkaline for the
pancreatic enzymes to act.
b) breaks down large fat globules into smaller fat globules.
o Trypsin-
a) digests proteins i.e. breaks down proteins into smaller protein molecules.
o Lipase-
a) breaks down emulsified fats (small fat globules) into even smaller fat molecules.
o Intestinal juice-
a) its enzymes finally covert proteins into amino acids, complex carbohydrates into
glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. (DIGESTION COMPLETES)
® Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine. The inner lining of the small
intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi which increase the surface area
for absorption. (ABSORPTION)
® The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each and
every cell of the body, where it is utilized for obtaining energy, which is used in various
activities of the cell. (ASSIMILATION)

5. LARGE INTESTINE:

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® The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where its walls absorb more water
from this material.

6. ANUS:
® The rest of the undigested material (the undigested food) is removed from the body via
the anus. (EGESTION)
® The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.

• DENTAL CARIES:
® Dental caries or tooth decay causes gradual softening of enamel and dentine.
® It begins when bacteria acting on sugars produce acids that softens or demineralizes the
enamel.

• DENTAL PLAQUE:
® Masses of bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental
plaque.

v RESPIRATION:
® The process of release of energy from the oxidation of absorbed food (glucose) inside
the cells (at cellular level) is called respiration.
® There are two types of respiration:
1. Aerobic Respiration- The respiration which occurs in the presence of air (oxygen).
-Glucose ® Pyruvate ® Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
-Starts in cytoplasm and continues in mitochondria.
2. Anaerobic Respiration- The respiration which occurs in the absence of air (oxygen).
-Glucose ® Pyruvate ® Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy : Fermentation in yeast
-Glucose ® Pyruvate ® Lactic acid + Energy : In muscle cells in lack of oxygen
-Occurs completely in the cytoplasm.
o The release of energy in aerobic respiration is a lot greater than in anaerobic
respiration.

• GLYCOLYSIS:
® The step in cellular respiration, the break-down of glucose, a six-carbon molecule, into a
three-carbon molecule pyruvate in the cytoplasm is called glycolysis.

• FERMENTATION:
® The conversion of pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide (and energy) in the yeast
cells in the absence of air (oxygen) is called fermentation.

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• ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE):
® ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes.
® The energy released during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule
from ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate.
® Endothermic processes in the cell use ATP to drive the reactions.
® When the terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using water, the energy
equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mol is released.

• PROPERTIES/FEATURES OF THE RESPIRATORY SURFACE:
1. Thin and moist- so that exchange of O2 and CO2 takes place easily.
2. Large surface area- to increase the area in contact with the atmosphere.
3. Extensive network of blood capillaries- for immediate transport across the body.
4. Permeable- to allow the easy exchange of gases.
5. Direct contact with the atmosphere- so that O2 rich air can be easily received for
respiration.

• RESPIRATION IN PLANTS:
® The exchange of gases in plants occurs through:
1. Leaves- through the stomata and large intercellular spaces which ensure that all the
cells are in contact with air.
2. Stem- through small pores called lenticels in brown and woody stems while through
stomata in green stems.
3. Roots- through diffusion between the air present between soil particles and root
hairs.
® At night, when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is the major
exchange activity going on. During the day, O2 release is the major event.

• RESPIRATION IN FISH:
® Aquatic animals use the oxygen dissolved in water for respiration.
® Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount of oxygen in
the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in
terrestrial organisms.
® Fishes take in water through their mouths and force it past the gills where the dissolved
oxygen is taken up by blood.

• MECHANISM OF BREATHING IN HUMAN BEINGS:
® The complete process of intake of oxygen from the atmosphere (inhalation/inspiration)
and the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (exhalation/expiration) is called
breathing or external respiration.

® Flowchart for inhalation:
Air is taken through the nostrils and passes down the trachea
¯
Contraction of diaphragm i.e. diaphragm flattens/moves downward
¯

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Ribs expand/move outward (lifted ribs)

¯
Thoracic cavity becomes larger i.e. the volume of the thoracic cavity increases
¯
The pressure inside the thoracic cavity decreases (partial vacuum is created)
¯
O2 rich air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli

® Flowchart for exhalation:
CO2 brought in by the capillaries from all the cells of the body enter the alveoli
¯
Relaxation of diaphragm i.e. diaphragm shifts upward (becomes dome shaped)
¯
Ribs relax (move inwards)
¯
Thoracic cavity becomes smaller i.e. the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases
¯
Pressure inside the thoracic cavity increases
¯
CO2 rich air is forced out of the lungs to the atmosphere (via trachea and nostrils)

® During the breathing cycle, the lungs always contain a residual volume of air so that
there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be
released.

• THE RESPIRATORY TRACT:

1. NOSTRILS & NASAL PASSAGE:
® Air is taken in taken in through the nostrils.
® The air passing through the nostrils enters the nasal passage and is filtered by the fine
hairs (or hair-like structures) called cilia that line the passage. These cilia help to remove
germs, dust and other harmful particles from the inhaled air.
® The passage is also lined with mucus which helps in this process.

2. TRACHEA:
® From the nasal passage, the air passes through the throat (trachea) and into the lungs.
® About 20 C-shaped rings of cartilage are present in the throat. These ensure that the air-
passage does not collapse.

3. IN THE LUNGS:
® The trachea then branches into two bronchi, each bronchus entering into each lung.
® These bronchi then, divide into smaller and smaller tubes (called bronchioles) which
finally terminate in balloon-like structures which are called alveoli.
® The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place.
(If the alveolar surface were spread out, it would cover about 80 m2)
® The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels.

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® The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli,
and the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be
transported to all the cells in the body.

• RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS:
® When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion pressure alone cannot take care of
oxygen delivery to all parts of the body.
® So, respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues
which are deficient in oxygen before releasing it.
® In human beings, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin (haemo:iron ; globin:proteins)
which has a very high affinity for oxygen.
® This pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles.
® Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported
in the dissolved form in our blood.
(If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it is estimated that it would take 3 years for a
molecule of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs)


v TRANSPORTATION:
® The process that is involved in moving substances across the body is called
transportation/circulation.


Human Circulatory System




Blood Heart Blood Vessels




Plasma Blood Cells Arteries Capillaries Veins




RBCs WBCs Platelets




• BLOOD:
® Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
® Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma in which the blood cells are suspended.
® Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in the dissolved form.
® Oxygen is carried by the red blood corpuscles (small, biconcave in shape and are non-
nucleated).
® Many other substances like salts, are also transported by the blood.

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® WBCs are large irregularly shaped nucleated cells. They protect the body from germs by
engulfing them and also produce antibodies.
® Platelets (small, biconvex in shape) help to maintain the blood pressure and the heart’s
efficiency. They also prevent the excessive loss of blood from the body by coagulation or
clotting.

• DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTERIES AND VEINS:

ARTERIES VEINS
1. Arteries carry blood away from the Veins carry blood from the different
heart to the different organs. organs to the heart.
2. They usually carry oxygenated blood. They usually carry deoxygenated blood.
Exception: Pulmonary artery Exception: Pulmonary vein
3. Blood flows with high pressure through Blood flows with relatively low pressure
the arteries, hence they have thick and through the veins, hence they have thin
elastic walls. walls.
4. Since blood flows with high pressure, They have valves to prevent the
they do not have (or need) valves to backflow of blood.
prevent backflow of blood.
5. They have a narrow lumen (hollow They have a wider lumen.
space).
6. Location: They are deep seated inside Location: They are located superficial to
the body. the surface of the skin.

• BLOOD CAPILLARIES:
® The smallest vessels which have walls that are one-cell thick are called capillaries.
® Exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells takes place across this
thin wall.

• HEART:
® The pump of our body, the heart is a muscular organ which is as big as our fist.
® The heart has different chambers to prevent the oxygen-rich blood from mixing with the
blood containing carbon dioxide.
® The septum separates the left side and the right side of the heart to prevent the mixing
of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood. This is required in animals that have high
energy needs like birds and mammals, which constantly need energy to maintain their
body temperature.
® The heart has four chambers- Left and Right Atria and Left and Right Ventricles.

• DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ATRIA AND VENTRICLES:

ATRIA VENTRICLES
1. They are the upper left and right They are the lower left and right
chambers of the heart. chambers of the heart.
2. They are the receiving chambers. They are the distributing chambers.

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3. They have thin walls. They have thick muscular walls as they
have to pump blood to various organs.

• DOUBLE CIRCULATION:
® In the human body, the blood goes or circulates through the heart twice (once during
pulmonary circulation and once during systemic circulation). This is known as double
circulation.

• PULMONARY CIRCULATION:
® The transportation (circulation) of deoxygenated blood from the heart (Right Ventricle)
received from various organs of the body to the lungs to get oxygenated and then
transported to the heart (Left Atrium) is called pulmonary circulation.

Deoxygenated blood is in the Right Ventricle




Deoxygenated blood enters into the Pulmonary
Artery, when the Right Ventricle contracts



Deoxygenated blood enters the lungs, where
exchange of gases takes place between the alveoli
and the blood capillaries, and deoxygenated blood
is converted into oxygenated blood.



Oxygenated blood enters into the Pulmonary Vein




Oxygenated blood enters the Left Atrium, as it
relaxes


• SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION:
® The transportation (circulation) of oxygenated blood from the Left Atrium to Left
Ventricle and then to the various organs of the body and then the transportation of
deoxygenated blood to the Right Atrium is called systemic circulation.

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Oxygenated blood is in the Left Atrium



Oxygenated blood enters the Left Ventricle as the
Left Atrium contracts the bicuspid valve opens




Oxygenated blood enters into the Aorta as the Left
Ventricle contracts and the Aortic valve opens



Oxygenated blood from Aorta enters into smaller
arteries, arterioles and then the blood capillaries
which distribute the blood to all the organs of the
body


The organs use the oxygen in the blood and convert
it into deoxygenated blood which again enters into
the capillaries, then the venules, smaller veins and
finally enters the Vena Cava (superior or inferior)



Deoxygenated blood enters the Right Atrium as it
relaxes from the Vena Cava




Deoxygenated blood enters the Right Ventricle as
the Right Atrium contracts and the Tricuspid valve
opens


• BLOOD PRESSURE:
® The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure.
® Blood pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.
® The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called
systolic pressure and pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called
diastolic pressure.
® The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of
Hg.
® Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer

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® High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of
arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture
of an artery and internal bleeding

• CHAMBERS OF HEART IN OTHER ANIMALS:
® In animals like amphibians and reptiles, whose body temperature depends on the
temperature of the environment, have three chambered hearts and tolerate some
mixing of the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood streams.
® Fishes have only two chambers to their hearts, and the blood is pumped to the gills, is
oxygenated there, and passes directly to the rest of the body. Blood goes through the
heart only once in the fish during one cycle of passage through the body (Single
Circulation).

• LYMPH (TISSUE FLUID):
® Lymph is a colourless fluid (consisting of plasma, proteins and blood cells) which oozes
out through the pores present in the walls of the blood capillaries into the intercellular
spaces in tissues.
® Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces which join to form
large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins.
® Function: Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid
from extra cellular space back into the blood.

• DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BLOOD AND LYMPH:

BLOOD LYMPH
1. It contains RBCs. It does not contain RBCs.
2. It is red in colour. It is colourless.
3. It has more amount of proteins. It contains less proteins.
4. It is part of the circulatory system. It is part of the lymphatic system.
5. It is involved in the circulation of It carries digested and absorbed fat from
nutrients, hormones, oxygen and intestine and drains excess fluid from extra
carbon dioxide, wastes and other toxins. cellular space back into the blood.
Lymphatic nodes help in the formation of
lymphocytes and hence helps in immunity.


• TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS:
® The roots of plants absorb raw materials like water, nitrogen and phosphorus from the
soil.
® If the distance between the roots and chlorophyll containing organs is small, energy and
raw materials diffuse easily to all the parts of the plant body.
® But, if these distances become large, diffusion process will not be sufficient to provide
raw material to the leaves and energy to the roots.
® A proper system of transportation is required to move energy stores from leaves and
raw materials from roots.
® These two pathways are xylem and phloem (vascular tissue).

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® The xylem moves water and minerals obtained from the soil to all the parts of the plant.
® Phloem transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves where they are
synthesized to other parts of the plant.

• ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PROCESSES:
® The process in which energy is required for the movement or flow of material (against
the concentration gradient) is called active process. Eg: Movement of ions into root
cells.
® The process in which energy is not required and the materials flow easily (along the
concentration gradient) is called passive process. Eg: Movement of water into root cells.

• TRANSPORT OF WATER:
® The transportation of water and minerals from the roots to all the parts of the plant is
called ascent of sap. This process is unidirectional – only in the upward direction.
® In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are interconnected
to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all parts of the
plant.
® At the roots, cells in contact with the soil actively take up ions. This creates a difference
in the concentration of these ions between the root and the soil. Water, therefore,
moves into the root from the soil to eliminate this difference. So, there is a steady
movement of water into root xylem, creating a column of water that is steadily pushed
upwards. This root pressure effect is more important at night.

• CONTRIBUTION OF TRANSPIRATION:
® The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as
transpiration.
® Evaporation of water molecules from the cells of a leaf creates a suction which pulls
water from the xylem cells of roots. Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward
movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
® Transpiration also helps in temperature regulation.

• TRANSLOCATION OF FOOD:
® The transport of the soluble products of photosynthesis from the leaves to all the parts
of the plant is called translocation of food.
® Along with the products of photosynthesis, amino acids and other substances are also
transported.
® Translocation of food occurs in the phloem (sieve tubes and adjacent companion cells).
This is a bidirectional process.
® These substances are especially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits, seeds
and to the growing organs.
® Translocation in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy. Material like sucrose is
transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases the osmotic
pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in
the phloem to tissues which have less pressure. This allows the phloem to move
material according to the plant’s needs.

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• DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASCENT OF SAP AND TRANSLOCATION OF FOOD:

ASCENT OF SAP TRANSLOCATION OF FOOD
1. Transportation of water and minerals The transport of the soluble products of
from the roots to all the parts of the photosynthesis from the leaves to all the
plant. parts of the plant.
2. It takes place in Xylem (tracheids and It takes place in Phloem (sieve tubes and
vessels) companion cells)
3. Water and minerals are transported. Products of photosynthesis and other
substances like amino acids are
transported.
4. It is unidirectional (only upward). It is bidirectional (both up and down).
5. Both active and passive processes are Only active process is involved.
involved.


v EXCRETION:
® The biological process involved in the removal of harmful metabolic nitrogenous wastes
from the body is called excretion.
® Unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple diffusion from the body surface
into the surrounding water.
® While, complex multicellular organisms use complex organs for the purpose.

• HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM:
® The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a
urinary bladder and a urethra.
® Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.
® Urine produced in the kidneys passes down the ureters into the urinary bladder where it
is stored until it is released through the urethra.

• MECHANISM OF EXCRETION (URINE FORMATION):
® The purpose of making urine is to filter out nitrogenous waste products such as urea and
uric acid from blood in the kidneys.
® The basic filtration unit in the kidneys is the nephron (uriniferous tubule).
® In each nephron, is a cluster of very thin-walled blood capillaries associated with the
cup-shaped end of a coiled tube called Bowman’s capsule.
® The Bowman’s capsule collects the filtrate, and the glomerulus in it carries out the
process of ultrafiltration of the blood. (ULTRAFILTRATION)
® Some substances in this initial filtrate (glomerulus filtrate), such as glucose, amino acids,
salts and a major amount of water, are selectively-reabsorbed as the urine flows down
the tube. The amount of water re-absorbed depends on the amount of excess water in
the body. (SELECTIVE REABSORPTION)
® Materials not required in the blood are secreted by the capillaries into the tubular part
of the nephron. (TUBULAR SECRETION)
® The urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which
connects the kidneys with the urinary bladder.

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® Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to
the urge to pass it out through the urethra.
® The bladder is muscular and is under nervous control, so we can usually control the urge
to urinate.

• ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY (HEMODIALYSIS):
® An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the body
through dialysis.
® Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in
a tank filled with dialysing fluid. This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood,
except that it is devoid of nitrogenous wastes.
® The patient’s blood is passed through these tubes. During this passage, the waste
products from the blood pass into dialysing fluid by diffusion. The purified blood is
pumped back into the patient.
® This is similar to the function of the kidney, but it is different since there is no
reabsorption involved.
® In a healthy adult, the glomerulus filtrate is about 180 L daily. But, the volume actually
excreted is only a litre or two a day, because the remaining filtrate is reabsorbed in the
kidney tubules.

• EXCRETION IN PLANTS:
® Oxygen is a waste product during photosynthesis while carbon dioxide is a waste
product during respiration.
® Excess water is released through transpiration.
® Plants get rid of dead cells by their falling leaves.
® Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may be
stored in leaves that fall off.
® Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem.
® Plants also secrete some waste substances into the soil around them.

• ORGAN DONATION:
® Organ donation is a generous act of donating an organ to a person who suffers from
non-function of organs.
® Anyone regardless of age or gender can become an organ or tissue donor.
® Most organ and tissue donations occur just after the donor has died or when the doctor
declares a person brain dead. But some organs such as kidney, part of a liver, lung, etc.,
and tissues can be donated while the donor is alive.

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