Objectives

• Defined a Fluid.
• Discuss the Fluid properties.
• Demonstrate the Importance of fluid properties in relation to fluid flow
system.
• Illustrate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain.
• illustration the graphical representation of types of fluids.
• Apply the Pascal’s law and Hydrostatic law.
• Derive the Continuity equation
• Applications of Bernoulli equation
• Perform Momentum balance
• Solve relevant problems
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 Introduction to Fluid Static and
Fluid Dynamics
Fluid Statics and Fluid Dynamics form the two constituents of Fluid
Mechanics.

• Fluid Statics deals with fluids at rest,

• while Fluid Dynamics studies fluids in motion.

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 What is a fluid
• It a substance (liquids and gases) which deforms continuously under
the action of shearing forces however small.

• It is unable to retain any unsupported shape; it takes up the shape of

any enclosing container.

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 What is a Fluid Flow ?
• It is a Quantity of fluid passing through any section in a unit time, and
also known as Rate of Flow.

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Types of Rate of flow:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
1. Volume flow rate, Q= = 𝐴𝑈
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
2. Mass flow rate, 𝑚 ሶ= = ρ𝑄
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
3. Weight flow rate, 𝐺= = ρ𝑔𝑄
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 4
 Fluid Statics
• Fluid Statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.
• In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid
layers.
• Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying to deform it.
• The only stress (force) in fluid statics is normal stress, i.e Pressure.
• Normal stress is due to pressure (hydrostatic condition)
• Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid → fluid
statics is only relevant in presence of gravity fields.
• Applications: Floating or submerged bodies, water dams and gates,
liquid storage tanks, etc.

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 Properties of fluids
Common fluid properties are described below:

• Density : ρ = m/V (Kg/m3)

-Denoted by the density of the fluid (ρ). It is a scalar quantity -
Density varies with temperature, pressure f (T,P)
• Specific volume = 1/ρ
• Specifi gravity: ρ fluid/ρreference
• Velocity : v (m/s)
- Is a vector quantity, and together with the density determine the
momentum of the flow
• Stresses (F/A): N/m2
- Are the forces per unit area acting on the fluid particles. They are of
two types – Normal stress – Shear stress
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 Properties of fluids Cont:
• Dynamic Viscosity (µ): Pa.s
- It is the ability of the fluid to flow freely
- Mathematically it is the property of fluid that relates applied
shear stress to rate of deformation.
- Viscosity usually varies with temperature (to a greater extent)
and pressure (to a lesser extent).
- Viscosity in a liquid decreases with increase in
temperature but in a gas increases with increase in
temperature.
• Kinematic viscosity (ν = µ/ρ): m2/s
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 Properties of fluids Cont:
• Thermal conductivity :
- It is the ability of the fluid to transfer heat through the system
- Mathematically it is similar to viscosity (viscosity is the ability of
the fluid to transfer momentum).
• Bulk modulus of elasticity and compressibility :

- Compressibility is the change in density due to change in

normal pressure
- Reciprocal of compressibility is known as the bulk modulus of
elasticity
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 Pascal’s law

Pascal’s Law which is also known as Pascal’s principle or principle of

transmission of fluid-pressure states that:
that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid will be transmitted without a
change in magnitude to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container. The pressure at any point in the fluid is equal in all
directions.

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Pascal’s law

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 Pascal’s law
Illustration of Pascal's principle at work in a hydraulic press. According
to Pascal's principle, the original pressure (P1) exerted on the small
piston (A1) will produce an equal pressure (P2) on the large piston (A2).
However, because A2 has 10 times the area of A1, it will produce a force
(F2) that is 10 times greater than the original force (F1). Through
Pascal's principle, a relatively small force exerted on a hydraulic press
can be magnified to the point where it will lift a car

The formula of Pascal law: F = PA

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 Pascal’s law cont.
Where,

• F is the force applied

• P is the pressure transmitted
• A is the cross-sectional area

Example :

A pressure of 2000 Pa is transmitted throughout a liquid column due to a force

being applied on a piston. If the piston has an area of 0.1 m2, what is the force
applied?

ANS: F = 200 N
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 Hydrostatic law

Fluid example is water with a constant density

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Example 1 – static fluid

A rectangular tank has a base of 3.5 m x 2.6 m and holds a liquid acid of
1.32 SG to a depth of 2.2 m.

1. What is the total force on the base?

2. Calculate the weight of the fluid.

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Example 2 –

Tshepo tries to suck the last bit of water out of a swimming pool with a
vacuum pipe having a diameter of 0.15 mm and an absolute pressure
of 82 Kpa.
1. How high can it raise the water? The barometric pressure that day
was 996,4 millibars

Ans:
@ STP, T = 25 0C, and P = 101,325 kPa
Conversions:
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• 1 Bar = 100 kPa = 100000 Pa
1 milliBar = 100 Pa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa

P Atm = 996.4 millibars = 99640 Pa

Pressure difference = 99640 – 82000 = 17640 Pa = 17,64 kPa

P = ρgh
h = P/ρg = 17640/(1000*9.81) = 1,7982 m

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2. What is the specific volume of the water at STP?

V = 1/ρ = 1/1000 = m3/kg

3. What is the force required to push out the water from the pool?

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Example 3
• If the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa, what will be the height shown
in a mercury barometer with SG of 13.534 ?
Ans:
p = ρgh = 0.7607 m

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Example 4
• A u-tube manometer measures h = 236 mm. the manometric fluid
has the SG of 1.936, and the interface of 414 mm from the center line
of the pipe carrying pure water. Find the gauge pressure at the pipe
center line.

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 Relation between Shear Stress and Shear Strain
• Stress: Force per unit area , units (N/m2 or Pa)
• Strain: (Change in dimension)/(Original dimension), units
(dimensionless).
• Strain rate: Rate of change of strain, Units(1/s)
• Normal stress: [Normal (perpendicular) force] / [Area]
• Shear stress: [Shear (parallel) force] / [Area]
• Shear rate: It is the velocity gradient (du/dx) , units (1/s)

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Relation between Shear Stress and Shear Strain cont.
In general,

• Shear stress =µ (shear rate) = µ(velocity gradient)

For pipe flow:

4𝑈
Max shear stress = ,
𝑅
4𝑄
Max shear rate = 3
𝜋𝑅

Where U is the fluid velocity, Q is the volume rate, and R is the pipe radius

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 Relation between Shear Stress and Shear Strain
cont.
Any real fluids (liquids and gases included) moving along a
solid boundary will incur a shear stress at that boundary. The
no-slip condition dictates that the speed of the fluid at the
boundary (relative to the boundary) is zero; although at some
height from the boundary the flow speed must equal that of
the fluid. The region between these two points is named the
boundary layer. For all Newtonian fluids in laminar flow, the
shear stress is proportional to the shear strain (strain rate) in
the fluid, where the viscosity is the constant of
proportionality. For non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity is not
constant. The shear stress is imparted onto the boundary as a
result of this loss of velocity.
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 Relation between Shear Stress and Shear Strain cont.
For a Newtonian fluid, the shear stress at a surface element parallel to a flat
plate at the point y is given by:

where

μ is the dynamic viscosity of the flow;

u is the flow velocity along the boundary;
y is the height above the boundary.

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Relation between Shear Stress and Shear Strain cont.

• Shear stress
– Maximum at wall
– Zero at center of pipe

• Velocity
– Zero at wall (under ideal “no-slip” conditions)
– Maximum at center of pipe

• Shear rate
– Maximum at wall
– Zero at center of pipe

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Graphical representation of types of fluids
Examples of Types of Fluids

• Newtonian: A real fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity is known

as Newtonian fluid. NB: According to Newton’s law of viscosity shear
stress is directly proportional to strain rate. E.g. Water, clear fruit
juices, milk, honey, vegetable oil, corn syrup.

• Non Newtonian: A real fluid which does not obeys Newton’s law of
viscosity is known as Non-Newtonian fluid.
- Shear thinning (Pseudoplastic): e.g. Applesauce, banana puree, orange juice
concentrate, French mustard, dairy cream.
- Dilatant: e.g. Some types of honey, 40% raw corn starch solution. 25
Graphical representation of types of fluids

• Plastic Fluid: A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value
and shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain, is
known as ideal plastic fluid. E.g Minced fish paste, raisin paste
• Bingham plastic: E.g Tomato paste, toothpaste.

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Graphical representation of types of fluids

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 Continuity Equation
• In the analysis of flowing fluids, we use the principle of Conservation
Law of Mass: which states that mass cannot be created or destroyed -
(it is simply changed in to a different form of matter).

• The principle is applied to a fixed volumes, known as control volumes /

system boundary shown in figure:

For any control volume the principle of

conservation of mass says :

Mass Accumulation = Mass flow IN – Mass flow OUT

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 Continuity Equation Cont.
• For steady state flow, there is no accumulation of mass within the
control volume, so:
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time

Lets consider control volume of a horizontal pipe.

w

ρ1 Take CV inside the pipe wall ρ2

V1 V V2 ρ1, v1 and A1 are density,
A1 A2 velocity and cross-sectional area at
L section 1. Similarly, ρ2, v2 and A2 are
1 2 density, velocity and cross-sectional area at
section 2.
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 Continuity Equation Cont.
• According to mass conservation:

• Under steady state flow conditions:

• Hence, for stead flow condition, mass flow rate at section 1 = mass
flow rate at section 2. i.e., mass flow rate is constant

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 Continuity Equation Cont.
• Similarly,

• Assuming incompressible fluids, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌

• Therefore, according to mass conservation for steady flow of

incompressible fluids volume flow rate remains the same from
section to section.

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 Bernoulli Equation
In any incompressible flowing fluids, there are forms of energy which
are conserved, which when summed, give results to hydraulic / total
head of the fluid.
Forms of Energy
1. Kinetic Energy: Energy due to motion of body. A body of mass, m,
when moving with velocity, V, posses kinetic energy,

2. Potential Energy: Energy due to elevation of body above an

arbitrary datum. Z is elevation of body from arbitrary datum m is
the mass of body

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 Bernoulli Equation cont.
3. Pressure Energy: Energy due to pressure above datum, most usually
its pressure above atmospheric.
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝛾ℎ
4. Internal Energy: It is the energy that is associated with the molecular,
or internal state of matter; it may be stored in many forms, including
thermal, nuclear, chemical and electrostatic, it is donated by : ∆U

HEAD : Head is Energy per unit weight

1. Kinetic head: Kinetic energy per unit weight

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 Bernoulli Equation cont.
2. Potential head: Potential energy per unit weigh

3. Pressure head: Pressure energy per unit weight

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
Pressure head= = =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝜌𝑔 𝛾

TOTAL HEAD (HT) = Kinetic Head + Potential Head + Pressure Head

𝑃 𝑉2
Therefore, 𝐻𝑇 = 𝑍 + +
𝛾 2𝑔

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 Bernoulli Equation cont.
• Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of kinetic, potential and pressure
heads of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline during steady flow when
compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.

• i.e. , For an ideal fluid, Total head of fluid particle remains constant during a
steady-incompressible flow.
• Or total head along a streamline is constant during steady flow when
compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.

𝑃 𝑉2
i.e. 𝐻𝑇 = 𝑍 + + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑍1 + + = 𝑍2 + +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
H1 = H2 35
 Bernoulli Equation cont.
Bernoulli’s equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they
summarized in following points:

• Steady flow system,

• Density is constant (which also means the fluid is incompressible),
• No work is done on or by the fluid,
• No heat is transferred to or from the fluid,
• No change occurs in the internal energy,
• The equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline
(not conditions on two different streamlines)

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 Bernoulli Equation cont.
Under these conditions, the general energy equation is simplified to:

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑍1 + + = 𝑍2 + +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝟏 𝟏
𝒁𝟏 𝜸 + 𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝟏 = 𝒁𝟐 𝜸 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝟏  Bernoulli’s equation
𝟐 𝟐

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 Momentum Balance
• We have all seen moving fluids exerting forces. The lift force on an aircraft is
exerted by the air moving over the wing. A jet of water from a hose exerts a force
on whatever it hits.

• In fluid process fluid flow, the analysis of motion is performed by use of Newton’s
2nd Laws of motion which states that the: Rate of change of momentum of a body is
equal to the resultant force acting on the body, and takes place in the direction of
the force.

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 Momentum Balance
To determine the rate of change of momentum for a fluid we will consider
a stream pipe as given below:
 (shear stress)
ρ1 a ρ2
V1 r z r V2
A1 p A2
L P+dp L
dz
Pipe wall

• We start by assuming that we have steady flow which is non-uniform

flowing in a stream pipe.
• In time δt, a volume of the fluid moves from the inlet at a distance uδt ,
so the volume entering the stream pipe in the time δt is :

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 Momentum Balance
• volume entering the stream tube = Area X Distance = A1u1δt
• Mass entering the pipe = density x volume = ρ1A1u1 δt
• Momentum of fluid entering the pipe = mass x velocity = (ρ1A1u1 δt)*u1

Similarly, at point 2, the momentum of fluid leaving, Fout will be :

Fout = ρ2A2u2 δt)*u2

We can now calculate the force exerted by the fluid using Newton’s 2nd
Law. The force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. So,

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 Momentum Balance

Force = rate of change of momentum:

We know from continuity that Q =A1u1 = A2u2 , and if we have a fluid of

constant density, i.e. ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ , then we can write :

This force is acting in the direction of the flow of the fluid.

This analysis assumed that the inlet and outlet velocities were in the same
direction - i.e. a one dimensional system.

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 Fluid regimes in fluid dynamics
Three distinctive flow regimes can be identified:

• For flow that are low, the pressure gradient is directly

proportional to the flow rate (Laminar flow regime)
• For intermediate flow rates, the results are irreproducible but
randomly alternate between regimes 1 and 3 (Transition flow
regime).

• For high flow rates, the pressure gradient is closely

proportional to the square of the flow rate (Turbulent flow
regime).
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Laminar and Turbulent Flows
• The three fluid flow regimes: as illustrated in figure below

Figure ...Time dependent fluid velocity at a point.

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44
 Laminar and Turbulent Flows

Definition of Reynolds number

• Critical Reynolds number (Recr)
for flow in a round pipe
Re < 2100  laminar
2100 ≤ Re ≤ 4000  transitional
𝝆𝑼𝑫 𝑼𝑫 Re > 4000  turbulent
𝑵𝑹𝒆 = =
𝝁 𝝊

• Note that these values are

approximate.
• For a given application, Recr depends
upon

 Pipe roughness
 Vibrations
 Upstream fluctuations, disturbances
(valves, elbows, etc. that may disturb
the flow)
 Examples

1. Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent

a) if glycerine at 25 oC having an SG of 1.258 flows in a pipe
with a 150 mm inside diameter. The average velocity of flow
and the dynamic viscosity of the fluid are 3.6 m/s, and 9.60
x10-1. Pa.s respectively.
b) If a 1.21 density air, at 20 0C flows in a 0,35 m diameter duct
with a velocity of 30 m/s, and the kinematic velocity of 1.516 X
10-5 m2/s.

46