Hunting and Gathering Societies

Hunting and gathering societies
The members of hunting and gathering societies primarily survive by hunting

animals, fishing, and gathering plants. The vast majority of these societies existed in the
past, with only a few (perhaps a million people total) living today on the verge of
extinction.
To survive, early human societies completely depended upon their immediate

environment. When the animals left the area, the plants died, or the rivers dried up, the
society had to relocate to an area where resources were plentiful. Consequently,
hunting and gathering societies, which were typically small, were quite mobile. In some
cases, where resources in a locale were extraordinarily plentiful, small villages might
form. But most hunting and gathering societies were nomadic, moving constantly in
search of food and water.
Labor in hunting and gathering societies was divided equally among members. Because
of the mobile nature of the society, these societies stored little in the form of surplus
goods. Therefore, anyone who could hunt, fish, or gather fruits and vegetables did so.
These societies probably also had at least some division of labor based on gender.
Males probably traveled long distances to hunt and capture larger animals. Females
hunted smaller animals, gathered plants, made clothing, protected and raised children,
and helped the males to protect the community from rival groups.
Hunting and gathering societies were also tribal. Members shared an ancestral heritage
and a common set of traditions and rituals. They also sacrificed their individuality for the
sake of the larger tribal culture.
Pastoral societies
Members of pastoral societies, which first emerged 12,000 years ago, pasture animals
for food and transportation. Pastoral societies still exist today, primarily in the desert
lands of North Africa where horticulture and manufacturing are not possible.
Domesticating animals allows for a more manageable food supply than do hunting and
gathering. Hence, pastoral societies are able to produce a surplus of goods, which
makes storing food for future use a possibility. With storage comes the desire to
develop settlements that permit the society to remain in a single place for longer periods
of time. And with stability comes the trade of surplus goods between neighboring
pastoral communities.
Pastoral societies allow certain of its members (those who are not domesticating
animals) to engage in no survival activities. Traders, healers, spiritual leaders,
craftspeople, and people with other specialty professions appear.
Horticultural societies
Unlike pastoral societies that rely on domesticating animals, horticultural
societies rely on cultivating fruits, vegetables, and plants. These societies first
appeared in different parts of the planet about the same time as pastoral societies. Like
hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies had to be mobile. Depletion of the
land's resources or dwindling water supplies, for example, forced the people to leave.
Horticultural societies occasionally produced a surplus, which permitted storage as well
as the emergence of other professions not related to the survival of the society.
Agricultural societies
Agricultural societies use technological advances to cultivate crops (especially grains like
wheat, rice, corn, and barley) over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase Agricultural
Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that
led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies then led to larger
populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns
that became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and
religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment.
Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agricultural societies. For example,

women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with
men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men.
But as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the
family, they became more subordinate to men.
As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other
communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for
protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also
appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this
way, the nobility managed to extract goods from the “lesser” persons of society.
Feudal societies
From the 9th to 15th centuries, feudalism was a form of society based on ownership of

land. Unlike today's farmers, vassals under feudalism were bound to cultivating their
lord's land. In exchange for military protection, the lords exploited the peasants into
providing food, crops, crafts, homage, and other services to the owner of the land.
The caste system of feudalism was often multigenerational; the families of peasants
may have cultivated their lord's land for generations.
Between the 14th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged that began to
replace feudalism. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in which
the means of production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas
served as one impetus for the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign
metals, silks, and spices stimulated great commercial activity in Europe.
Industrial societies
Industrial societies are based on using machines (particularly fuel‐driven ones) to
produce goods. Sociologists refer to the period during the 18th century when the
production of goods in mechanized factories began as the Industrial Revolution. The
Industrial Revolution appeared first in Britain, and then quickly spread to the rest of the
world.
As productivity increased, means of transportation improved to better facilitate the

transfer of products from place to place. Great wealth was attained by the few who
owned factories, and the “masses” found jobs working in the factories.
Industrialization brought about changes in almost every aspect of society. As factories

became the center of work, “home cottages” as the usual workplace became less
prevalent, as did the family's role in providing vocational training and education. Public
education via schools and eventually the mass media became the norm. People's life
expectancy increased as their health improved. Political institutions changed into
modern models of governance. Cultural diversity increased, as did social mobility. Large
cities emerged as places to find jobs in factories. Social power moved into the hands of
business elites and governmental officials, leading to struggles between industrialists
and workers. Labor unions and welfare organizations formed in response to these
disputes and concerns over workers' welfare, including children who toiled in factories.
Rapid changes in industrial technology also continued, especially the production of
larger machines and faster means of transportation. The Industrial Revolution also saw
to the development of bureaucratic forms of organization, complete with written rules,
job descriptions, impersonal positions, and hierarchical methods of management.
Postindustrial societies
Sociologists note that with the advent of the computer microchip, the world is witnessing a
technological revolution. This revolution is creating a postindustrial society based on
information, knowledge, and the selling of services. That is, rather than being driven by the
factory production of goods, society is being shaped by the human mind, aided by computer
technology. Although factories will always exist, the key to wealth and power seems to lie in the
ability to generate, store, manipulate, and sell information.
Sociologists speculate about the characteristics of postindustrial society in the near

future. They predict increased levels of education and training, consumerism, availability
of goods, and social mobility. While they hope for a decline in inequality as technical
skills and “know‐how” begins to determine class rather than the ownership of property,
sociologists are also concerned about potential social divisions based on those who
have appropriate education and those who do not. Sociologists believe society will
become more concerned with the welfare of all members of society. They hope
postindustrial society will be less characterized by social conflict, as everyone works
together to solve society's problems through science.

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Hunting and gathering societies

The members of hunting and gathering societies primarily survive by hunting

To survive, early human societies completely depended upon their immediate

Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agricultural societies. For example,

From the 9th to 15th centuries, feudalism was a form of society based on ownership of

As productivity increased, means of transportation improved to better facilitate the

Industrialization brought about changes in almost every aspect of society. As factories

Sociologists speculate about the characteristics of postindustrial society in the near

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