GENETICS

G
enetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation among
organisms. It is the branch of science that accounts for the
occurrence of similarities and differences among organisms of
the same species; as well as explaining how traits are
transmitted to off springs from their parents.

Inheritance refers to the process by which characters/traits are passed from

parents to off springs.

The importance of genetics

 It is applied in genetic engineering to produce better breeds and varieties of

plants and animals by altering their genetic constitution.
 It is important in courts of law to determine the paternity of the child.
 Genetics forms the basis of blood transfusion to determine compatible blood
groups.
 Genetic counselling is important in preventing transmission of genetically
determined diseases among married couples. This will help to relieve the
families and community of the costs on treatment as well as the suffering of
the sick and their families.
 It can be used in identification of criminals by use of finger prints and DNA
profiling.
 It is used in molecular biology to manufacture artificial enzymes, hormones
and vaccines by manipulating responsive genes from organisms.
 Forms the basis of cloning to increase the number of genetically important
plants and animals.

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 DEFNITION OF TERMS USED IN GENETICS

Gene; A gene is the basic unit of inheritance that determines the organisms’
characteristics. All the characteristic features of an organism are defined at
fertilization by the genes inherited from parents but can be greatly modified by
the environment in which the organism lives.

Alleles; Are alternative forms of the same gene.

Most of the genes occur in two alternative forms called alleles one of which is
dominant and the other recessive both of which are represented by
alphabetical letters just for study purposes

Dominant gene/allele; Is a gene/allele whose trait is expressed phenotypically

even in presence of a different allele. Such genes are always represented by
capital letters when performing a genetic cross.

Recessive gene/allele; is a gene/allele whose character is not expressed

phenotypically in presence of a different allele but is only expressed in a
homozygous recessive state. Recessive genes are always represented by small
alphabetical letters in a genetic cross

 Consider the gene controlling height in garden peas, the allele T for
tallness is dominant over the allele t for shortness. A plant with
dominant genes (TT) is tall and the one with recessive genes (tt) is short
while a plant with one of each genes (Tt) is also tall

Genotype; is the genetic makeup/constitution of an organism as inherited

from the parents. It is determined at fertilization and does not depend on the
environment.

An organism with similar copies of alleles for a given gene is said to have a
homozygous genotype e.g. TT, AA, rr etc. while an organism with different
copies of alleles for a given gene is said to have a heterozygous genotype. E.g.
Tt, Aa, Rr etc.
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Phenotype; Refers to the physical/outward appearance of an organism as
determine by the interaction between its genotype and the environment in
which it lives.

A pea plant which is homozygous tall (represented as TT) but growing on

nutrient-poor soils will become stunted and appear short. Such a plant is
genotypically tall but the environment in which it grows modified it into a
phenotypically short/dwarf plant.

Locus (plural loci). This is the position on the chromosome where the genes are
located.

Homozygous; this is a condition where an individual possess identical alleles

for a particular gene e.g. TT, tt, AA.OR is when the alleles found at a given
locus are identical

Heterozygous; this is a condition where an individual possess non-identical

alleles for a particular gene e.g. Tt, Bb OR is when the alleles at a given locus
are different

Pure breeding (true breeding), this is where the individuals being crossed are
homozygous Crossing(X). This refers to the mating of the male and female
organisms under a consideration.

First filial generation (F1); this refers to the set of offsprings obtained from
crossing two pure breeding parents with contrasting characteristics. These
individuals are therefore heterozygous hybrids

Second filial generation (F2); this refers to the set of off springsthat are
obtained from crossing mature F1hybrids.

Selfing: This refers to the crossing of offsprings of the same parents.

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Test cross is a cross between an organism with an unknown genotype with a
homozygous recessive organism so as to determine the unknown genotype.

This is because phenotypically dominant organisms may ether be homozygous

or heterozygous. In such a cross if all hybrids show the dominant trait then the
unknown is homozygous dominant. A heterozygous individual will result into a
mixture of hybrids in a ratio of 1:1 of dominant to recessive trait.

Back cross. This is the mating of an offspring with one of its parent so as to
prove the genotype of the parents.

Reciprocal cross; this is a cross in which the genotypes of the parents have
been reversed

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 MENDEL’S GENETIC EXPERIMENTS AND

MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

Monohybrid inheritance refers to the inheritance of a single pair of

contrasting characteristics. Examples include, inheritance of height, blood
groups, albinism, sickle cell anaemia, and sex linked characteristics etc.

This mechanism of inheritance was discovered by an Austrian monk and

biologist Gregor Johann Mendel who carried out a number of genetic
experiments using the garden pea plants (Pisum sativum); which he grew in the
vegetable garden in his monastery. He later observed many sexually
reproducing organisms and found out that they had variations among
themselves despite being of the same species.

Why Mendel used garden peas

 They occurred in many varieties with distinct characters

 The plants were easy to cultivate
 All their offsprings were fertile
 They have a short life cycle that they reproduced so quickly
 The plants also had many contrasting characters with no intermediates
 Their reproductive structure were enclosed in petals which allowed for
production of pure breeding plants due to self-pollination over many
generations

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 MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTS

I
n one of his experiments, Mendel crossed tall pea plants with dwarf pea
plants. In order to properly manage the cross, Mendel covered the stigma
of all flowers of one group, and removed all the anthers from the flowers of
another group of pea plants in order to prevent self-pollination, and transferred
pollen using a brush. The resultant seeds were planted and he observed that
all the F1off springs were tall.

He then selfed the F1 pea plants to get F2. This generation comprised of a
mixture of tall and short pea plants in a ratio of 3 tall: 1short plants.

NB: The 3:1 ratio is known as Mendel’s monohybrid ratio of the dominant and
recessive characters respectively in the F2 generation.

Observation;

Mendel was able to observe that neither of the F1 nor F2 had intermediate
phenotypes.

Conclusion;

He then concluded that inheritance is not the mixing/blending of features to

produce intermediates but rather the process by which internal factors of the
body may or may not express themselves in the phenotype.

From his conclusions, Mendel was able to formulate his first law of inheritance
which is well known as the law of monohybrid inheritance/law of
segregation/law of particulate inheritance

LAW1 states that “The characteristics of an organism are controlled by

internal factors which occur in pairs but only one can be carried in a
single gamete”.

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Later with advancements in technology and microscopy, internal factors later
came to be known as genes and Mendel’s first law was modified. It can
modernly be stated as follows. “The characteristics of a diploid organism are
controlled by alleles which occur in pairs but singly in gametes”.

Meiosis explains:

Mendel’s first law can currently be explained/accounted for in terms of

meiosis. The genes which determine organisms’ characters usually occur in two
alternative forms called alleles located on homologous chromosome. During
anaphase 1 of meiosis, these homologous chromosomes separate (segregate)
and move to opposite daughter nuclei. Subsequent cell division results into two
gamete cells each containing one of the two alleles; therefore the alleles occur
as pairs in body cells but singly in gamete cells.

Illustration:

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A full genetic explanation of Mendel’s first law and the 3:1 ratio

Genotypic ratio : All Tt, Phenotypic ratio : All tall

To obtain F2 generation, F1 hybrids were selfed as shown below

Genotypic ratios: 1TT : 2Tt : 1tt; Phenotypic ratios: 3tall : 1 Short

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Mendel carried out many other experiments on peas and other organisms and
all gave consistent results as shown below:

NB: It became so obvious to predict which trait of a given pair is dominant over
the other. In a cross starting with pure breeding parental stocks, all the F1
hybrids show the dominant trait. In addition, a larger proportion of the F2
hybrids show the dominant trait while those showing the recessive one are
always fewer

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. In a garden pea plant there are two forms of heights. When a pure breeding tall pea
plant was crossed with a short pea plant all the offsprings obtained where tall
when the offsprings were selfed a phenotype ration was obtained in F2.
a. Using suitable genetic symbols, workout the genotypes and phenotypes of the
F2 generation
b. What are the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation
c. Explain how you would determine the genotype of F1 tall pea plants formed
d. Suppose 700 pea plants where produced in the F2 generation
i. How many were tall?
ii. How many were short?
2. Suppose a man who is a tongue roller marries a woman who is a non-tongue roller
and all the children obtained in F1 are tongue rollers.
(a) Work out the phenotypic and genotypic ratio as obtained in F2 generation.
(b) What is the probability that the 4th born is a non-tongue roller?

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Note; for any genetic cross:

 Appropriate letters are ‘let’ to represent respective alleles involved

 A cross(X) must be indicated to symbolize mating between the parents
 Directive words must be indicated to define each step of the cross
 In case of identical gametes, only one can be indicated

Solutions

(a)

F1 phenotypes: all tongue rollers

By selfing the F1 hybrids to obtain F2

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Genotypic ratios: 1AA: 2Aa: 1aa; phenotypic ratios: 3tongue rollers: 1non-roller

(b) Probability that the 4th born is a non-tongue roller

1 1 1 1 1
= 4x x x =
4 4 4 256

NB:

 The such crosses can be performed in terms of probability as follows

Each gamete carrying any of the two alleles has 0.5 chance of fusing with the
gamete from the other parent,

In case of individuals showing the dominant trait, the genotype may either be
homozygous dominant or heterozygous. Such genotypes can be determined by
performing a test cross; that is, crossing the unknown with a homozygous
recessive individual. If the unknown is homozygous, the resultant hybrids will
all show the dominant trait but otherwise, a mixture of dominant and recessive
traits are produced in a ratio of 1:1

In a test cross, a homozygous dominant individual cannot be used because in

such a case; regardless of the unknown genotype, all the resultant hybrids
would show the dominant trait

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 EXAMPLES OF MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE IN MAN

There are many genetically determined abnormalities and diseases that affect
man (and other animals). Since these are genetic diseases, they can only be
inherited from parents and their occurrence is determined by those genes
inherited from parents during fertilization

Examples of such diseases include:

 Sickle-cell anaemia
 Albinism
 Achondroplasia
 Cystic fibrosis and many more

NB: Research has showed that most of, though not all the genetic
abnormalities are caused by recessive genes (alleles) and the genes responsible
for normal conditions are dominant. This implies that for an individual to
suffer from such diseases, they must have two copies of the responsive genes
(homozygous recessive). The heterozygotes and the homozygous dominant
individuals are normal. Though the former are phenotypically normal but their
cells contain a copy of the recessive allele and are described as carriers

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 INHERITANCE OF SICKLE-CELL ANAEMIA

Sickle-cell anaemia is a recessive character caused by a point substitution

mutation in which glutamic acid in normal haemoglobin is replaced by valine.
Normal haemoglobin (HbA) contains an amino acid glutamic acid at position 6
of the -chain. The amino acid is polar and hydrophilic which make normal
haemoglobin soluble in water. It is coded for by the DNA triplet CTT and its
complementary mRNA codon is GAA. A substitution mutation leads to
replacement of T with A making the DNA triplet CAT and its complementary
mRNA codon GUA. This tiplet codes for valine which is non-polar and
hydrophobic hence reduces the solubility of haemoglobin especially at low
oxygen tensions. This abnormal haemoglobin crystallizes into rigid rod-like
fibres which distort the normal biconcave shape of RBCs into a crescent/sickle
shape. Such abnormal haemoglobin is called HbS, It has a very low oxygen-
carrying capacity leading to symptoms of anaemia and the disease is known as
sickle-cell anaemia.

Being a recessive character, for a person to be a sufferer they must possess two
copies of the faulty gene (homozygous recessive, i.e. HbSHbS or ss).
Heterozygotes (carriers, i.e. HbAHbS or Ss) have one copy of the responsive
gene whose effects are masked by the other dominant gene. They don’t suffer
from the disease symptoms except at exceptionally low oxygen tensions; this is
known as sickle-cell trait.

It is therefore advisable to avoid exposure of such people to low oxygen

environments like crowded places, high altitudes and flying in unpressurised
aircrafts.

Question; if two people suffering from sickle cell trait are married, what is the
probability that they will produce an anaemic child?

Solution

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Genotypic ratios: 1HbAHbA:2HbAHbS:1HbSHbS

Phenotypic ratios: 1normal:2 carriers: 1sickler

Probability of a sickler is 1⁄4 = 0.25

Complications due to sickle cell anaemia

1. Anaemia this is occurs because the sickle cells are destroyed which lowers
the amount of oxygen to be carried leading to acute anaemia. This leads to;
 Fatigue (weakness)
 Poor physical development
 Dilation of the heart which may lead to heart failure
2. Interference with circulation of blood because sickle cells get jammed in tiny
capillaries and small arteries. This leads to;
 Heart damage which leads to heart failure
 Lung damage which leads to pneumonia
 Kidney damage which leads to kidney failure
 Liver damage
3. Enlargement of the spleen because the sickle cells collect in the spleen for
destruction

The effects above make the homozygous sufferers to often die before
reproductive age.

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NB: Despite the above complications suffered by sufferers of sickle cell
anaemia, the heterozygotes tend to have an advantage of showing increased
resistance to the plasmodium parasite that causes malaria much more than
both the sufferers and the normal. This resistance is as a result of two factors:

 The consistent change in oxygen levels between normal and sickle cells
makes it difficult for the parasite to adapt. In such cases, the immune
system of the body eliminates the parasites before the disease is
established rendering resistance to the heterozygotes

This is referred to as the heterozygous advantage which increases chances of

survival for heterozygotes especially in the tropics where malaria is one of the
leading causes of death

INHERITANCE OF ALBINISM

Albinism is a recessive character which results into failure of formation of body

pigments.

Albinos have the following characteristics as a result;

 Light-coloured skin
 White hair
 Pink eyes

SQ; man with normal skin marries a carrier for albino skin. What is the
probability that some of their children will be albinos?

What is the probability that the sister with normal colour is a carrier?
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 INHERITANCE OF CYSTIC FIBROSIS

T
his is a recessive character caused by a mutation resulting into
accumulation of abnormally thick and sticky mucus that blocks the
pancreatic duct, bile duct and air passages.

The mutation occurs on an autosomal chromosome 7 affecting the gene that

codes for a chloride channel protein in epithelial cells. This results into total
absence or malfunctioning of this channel protein hence interfering with
chloride ion flow. Chloride ions accumulate in the cells and attract sodium ions
towards the opposite charge; this increases the ion concentration, hence
osmotic potential of the cells which prevents osmotic outflow of water. As a
result, the mucus secreted is dry, thick and sticky; blocking small tracts of
some body organs. This is known as cystic fibrosis.

In the pancreas, fibrous patches called cysts develop (hence the name) and
complications include digestive problems due to poor release of pancreatic
enzymes, poor absorption of digestive products, chronic lung diseases, reduced
fertility etc.

ACHONDROPLASIA (DWARFISM)

Although many harmful alleles are recessive, a number of human disorders are
due to dominant alleles. One example is achondroplasia, a form of dwarfism
that occurs in one of every 25,000 people in the world. Heterozygous
individuals therefore have the dwarf phenotype as shown below.
Since this character is dominant (caused by a
dominant allele), all people who are not
achondroplastic -99.99% of the population-are
homozygous for the recessive allele. Like the presence
of extra fingers or toes mentioned earlier,
achondroplasia is a trait for which the recessive allele
is much more prevalent than the corresponding
dominant allele.

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 DIHYBRID INHERITANCE AND MENDEL’S SECOND LAW OF
INHERITANCE

Dihybrid inheritance refers to the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting

characteristics simultaneously.

For instance, in one of his experiments; Mendel crossed pure breeding tall pea
plants with red flowers with pure breeding dwarf plants having white flowers.
All in the F1 progeny were tall with red flowers. This showed just like Mendel
had discovered before that the alleles for tallness and red flowers were
dominant to those for dwarfness and white flowers respectively.

Mendel went ahead to self-pollinate the F1 plants and obtained an F2 progeny,

this comprised of a variety of phenotypes as summerised in the table below.

 315 Tall with red flowers

 101 Tall with white flowers
 108 Dwarf with red flowers
 32 Dwarf with white flowers

These give the respective phenotypic ratios as 9:3:3:1. This is known as

Mendel’s Dihybrid ratio; the ratio of phenotypes in the F2 generation for a
Dihybrid cross.

From this and many other similar crosses, Mendel was able to make the
following observations:

 Both phenotypes/characters (height and flower colour) combined in the

F1 but separated and behaved independently in the F2.
 Two of the F2 phenotypes resembled one or the other of the parental
phenotypes WHILE two new combinations of phenotypes appeared in the
F2; (Tall/white and Dwarf/red). These are known as recombinants.

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  The allelomorphic pairs of characteristics (controlled b different alleles of
the same gene) occurred in a phenotypic ratio of 3 dominant: 1 recessive.
E.g. 3tall: 1 dwarf and 3red: 1 white.

Basing on these observations, Mendel formulated his second law known as the
law of independent assortment. The law states that; “Any one of a single pair
of characters may combine randomly with either one from another pair”

Below is a full genetic explanation of the 9:3:3:1 ratio of phenotypes in the

F2generatioon of a dihybrid cross.

Phenotypic ratios : All Tall with red flowers.

By selfing F1 plants;

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NB: When performing a dihybrid cross;

 Alleles of the same gene cannot pass into the same gamete (they
segregate during meiosis). I.e. T can only be present with Y or y but not t
while t can only be present withy or y but not T as in the above case
 The possible combination of gametes during fertilization is shown in a
Punnett square (after the Cambridge geneticist R. C. Punnett). This
minimizes errors when listing the combinations.

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In summary; the following can be noted from Mendel’s hypotheses:

 Each characteristic of an organism is controlled by a pair of alleles.

 During meiosis, each pair of alleles segregate (separates) and each
gamete receives one of each pair. This is known as the law of
segregation.
 During gamete formation, either one of a pair of alleles can pass into
the same gamete with either one from another pair. This is known as
the law of independent assortment.
 Each allele is transmitted one generation to the next as a discrete unit
 Each diploid organism inherits one allele for each character from each
of the two parents.
 If an organism has two unlike alleles for a given gene, one may be
expressed (dominant) at total exclusion of the other (recessive).

MEIOSIS EXPLAINS:

Mendel’s second law can be explained/accounted for on the chromosomal basis

by meiosis.

During formation of gametes by meiosis, the distribution of each allele from a

single pair is entirely independent of alleles from other pairs. This in turn
depends on the random orientation of homologous chromosomes onto the
equatorial spindle in metaphase I. Subsequent separation during anaphase I
leads to a variety of allele combinations in gametes. In this process; any one of
a single pair of alleles can combine randomly with either one form another pair.

Illustrations:

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NB: For the haploid number of chromosomes = n, the total number of possible
combinations in gametes is given by 2n

WORKED EXAMPLES:

1. When a pure breeding broad and long winged female fly was crossed with a
narrow and vestigial winged male fly all the F1 offsprings obtained head
broad abdomen and long wings.
a) Using suitable genetic symbols work out the phenotypes and genotypes that
were obtained in F2 generation.
b) Suppose 480 flies were obtained in F2 work out the numbers of the flies for
each phenotype class.
c) How many of these flies were recombinants.

Solutions:

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Obtaining F2

(b) Phenotypic ratios = 9:3:3:1, Total ratio = (9+3+3+1) = 16

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Number of flies = (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ) 𝑥480 Flies
9
i. Broad abdomen, long winged = X 480 = 270 flies
16
3
ii. Broad abdomen, vestigial winged = X 480 = 90 flies
16
3
iii. Narrow abdomen, long winged = X 480 = 90 flies
16
1
iv. Narrow abdomen, vestigial winged = X 90 flies
16

(c)Number of recombinants = (90 + 90) flies = 180 flies

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 SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

1) In guinea pigs, there are two alleles for hair colour and two for hair length.
In a breeding experiment, all the F1phenotypes produced from a cross
between pure breeding short black-haired and long white-haired parents
had short black hair. Explain
a) Which alleles are dominant
b) The expected F2 phenotypes
2) Flower in sweet pea plants is determined by two allelomorphic pairs of genes
(R,r and S,s). Presence of at least one dominant gene from each pair makes
the flowers purple while all other genotypes are purple. If two plants
heterozygous for both genes are crossed, what will be the phenotypic ratio of
the offsprings (9:7)

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 EXCEPTIONS TO MENDEL’S LAWS

I
t should however be noted with concern that Mendel’s laws of inheritance
are not of universal application to all processes of inheritance in
organisms, For the work that led to his two laws of inheritance, Mendel
chose pea plant characters that turn out to have a relatively simple genetic
basis: Each character is determined by one gene, for which there are only two
alleles, one completely dominant and the other completely recessive. But these
conditions are not met by all heritable characters, and the relationship between
genotype and phenotype is rarely so simple. In this section, we will extend
Mendelian genetics to hereditary patterns that were not reported by Mendel.
These are referred to as exceptions to Mendel’s laws of inheritance because
they never produce the 3:1 or the 9:3:3:1 ratios of phenotypes in monohybrid
and dihybrid crosses respectively.

LINKAGE

This is the condition when two or more genes are carried on the same
chromosome

Such genes form a linkage group and pass into the same gamete during
meiosis and are therefore inherited together. As a result, these genes do not
show independent assortment (applies to genes on non-homologous
chromosomes) and fail to produce the 9:3:3:1 ratio.

Linked characteristics (traits) are characters controlled by genes found on the

same chromosomes and therefore inherited together

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In drosophila, the alleles for grey body and long wings are dominant to those
for black body and vestigial wings respectively. If pure breeding grey bodied
long winged drosophilae are crossed with pure breeding black bodied vestigial
winged drosophila; all in the F1 are grey with long wings. Surprisingly in the F2,
a 3:1 ratio of grey long winged and black vestigial winged (the original parental)
phenotypes are obtained as follows.

F1 phenotypes: all grey with long wings

Obtaining F2 generation:

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 Phenotypic ratio is 3 grey long winged: 1 black vestigial winged.

Surprisingly, the 3:1 ratio of parental phenotypes is never obtained in

practice. This is because total linkage is rare. Instead approximately equal
numbers of parental phenotypes are obtained with significantly few
recombinant phenotypes also in approximately equal numbers.

Definition: Two or more genes are said to be linked if recombinant phenotypes

occur much less frequently than parental phenotypes.

Total/complete linkage is when the distance between linked genes is not

sufficient to allow for successful crossing over.

These results were explained by an American scientist Thomas H. Morgan. In a

cross between a grey, long winged drosophila heterozygous for both traits with
a black, vestigial winged drosophila (This is a test cross); Morgan predicted that
in the normal Mendelian inheritance. Parental; phenotypes and recombinants
would be obtained in a ratio of 1:1:1:1. If genes were completely linked,
parental phenotypes would be obtained in a ratio of 1:1 as shown below.

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To his disappointment; even after performing the test cross several times,
Morgan never obtained the predicted outcomes. He instead obtained
approximately equal numbers of the parental phenotypes with significantly few
recombinant phenotypes also in approximately equal numbers as summerised
below.

41.5% grey, long winged

41.5% black, vestigial winged

8.5% grey, vestigial winged

8.5% black, long winged

Morgan explained his results in terms of crossing over; the responsive genes
are located on the same chromosomes (linked) with the alleles of each gene on
homologous chromosomes. Alleles were exchanged between homologous
chromosomes during meiosis, leading to new gene combinations in gametes
hence producing recombinant phenotypes; as shown below.

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Sample question:

A homozygous purple-flowered short stemmed plant was crossed with a

homozygous red-flowered long stemmed plant and all the F1plants had purple
flowers and short stems. When the F1generation was taken through a test
cross, the following progeny was produced

53 purple flowered short stemmed

47 purple flowered long stemmed

49Red flowered short stemmed

45 red flowered long stems. Explain the results fully. (Normal)

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 Crossing over and cross over values

During crossing over, the frequency of crossovers which take place was found
to be dependent on the distribution and arrangement of chromosomes. This is
given by the cross over value/frequency aka recombination frequency. This is
calculated as a percentage ration of recombinants to the total number of
offsprings.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑉 = 𝑥100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

Example

In a test cross carried out on a grey long winged drosophila, the following
results were obtained

Phenotype Number of offsprings

Grey, long winged 965

Black, vestigial winged 944

Black, long winged 206

Grey, vestigial winged 185

Solution:

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑉 = 𝑥100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

206 + 185
𝐶𝑜𝑉 = 𝑥100
(965 + 944) + (206 + 185)

= 17%

The COV also indicates the relative distance between linked genes and the
possibility of successful crossing over during meiosis, in the above case the
distance between adjacent genes is 17 units. These values can also be used to
position genes along the chromosome a process called gene mapping.

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Consider the cross over values involving for different genes P, Q, R and S.

The distance separating these four genes is shown below;

P-Q = 24% R-S = 8%

R-P = 14% S-P = 6%

Draw the chromosome map to show the position of these chromosomes.

Answer. Draw the chromosome map for these genes

a. Insert the positions of the genes with the smallest cross over value first in
the middle of the chromosome map
b. Examine the next largest cross over value and insert both possible positions
of its genes on the chromosomes relative to either S or P.
c. Repeat the procedure for the entire remaining cross over values until you
reach the largest cross over values.

Example

In maize, the genes for coloured seed and full seed are dominant to the genes
for colourless and shrunken seed. Pure breeding strains of double dominant
variety were crossed with a double recessive variety and a test cross of the f1
generation produced the following results

Coloured full 380

Colourless shrunken 396

Coloured shrunken 14

Colourless full 10

Calculate the distance between the genes for coloured seed and seed shape

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 DEGREES OF DOMINANCE
In the conventional Mendelian inheritance, each trait is controlled by a pair of
alleles located at the same locus of homologous chromosomes, one dominant
and the other recessive. In such cases, offsprings always resemble one or the
other of the parents and phenotypes of the heterozygote and the dominant
homozygote are indistinguishable. This condition is called complete
dominance. Some traits however are controlled by alleles neither of which
shows complete dominance or recessiveness over the other. Such alleles are
either equally dominant (codominant) or incompletely dominant.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
This is when alleles fail to show complete dominance or recessiveness such
that their phenotypes blend (mix) to produce an intermediate in the
heterozygote.
When red snapdragons are crossed with white snapdragon plants
(Antirrhinum); all the F1 hybrids have pink flowers, while F2 hybrids produced 1
red: 2pink:1white plants as shown below
Note: Given that both alleles of the same gene are dominant, we let a single
letter for the gene and alleles attached as superscripts. I.e. CR and CW or simply
R and W represent alleles for red and white petals respectively. The third
phenotype results from flowers of the heterozygotes (CR CW or simply RW)
having less red pigment than the red homozygotes.

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F1 phenotypes : All pink
Obtaining F2

Genotypic ratios: 1RR: 2RW: 1WW

Phenotypic ratios: 1 Red: 2pink: 1 White

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Other examples of incomplete dominance include:

Characteristic Allelomorphic Heterozygous

characteristics phenotype

Mirabilis Japalla Red and White Pink

(4-oclock flower)

Angora rabbit hair length Long and short Intermediate

Plumage colour in Black and splashed white Blue

Andalusian fowls

CODOMINANCE

This is when alleles fail to show complete dominance or recessiveness such

that their phenotypes are independently present in the heterozygote.

During the inheritance of fur/coat colour in short-horned cattle, when red and
white cattle are mated, the F1 hybrid has white fur thickly interspersed with
red fur. This phenotype is referred to as roan

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Other examples of codominance include ABO blood groups and Sickle-cell trait

MULTIPLE ALLELES

These are three or more forms of the same gene occurring at the same locus

Most genes are known to occur in two alternative forms (allelic forms) located
on the same locus of homologous chromosomes. Some genes are known to
occur in more than two allelic forms called multiple alleles of which any two
can occupy the gene locus in a diploid organism. This is easily noticed for the
gene responsible for blood groups in man.

INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUPS

The gene for human blood group is known to occur in three allelomorphic
forms; A, B and o. Alleles A and B are codominant while o is recessive to both.
This is known as the ABO blood grouping system, with three alleles producing
six possible genotypes and four phenotypes.

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 Blood group Possible genotypes

A Ao, AA

B Bo, BB

AB AB

O Oo

Sample question: The father and a mother are known to be heterozygous for
blood groups A and B. Show the possible genotypes of their children. If they
bear non-identical twins, what is the probability that both twins are of blood
group A.

Solution

Offspring phenotypes: Blood groups AB, A, B and O

Probability for a child with blood group A = ¼

Probability for both twins with blood group A = ¼ * ¼ =1/16 = 0.0625

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Example:

Work out the possible blood groups of the offsprings produced if a man of blood
group A marries a woman of blood group AB

THE RHESUS BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

The rhesus blood group system is also inherited in a similar way to the ABO
blood group system. Individuals with red blood cells with the D-antigens
(Rhesus factor) are said to be rhesus positive (Rh+) while those without are
called rhesus negative (Rh+). The allele for Rh+ allele is dominant over the one
for rhesus negative (Rh-).
If a Rh+ man marries a Rh- woman, most of their children are likely to die
immediately after birth or before birth because the mother’s immune system
produces antibodies (anti-D agglutinins) which pass into the foetus and cause
death. The first child usually survives because the time is too short for the
mother to produce enough antibodies known as anti-D agglutinins which can
pass to the foetus to cause death.
The problem may be solved in two major ways;
a. The mother may be injected with anti-D-agglutinins in the first 72 hours
after her first born so as to make her immune system insensitive towards
D-antigens.
b. By carrying out proper intermarriages where by Rh+ man marries Rh+
woman and Rh- woman gets married to Rh- woman.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Suppose a man having blood group A marries a woman who is heterozygous

for blood group B what are the possible genotype and phenotypes.
2. A boy has blood group A and his sister has blood group B. what are the
possible phenotypes and genotypes of their parents.
3. If a father has blood group A and the mother blood group AB what are the
possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring.

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 LETHAL GENES

Genes are usually known to control a single pair of contrasting traits. Some
genes may affect more than one characteristics including mortality. Such genes
are responsible for some features necessary for survival but they are
simultaneously responsible for lethal effects in the organisms and are therefore
called lethal genes.

An example is clearly illustrated in the inheritance of fur colour in mice. Wild

mice are known to have grey coloured fur (a condition called agouti) or yellow
fur. A cross between two yellow mice produces yellow and agouti offsprings in a
ratio of 2: 1 respectively.

These results can be explained by the fact that allele for yellow fur is dominant
over that for agouti and all living yellow mice are heterozygous for fur colour.
The 2:1 ratio of phenotypes is due to the death of the yellow mice that are
homozygous for fur colour before birth. This allele is therefore lethal in the
homozygous condition.

The homozygous dominant mice die before birth producing a genotypic ratio of
2: 1 as the phenotypic ratio.

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Examination of the uteri of yellow mice pregnant of yellow males revealed dead
yellow mice; which are not revealed in yellow mice pregnant of agouti males.

Note:

 The allele for yellow fur is dominant for fur colour but recessive for
mortality. It can therefore persist within the population over
generations in heterozygous genotypes without phenotypic exposure
to environmental elimination.
 Dominant lethal genes are very rare in a population because they are
phenotypically expressed for elimination by environment

THE GENE COMPLEX

Many characteristics in plants and animals are produced by an interaction of

several genes located on different loci; forming a gene complex. A single
characteristic may be produced by the interaction of two or more genes
occurring at different loci. A good example is shown by the inheritance of comb
shape in domestic fowl

In this case, two genes on different chromosomes (loci) interact to produce four
(4) distinct phenotypes of combs. Pea and rose combs are each produced by
presence of the dominant forms of their respective genes (P and R respectively)
but in absence of the other dominant gene. The walnut and single combs are
produced by the interaction of the genes at both loci as summerised below:

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 Name of Production Possible genotypes
comb

Pea comb Dominant allele P but without PPrr, Pprr

dominant allele R

Rose comb Dominant allele R but without ppRR, ppRr

dominant allele P

Walnut comb Dominant alleles for both P and R PPRR, PpRR, PPRr, PpRr

Single comb Only by homozygous double pprr

recessive condition

Starting with pure breeding parents, the following are the expected results for
F1 and F2 generations.

All walnut combed

Obtaining F2

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Phenotypic ratios: 9 walnut: 3Pea: 3rose: 1single

Sample question

In poultry, the allele for white feathers (W) is dominant over the allele for black
feathers (w). The alleles P, for pea comb and R, for rose comb produce their
respective phenotypes. If they are present together, the comb shape is modified
to walnut and if their recessive alleles are present in homozygous recessive
condition, a single comb I produced. A cross between a black rose comb cock
and a white walnut hen produced the following phenotypes:

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3white walnut: 3black walnut: 3white rose: 3black rose: 1white pea: 1black
pea: 1white single: 1black single. Identify the possible parental genotypes and
show clearly how they give rise to the above phenotypes.

EPISTASIS

This is a form of gene interaction where one gene suppresses the effects of
another gene at a different locus. The suppressing gene is referred to as an
epistatic gene (inhibiting gene) while the suppressed gene is called a hypostatic
gene.

Fur color in mice depends on two non-allelic genes, the dominant form of one
gene is responsible for coloured fur while its recessive form results into no
colour deposition and the phenotype is white (albino). If colour is present, the
nature is determined by another gene whose dominant allele produces grey fur
(agouti) while the recessive allele produces black fur. Any of the two colours
can be present only and only if their respective alleles are accompanied by the
gene for coloured fur. Absence of this gene will result into albinos even if the
genes for grey or white are present. The gene for coloured fur is hypostatic to
the gene responsible for colour of fur (hypostatic).

This interaction produces three possible phenotypes as summerised below.

Phenotype Possible genotypes

Grey (agouti) AAGG, AAGg, AaGG, AaGg

Black AAgg, Aagg

Albino (white) aaGG, aaGg, aagg

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Examples

In oat plants, the inheritance of color is controlled by the gene with two alleles,
the dominant results into colour formation while the recessive results into no
colour formation (white or albino). The other gene is responsible for the kind of
colour, if present with the allele for grey being recessive to one for black.

Identify the nature of gene interaction and show the F1 and F2 outcomes
starting with true breeding parental stocks.

F1 phenotypes: All black

Obtaining F2;

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LGS | [email protected] 43
INHERITANCE OF SEX AND SEX DETERMINATION

Some ancient Greeks thought that sex depends on the testicle from which the
sperm comes, some European kings tied off or removed their left testes to
ensure a male heir to the throne. Others believed that the sex depends on the
phase of the moon during conception, wind direction or speaking certain
words. Currently we know that sex is determined by sex chromosomes.

In man, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes; of these only one pair carries genes
for sex determination. These are called sex chromosomes (heterosomes)
designated X and Y, and the other 22 pairs are called autosomes. A genotype
XX is described as homogametic and is female while XY is described as
heterogametic and is a male. During meiosis, the two sex chromosome
segregate such that each ovum carries one X chromosome, half of the sperms
carry an X chromosome and the other half carry a Y chromosome. If a sperm
carrying an X chromosome fuses with the ovum, the zygote is female and if the
sperm is carrying a Y chromosome, the zygote is male. Sex is therefore
determined by the sex chromosome carried in the sperm as a matter of chance.

This is called the X-Y system and occurs mainly in mammals with humans
inclusive. The females are described as homogametic because all their gametes
contain the same sex chromosome-the X chromosome while the males are
heterogametic because 50% of the gametes produced contain an X
chromosome and 50% contain a Y chromosome for sex. In some animals like
birds (including poultry), moths and butter flies; the sex genotypes are
reversed. The homogametic genotypes (XX) are male while the heterogametic
genotype (XY) is female.

In some cases, the Y chromosome is completely absent and the heterogametic

sex (XO) is male. This is the X-O system as in grass hoppers, cockroaches and
some insects. The sex of the offsprings is determined by whether the sperm cell
contains an X chromosome or no sex chromosome. This implies that the Y
chromosome does not carry genes needed for survival of the organisms.

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In some species of bees and ants, there are no sex chromosomes. Females
develop from fertilized eggs and are thus diploid while males develop from un
fertilized eggs and are haploid, without feathers.

Example:

Genotypic ratios: 1XX: 1XY

Phenotypic ratios: 1female: 1male

This shows that there is a 50% chance of any child being a male or female

Environmental determination of sex

Sex is primarily genetically determined as described above but in some lower

animals, sex can be determined by environmental factors such as temperature,
salinity, type of food etc. for example in some turtles the eggs laid warm sand
develop into females while those laid in cool sand develop into females.

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 SEX CHROMOSOMES

The sex chromosomes are called heterosomes because they are non-identical
and are designated X and Y. The X chromosome is rod shaped and much
bigger than the Y chromosome which is hook shaped.

The Y chromosome carries genes responsible for secondary male sex

characteristics, differentiation of testes and development of genital organs in
humans. Actually in some organisms, the Y chromosome is absent and is
believed not to carry genes necessary for survival of the organism and is
described as genetically inert.

SEX LINKAGE:

In humans, there are several thousands of characteristics each genetically

controlled. With only 23 pairs of chromosomes, each chromosome must
therefore carry many genes; a phenomenon that does not exclude sex
chromosomes. These in addition to genes responsible for sex differences may
carry genes determining some other features in the body.

Sex-linked genes are genes carried on sex chromosomes and inherited together
with those determining sex. Sex linked traits (characters) are traits determined
by genes carried on sex chromosomes and inherited together with those
determining sex.

Note: The Y chromosomes don’t carry genes, sex linked genes are specifically
carried on the X sex chromosomes but not on the Y chromosome.

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Many experiments were carried out by Thomas Morgan about sex-linked genes
in drosophila. In one of his experiment, Morgan mated a wild type (pure
breeding) red-eyed female with a mutant (white eyed) male. All the F1 hybrids
were red eyed. He went on to interbreed the F1 males and females to obtain an
F2 generation which consisted of red eyed and white eyed offsprings in a ratio
of 3:1 respectively. However, all female were red eyed and all the white eyed
flies were males though some males were red eyed.

In conclusion, all the F1 were red eyed; implying that this allele is dominant
over that for white. Since in the F2 all the white eyed were males, this indicates
that the gene for eye colour is located on the X chromosome and there is no
corresponding locus on the Y chromosome; otherwise some females would also
be white eyed

Obtaining F2 generation;

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Phenotypic ratios: 3 red eyed: 1 white eyed

Note that all the white eyed are males yet some red eyed are males

Sample question:

1. If the gene for eye colour was autosomal, predict the phenotypes of the F2
hybrids (including sex) in this hypothetical cross. (Show your working).
a. Perform a test cross on the F1 female fly obtained in the above cross.
b. What would be the phenotypes of the reciprocal cross between the
original parents?
2. In drosophila, the genes for wing length and eye colour are sex-linked; with
normal wings and red eyes being dominant to miniature wings and white
eyes respectively.
a. In a cross between a miniature-winged red eyed male and a homozygous
normal wing white eyed female; explain the expected appearance of F1
and F2 generations.
b. Crossing a female from the F1 generation above with a miniature wing
white eyed male gave the following results:
Normal wing white eyed males and females = 35
Normal wing red eyed males and females = 17
Miniature wing red eyed males and females = 18
Miniature wing white eyed males and females = 36
Account for the appearance and numbers of the phenotypes listed above.

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Examples of sex linked characters in man include the following

 Haemophilia
 Colour blindness
 Pre-mature balding
 Eye colour in drosophila

Most of these characters are caused by recessive alleles and in a genetic cross,
these must be represented as superscripts on the x sex chromosome.

HAEMOPHILIA (BLEEDERS’ DISEASE)

Haemophilia is a recessive sex-linked blood disorder that leads to absence of

one or more blood clotting factors, leading to prolonged bleeding even from
minor cuts.

Just like other sex-linked traits, haemophilia is carried on the X chromosome

and the responsive allele is recessive to the normal allele. The condition
interferes with formation of blood clotting factors; commonly factor VIII (Anti-
Haemophiliac Globulin) whose absence greatly delays the blood clotting
process. This results into prolonged bleeding and excess blood loss even from
minor cuts which may lead to death.

The allele being recessive, haemophiliac females must inherit two copies of the
defective allele while males inherit one copy. The heterozygous females show
normal blood clotting and are described as carriers. This is because the other X
chromosome carries a dominant allele needed for normal blood clotting which
suppresses the recessive allele for haemophilia. The males lack the alternative
allele and the recessive allele is automatically expressed phenotypically.

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Example: When a carrier woman is married to a normal man

It can be noted that there is a 50% chance of a daughter being a carrier and a
50% chance of a son being haemophiliac. Sons can only inherit haemophilia
(and other sex linked traits) from their mothers but not fathers as they only
inherit the father’s Y chromosome and not the X chromosome that carries sex
linked genes. Girls can inherit from both parents.

Today, people with hemophilia are treated as needed with intravenous

injections of the missing protein.

COLOUR BLINDNESS

It is a recessive sex linked character that leads to inability of the individual to

distinguish between colours.

It is caused by a recessive allele, carried on the X chromosome and inherited in

the same way as haemophilia. Colour vision is due to presence in the retina of
red, blue and green cones needed for seeing the respective colours. The
recessive alleles result into absence of some of these cones which renders
inability to identify such colours from other related colours. This is called
colour blindness; the commonest being red-green colour blindness where
individuals lack red and green cones in their eyes.

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Example

Green colour blindness is sex linked in man. A normal man married a colour
blind woman. Using suitable genetic symbols workout the genotypes and
phenotypes of their children

Colour blind individuals are more common in the population than

haemophiliacs despite the two being inherited in the same way. This is because
haemophilia is associated with many lethal effects due to excessive internal
and external bleeding which increases chance of dying before reproductive
maturity to pass on their genes to the next generations. Colour blindness
exerts less lethal effects as colour vision is not much necessary for survival.
Colour blind individuals usually survive to reproductive age and pass the allele
to subsequent generations hence increasing the number of colour blind
individuals in the population. Also haemophiliacs are advised to desist from
reproducing as they may end up bleeding to death which further reduces the
numbers of haemophiliacs.

NB: Sex linked characters have been found to occur more commonly in males
as compared to females in the human population. Being caused by recessive
alleles, the other X chromosome in females may carry a dominant allele to
mask the defective allele hence preventing its phenotypic expression in the
population. In males however, these genes are carried on the non-homologous
portion of the X chromosome for which there is no alternative gene on the Y
chromosome. Such genes are automatically expressed in males leading to
higher frequencies in males as compared to females.

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 SEX LIMITED CHARACTERISTICS

Se limited characters are characters that are more pronounced in one sex than
the other.

Though both sexes may carry genes responsible for these characteristics,
pronounced expression is strictly limited to one of the two sexes. They are
usually carried on autosomes but may largely be influenced by the level of sex
hormone in the body.

Examples include;

Facial hair, deep voice, baldness etc in males

Breasts, lactation, widening of hip bones, high pitched sound etc

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
Whereas peas are convenient subjects for genetic research, humans are not.
The human generation span is about 20 years, and human parents produce
relatively few offspring compared to peas and most other species. Even more
important, no one would consider it ethical to ask pairs of humans to breed so
that the phenotypes of their offspring could be analyzed! In spite of these
constraints, the study of human genetics continues to advance, spurred on by
the desire to understand our own inheritance. New techniques in molecular
biology have led to many breakthrough discoveries, as we will see in Chapter
20, but basic Mendelism endures as the foundation of human genetics .Unable
to manipulate the mating patterns of people, geneticists must analyze the
results of matings that have already occurred. They do so by collecting
information about a family's history for a particular trait and assembling this
information into a family tree describing the traits of parents and children
across the generations-the family pedigree. Figure 14.1Sa shows a three-
generation pedigree that traces the occurrence of a pointed contour of the
hairline on the forehead. This trait, called a widow's peak, is due to a dominant
allele, W because the widow's peak allele is dominant; individuals who lack a
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widow's peak must be homozygous recessive (ww). The two grandparents with
widow's peaks must have the Ww genotype, since some of their offspring are
homozygous recessive. The offspring in the second generation who do have
widow's peaks must also be heterozygous, because they are the products of
Ww x ww matings. The third generation in this pedigree consists of two sisters.
The one who has a widow's peak could be either homozygous (WW) or
heterozygous (Ww), given what we know about the genotypes of her parents
(both Ww). Figure 14.1Sb is a pedigree of the same family, but this time we
focus on a recessive trait, attached earlobes. We'll use f for the recessive allele
and F for the dominant allele, which results in free earlobes. As you work your
way through the pedigree, notice once again that you can apply what you have
learned about Mendelian inheritance to understand the genotypes shown for
the family members.
An important application of a pedigree is to help us calculate the probability
that a child will have a particular genotype and phenotype. Suppose that the
couple represented in the second generation of Figure 14.15 decides to have
one more child. What is the probability that the child will have a widow's peak?
This is equivalent to a Mendelian F] monohybrid cross (Ww x Ww), and thus
the probability that a child will inherit a dominant allele and have a widow's
peak is ¾ (¼ WW + ½ Ww). What is the probability that the child will have
attached earlobes? Again, we can treat this as a monohybrid cross (Ff x Ff), but
this time we want to know the chance that the offspring will be homozygous
recessive (.ff). That probability is ¼ . Finally, what is the chance that the child
will have a widow's peak and attached earlobes? Assuming that the genes for
these two characters are on different chromosomes, the two pairs of alleles will
assort independently in this dihybrid cross (WwFf x WwFf). Thus, we can use
the multiplication rule: ¾ (chance of widow's peak) x ¼ (chance of attached
earlobes) = 3/16 (chance of widow's peak and attached earlobes).
Pedigrees are a more serious matter when the alleles in question cause
disabling or deadly diseases instead of innocuous human variations such as

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hairline or earlobe configuration. However, for disorders inherited as simple
Mendelian traits, the same techniques of pedigree analysis apply.

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 QUESTIONS
I. Beth and Tom each have a sibling with cystic fibrosis, but neither Beth nor
Tom nor any of their parents have the disease. Calculate the probability that if
this couple has a child, the child will have cystic fibrosis.
What would be the probability if a test revealed that Tom is a carrier but Beth
is not?
2. Joan was born with six toes on each foot, a dominant trait called
polydactyly. Two of her five siblings and her mother, but not her father, also
has extra digits. What is Joan's genotype for the number-of-digit character?
Explain your answer. Use D and d to symbolize the alleles for this character.
3. What would you suspect if Peter was born with polydactyly, but neither of
his biological parents had extra digits?
1. Incomplete dominance and epistasis are both terms that define genetic
relationships. What is the most basic distinction between these terms?
2. If a man with type AB blood marries a woman with type 0 blood, what blood
types would you expect in their children?
3. A rooster with gray feathers is mated with a hen of the same phenotype.
Among their offspring, 15 chicks are gray, 6 are black, and 8 are white. What is
the simplest explanation for the inheritance of these colors in chickens? What
phenotypes would you expect in the offspring of a cross between a gray rooster
and a black hen?
1. A white-eyed female Drosophila is mated with a red eyed (wild-type) male, the
reciprocal cross of the one shown in Figure 15.4. What phenotypes and
genotypes do you predict for the offspring?
3. Genes A, B, and C are located on the same chromosome. Testcrosses show
that the recombination frequency between A and B is 28% and between A and
C is 12%. Can you determine the linear order of these genes? Explain.

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