Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

EE456 – Digital Communications

Professor Ha Nguyen

September 2016

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

ANALOG MODULATION
Amplitude Modulation (AM) & Frequency Modulation (FM)

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

The Concept of Modulation

Modulation refers to a process that puts the message signal into a specific
frequency band in order to match the transmission characteristics of the physical
channel (e.g. telephone channel, wireless LAN channel, etc.)
Modulation can be classified into baseband and passband.
The term “baseband” refers to the frequency band of the original message signal,
which is usually near the zero frequency. For example, the band of audio (voice)
signals is between 0 to 3.5kHz, the video baseband occupies 0 to 4.3 MHz.
In baseband modulation, the message signals are directly transmitted over the
channels (e.g. twisted pairs of copper wires, coaxial cables).
Passband modulation is also known as carrier modulation, in which the spectrum
of the message signal is shifted to a higher-frequency band by means of a
sinusoidal carrier.
Two important advantages of carrier modulation are: (i) To ease radio-frequency
(RF) transmission, and (ii) to allow frequency division multiplexing.
Carrier modulation can be analog or digital. Traditional communications such as
AM/FM radios are based on analog modulation, while many current and new
communications systems are all digital (cellular phone systems, HDTV, etc.)

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Double-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier (DSB-SC) Amplitude Modulation

Let m(t) be the message signal, whose Fourier transform is denoted as M (f ).

To move the frequency band of m(t) to a new frequency band centered at fc , the
message signal m(t) is simply multiplied by a sinusoid of frequency fc (i.e., the
carrier):
sDSB−SC (t) = m(t) cos(2πfc t).
The above signal is seen as a sinusoid of frequency fc whose amplitude is varied
according to the message signal, hence the name amplitude modulation (AM).
The spectrum of the AM signal s(t) is obtained as a convolution between the
spectrum of m(t) and the spectrum of cos(2πfc t).
1
Since the spectrum of cos(2πfc t) is 2
δ(f + fc ) + 21 δ(f − fc ), one has
 
1 1
SDSB−SC (f ) = M (f ) ∗ δ(f + fc ) + δ(f − fc )
2 2
1 1
= M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc ).
2 2

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Graphical Illustration of DSB-SC Amplitude Modulation

m(t )
m(t ) sDSB-SC (t ) = m(t ) × cos(2π f ct )
m( t )
t c (t ) = cos(2π f c t )
t
m(t ) cos(2π f c t )
M( f )
− m(t )
1 C( f ) 1 S DSB-SC ( f ) 2B
2 2 K K
2 2

f f f
−B 0 B − fc 0 fc − fc 0 fc − B fc fc + B

The process of amplitude modulation shifts the spectrum of the modulating

signal to the left and to the right by fc .
If the bandwidth of m(t) is B Hz, then the modulated AM signal has bandwidth
of 2B Hz.
There are upper sideband (USB) and lower sideband (LSB) portions of the AM
spectrum.
The modulated signal does not contain a discrete component of the carrier
frequency fc . For this reason, the modulated signal in this scheme is
double-sideband, suppressed-carrier (DSB-SC) modulation.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Coherent (Synchronous) Demodulation of DSB-SC AM Signals

m(t )
e( t ) 2 m(t )
r ( t ) = sDSB-SC (t )
c (t ) = cos(2π f c t ) 2

E( f )

K K K K
4 2 4 2

f f
−2 f c − fc −B 0 B fc 2 fc −B 0 B

1 1
e(t) = m(t) cos2 (2πfc t) = m(t) + m(t) cos(2π(2fc )t)
2 2
1 1
E(f ) = M (f ) + [M (f + 2fc ) + M (f − 2fc )]
2 4
This method of AM demodulation is called synchronous detection, or coherent
detection, where the receiver requires to have a carrier of exactly the same
frequency (and phase) as the carrier used for modulation.
In practice, such a requirement is typically fulfilled with a phase-locked loop
(PLL) circuit.
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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Example 1

Consider a single tone baseband signal m(t) = cos(ωm t) = cos(2πfm t). Find the
DSB-SC signal and sketch its spectrum. Identify the USB and LSB. Also verify that
the coherent demodulation works and recovers m(t).

(Partial) Solution:

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Effect of Using a Non-Coherent Carrier at the Receiver

sDSB-SC (t ) = m( t ) × cos(2π f ct )

m(t ) r ( t ) = m( t − t0 ) × cos(2π f c (t − t0 ))

1
m(t − t0 ) cos(2π∆ft + θ d )
c (t ) = cos(2π f c t ) e( t ) 2

cos(2π ( f c + ∆f )t )

To see the effect on the demodulated signal when the local oscillator at the
receiver is not synchronized in frequency and phase with the incoming carrier,
consider the case that the received signal at the receiver is a delayed version of
the transmitted AM signal (due to propagation time):

r(t) = m(t − t0 ) cos[2πfc (t − t0 )] = m(t − t0 ) cos(2πfc t − θd ),

where θd = 2πfc t0 is the equivalent phase shift.

Furthermore, assume that, due to the lack of a good PLL circuit, the oscillator in
the receiver generates cos(2π(fc + ∆f )t), i.e., there is a frequency offset of ∆f
compared to the carrier generated by the oscillator at the transmitter.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Then the signal e(t) is

e(t) = m(t − t0 ) cos(2πfc t − θd ) cos(2π(fc + ∆f )t)

1 1
= m(t − t0 ) cos(2π∆f t + θd ) + m(t − t0 ) cos(2π(2fc + ∆f )t − θd )
2 2
The first component of e(t) is the message signal modulated with a very small
“carrier” frequency of ∆f , while the second component is the message signal
modulated with a high carrier frequency of 2fc + ∆f . Thus, the output of the
LPF will be the first component only, i.e., v(t) = 12 m(t − t0 ) cos(2π∆f t + θd ).
In the frequency domain, it can be shown that the spectrum of v(t) is

1 jθd 1
V (f ) = e M (f − ∆f )e−j2π(f −∆f )t0 + e−jθd M (f + ∆f )e−j2π(f +∆f )t0
4 4
In essence, the spectrum at the output of the LPF is the spectrum of the original
message moved to ±∆f .
In Lab #1 you will hear the effect of this frequency translation for different values
of ∆f when m(t) is an audio signal.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Amplitude Modulation with Carrier

m(t ) + A m(t )

t t
0
M ( f ) + Aδ ( f )

C R

f
−B 0 B

m(t ) ∑
m(t ) sDSB (t ) = [m(t ) + A] × cos(2π f c t )

c (t ) = cos(2π f c t )
t
t
t
M( f )

1 C( f ) 1 S DSB ( f ) 2B
2 2 A A
2 K 2 K
2 2
f f f
−B 0 B − fc 0 fc − fc 0 fc − B fc fc + B

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

To enable a simpler receiver than the coherent receiver, the transmitter can send
a carrier along with the modulated signal:

sAM (t) = A cos(2πfc t)+m(t) cos(2πfc t) = [A+m(t)] cos(2πfc t), where A > 0.

The spectrum of sAM (t) is basically the same as that of

sDSB−SC (t) = m(t) cos(2πfc t), except for two additional impulses at ±fc :

1 1 A A
SAM (f ) = M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc ) + δ(f − fc ) + δ(f + fc ).
2 2 2 2

If the carrier component is large enough, the message signal m(t) can be
recovered with a very simple envelope detector (see the next slides).
The option of AM with carrier is very desirable in broadcasting systems as it
offers a trade-off to have one expensive high-power transmitter and (many)
inexpensive receivers.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Envelope Detection of AM Signals

The time constant of the RC circuit should be such that the capacitor discharges
very little between positive peaks and in a similar rate of the AM envelope
variation:
1
1/ωc ≪ RC < 1/(2πB), or 2πB < ≪ ωc ,
RC
where B is the bandwidth of m(t).
The envelope detector output is A + m(t) with a ripple frequency ωc . The DC
term can be blocked by a simple highpass filter, while the ripple may be further
reduced by another lowpass filter.
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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Envelope of an AM Signal
By definition, the envelope of the AM signal is |A + m(t)|.
If A is large enough to ensure that A + m(t) ≥ 0 for all t, then the envelope has
the same shape as the message m(t). This means that we can detect the desired
signal m(t) by detecting the envelope of the AM signal!
If A + m(t) < 0 for some time t, then the envelope |A + m(t)| does not have the
same shape as the message m(t) and envelope detection does not work correctly.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Modulation Index of an AM Signal

Typically, a message signal m(t) has no DC (i.e., zero offset) since a DC does not
carry any useful information.
Let ±mp be the maximum and the minimum values of m(t). This means that
m(t) ≥ −mp for all t. Then, the condition of envelope detection is

A + m(t) ≥ 0, for all t ⇔ A + min{m(t)} ≥ 0

∀t

⇔ A + (−mp ) ≥ 0 ⇔ A ≥ mp .

The modulation index is defined as

mp
µ=
A
For envelope detection to work correctly, the condition is A ≥ mp and the
modulation index satisfies

0 ≤ µ ≤ 1, or 0 ≤ µ ≤ 100%

When A < mp , µ > 100% (overmodulation) and envelope detection no longer

works correctly.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Modulation Index for Single Tone AM

mp (Amax − Amin )/2 Amax − Amin

µ= = = .
A (Amax + Amin )/2 Amax + Amin

s(t)
A + m(t)

Amax
A
Amin
t

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Example 2

Consider the case of tone modulation in which the message signal is a pure sinusoid
(e.g. a test tone) m(t) = mp cos(ωm t). Sketch the AM signals for modulation indices
of µ = 50% and µ = 100%

Solution:
h mp i
sAM (t) = [A+m(t)] cos(ωc t) = A 1 + cos(ωm t) cos(ωc t) = A[1+µ cos(ωm t)] cos(ωc t)
A

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Power Efficiency of an AM Signal

Recall that the AM signal has two components: the carrier and sidebands

sAM (t) = A cos(ωc t) + m(t) cos(ωc t)

| {z } | {z }
carrier sidebands

The carrier does not carry any information, hence its power is wasteful from this
point of view. The carrier power is Pc = A2 /2.
The sideband power is the power of m(t) cos(ωc t). If Pm is the power of message
m(t), then the sideband power is well approximated by Pm /2.
The power efficiency of an AM signal is defined as:
useful power sideband power Pm /2 Pm
η= = ≈ = 2
total power sideband power + carrier power Pm /2 + A2 /2 A + Pm

Example: For the special case of tone modulation, m(t) = mp cos(ωm t). Thus
µ2
Pm = m2p /2 = (µA)2 /2. It then follows that η = 100%
2 + µ2
Observations: Under the condition that 0 ≤ µ ≤ 1, η increases monotonically
with µ and reaches a maximum value of ηmax = 33% when µ = 100%. Thus, for
tone modulation, under the best condition of µ = 100%, only one-third of the
transmitted power is used for carrying the message!
Quiz: Determine η for tone modulation when (a) µ = 0.5, and (b) µ = 0.25.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

FCC AM Standards

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

AM Stations in Saskatoon

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Application of AM: Frequency-Division Multiplexing

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Example 3
The signals m1 (t) and m2 (t), both band-limited to 5 kHz, are to be transmitted
simultaneously over a channel by a multiplexing scheme shown below. The signal at
point b is the multiplexed signal, which then modulates a carrier of frequency 20
kHz. The signal at point c is transmitted over a channel.

M1( f )
A
m1 (t )
f
−5 kHz 0 5 kHz
b
∑ c
M2( f )
A m2 (t ) a
2 cos(40,000π t )

f 2 cos(20,000π t )
−5 kHz 0 5 kHz

(a) Sketch the signal spectra at points a , b , and c .

(b) What must be the bandwidth of an ideal channel to pass all the frequency
content of the signal at point c undistorted?
(c) Design a receiver to recover signals m1 (t) and m2 (t) from the modulated signal
at point c .
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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Solution to Part (a):

Point a A

f (kHz)
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15

Point b A

f (kHz)
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15

Point c
A

f (kHz)
−20 −5 0 5 20

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Solution to Part (b): The required channel bandwidth is 30 kHz.

Solution to Part (c):

c
LPF LPF m1 (t )
0-15 kHz 0-5 kHz

cos(40, 000π t )
LPF
HPF m2 (t )
0-5 kHz

cos(20, 000π t )

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Building AM Transmitter and Receiver in Lab # 1

Transmitter:

microphone
RF
A/D DSP D/A
Filter

m[ n ] 1+ m [ n ] 1+ m [ n ]
m[n ] 2 + 2 2 cos(ωˆ c n )
∑
+
cos(ωˆ c n )
1 1
2 2
NCO ωˆ c = 2π fˆc
(radians/sample)
full-scale
input fˆc (cycles/sample)

You will be able to set the carrier frequency and the DC level.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Receiver: This is known as a “square-law” receiver. It does require (i) a local

oscillator, but the local carrier does not need to synchronize (lock) to the in coming
carrier; (ii) Modulation index less than 100%.

message
RF
A/D DSP D/A
Filter

1+ m [ n ]
2 cos(ωˆ c n ) xc [ n ] yc2 [n ]
LPF
yc [n ]
cos[( ωˆ c + ∆ωˆ ) n + θ ] 1+ m [ n ]
4
NCO fˆc + ∆fˆ ∑
sin[( ωˆ c + ∆ωˆ ) n + θ ]

LPF
xs [n ] y s [n ] y s2 [n ]

this does not need to synchronize

to the incoming carrier

You will be able to set the value of the carrier frequency offset.

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Analysis of the AM Demodulator

1 + m[n]
xc [n] = cos(ω̂c n) cos[(ω̂c + ∆ω̂)n + θ]
2
1 + m[n] cos[(ω̂c + ω̂c + ∆ω̂)n + θ] 1 + m[n] cos(∆ω̂n + θ)
= +
2 2 2 2
| {z }
this term is removed by the LPF

1
yc [n] = (1 + m[n]) cos(∆ωn + θ)
4
1 + m[n]
xs [n] = cos(ω̂c n) sin[(ω̂c + ∆ω̂)n + θ]
2
1 + m[n] sin[(ω̂c + ω̂c + ∆ω̂)n + θ] 1 + m[n] sin((−∆ω̂)n − θ)
= +
2 2 2 2
| {z }
this term is removed by the LPF

1
ys [n] = − (1 + m[n]) sin(∆ω̂n + θ)
4

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Chapter 3: Frequency Modulation (FM)

q
output = yc2 [n] + ys2 [n]
s 2  2
1 1
= (1 + m[n]) cos2 (∆ω̂n + θ) + − (1 + m[n]) sin2 (∆ω̂n + θ)
4 4
s 2
1 1
= (1 + m[n]) = (1 + m[n])
4 4

Observations:
The receiver only works correctly if (1 + m[n]) > 0 for all n. This is the same
condition required by the envelope detector implemented in analog approach.
The receiver is noncoherent since it does not require the NCO to lock in
frequency and phase to the incoming carrier.
The discrete-time output has a DC component. A DC blocking filter should be
m[n]
appended. The output of the blocking filter would then be 4 .
A gain of 4 would follow the blocking filter. Then the signal sent to the D/A is
m[n], which is a full-scale signal.

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