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Subject Name
Subject code
:
:
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
ME6501
Year asy : IIIrd year
Semester En : Vth semester
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ME6501-COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN Unit-I

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ME6501 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN L T P C 3 0 0 3

OBJECTIVES: To provide an overview of how computers are being used in mechanical

component design

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS 9

Product cycle- Design process- sequential and concurrent engineering- Computer aided design –
CAD system architecture- Computer graphics – co-ordinate systems- 2D and 3D transformations
homogeneous coordinates - Line drawing -Clipping- viewing transformation

UNIT II GEOMETRIC MODELING 9

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Representation of curves- Hermite curve- Bezier curve- B-spline curves-rational curves
Techniques for surface modeling – surface patch- Coons and bicubic patches- Bezier and B

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spline surfaces. Solid modeling techniques- CSG and B-rep

UNIT III VISUAL REALISM 9

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Hidden – Line-Surface-Solid removal algorithms – shading – colouring – computer animation.

UNIT IV ASSEMBLY OF PARTS 9

En
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Assembly modelling – interferences of positions and orientation – tolerance analysis
massproperty calculations – mechanism simulation and interference checking.

UNIT V CAD STANDARDS 9

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Standards for computer graphics- Graphical Kernel System (GKS) - standards for exchange

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images-Open Graphics Library (OpenGL) - Data exchange standards - IGES, STEP, CALSetc.
communication standards.

TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
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OUTCOMES: Upon completion of this course, the students can able to use computer and CAD
software's for modeling of mechanical components

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Ibrahim Zeid “Mastering CAD CAM” Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.2007

REFERENCES:
1. Chris McMahon and Jimmie Browne “CAD/CAM Principles", "Practice and
Manufacturingmanagement“ Second Edition, Pearson Education, 1999.
2. William M Neumann and Robert F.Sproul “Principles of Computer Graphics”, McGraw
HillBook Co. Singapore, 1989.

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3. Donald Hearn and M. Pauline Baker “Computer Graphics”‟. Prentice Hall, Inc, 1992.
4. Foley, Wan Dam, Feiner and Hughes - "Computer graphics principles & practice"
PearsonEducation - 2003.

UNIT 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

CLASS NOTES

ww1. Explain Product life cycle with design process. (Or) Briefly explain the conventional

w.Eprocess of the product cycle in the conventional manufacturing environment. (Nov

08)

Product Life Cycle:

asy
En
Figure 1.1.shows the life cycle of a typical product. The product begins with a need
which is identified based on customers‟ and markets‟ demands. The product goes through two

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main processes from the idea conceptualization to the finished product: The design process and
the manufacturing process.

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Design process: The product goes through two main processes from inception to a finished

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product: the design process and the manufacturing process. Synthesis and analysis are the two

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main subprocesses of the design process.

Synthesis: The philosophy, functionality, and uniqueness of the product arc all determined

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during synthesis. During synthesis, a design takes the form of sketches and layout drawings
that show the relationship among the various product parts. These sketches and drawings can
be created using a CAD/CAM system or simply hand-drawn on paper. They are used during
brainstorming discussions among various design teams and for presentation purposes.

Analysis: The analysis subprocess begins with an attempt to put the conceptual design into the
context of engineering sciences to evaluate the performance of the expected product. This
requires design modeling and simulation. An important aspect of analysis is the "what if'
questions that help us to eliminate multiple design choices and find the best solution to each
design problem. The outcome of analysis is the design documentation in the form of engineering
drawings (also known as blueprints).

Manufacturing Process: The manufacturing process begins with the process planning and ends
with the actual product. Process planning is considered the backbone or the manufacturing

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process since it attempts to determine the most efficient sequence in which to produce the
product. A process planner must be aware of the various aspects of manufacturing to plan
properly. The planner typically works with the blueprints and may communicate with the design
team to clarify or request changes in the design to fit manufacturing requirements. The outcome
of the process planning is a production plan, tools procurement, material order, and machine
programming. Other special manufacturing needs such as design or jigs and fixtures or
inspection gages are planned.

ww
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asy
En
gin
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g.n
Product Cycle Model:
Figure 1.1.Typical product life cycle
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There are several Product cycle models in industry to be considered, one of the possible
product cycle is given below (Figure 1.2):

Step 1: Conceive-Imagine, Specify, Plan, Innovate

The first step is the definition of the product requirements based on company, market and
customer. From this requirement, the product's technical data can be defined. In parallel, the
early concept design work is performed defining the product with its main functional features.
Various media are utilized for these processes, from paper and pencil to clay mock-up to 3D
Computer Aided Industrial Design.
Step 2: Design-Describe, Define, Develop, Test, Analyze and Validate

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This is where the completed design and development of the product begins, succeeding to
prototype testing, through pilot release to final product. It can also involve redesign and ramp for
Improvement to existing products as well as planned obsolescence. The main tool used for
design and development is CAD. This can be simple 2D drawing / drafting or 3D parametric
feature based solid/surface modeling.
This step covers many engineering disciplines including: electronic, electrical, mechanical, and
civil. Besides the actual making of geometry there is the analysis of the components and
assemblies.
Optimization, Validation and Simulation activities are carried out using Computer Aided
Engineering (CAE) software. These are used to perform various tasks such as: Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD); Finite Element Analysis (FEA); and Mechanical Event Simulation

ww
(MES). Computer Aided Quality (CAQ) is used for activities such as Dimensional tolerance
analysis.

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asy
En
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Figure 1.2.Product Cycle Model

Step 3: Realize-Manufacture, Make, Build, Procure, Produce, Sell and Deliver

Once the design of the components is complete the method of manufacturing is finalized.
This includes CAD operations such as generation of CNC Machining instructions for the
product‟s component as well as tools to manufacture those components, using integrated
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) software.
It includes Production Planning tools for carrying out plant and factory layout and production
simulation. Once details components are manufactured their geometrical form and dimensions

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can be verified against the original data with the use of Computer Aided Inspection Equipment
(CAIE). Parallel to the engineering tasks, sales and marketing work take place. This could
consist of transferring engineering data to a web based sales configuration.
Step 4: Service-Use, Operate, Maintain, Support, Sustain, Phase-out, Retire, Recycle and
Disposal
The final step of the lifecycle includes managing of information related to service for
repair and maintenance, as well as recycling and waste management information. This involves
using tools like Maintenance, Repair and Operations Management software.
2. Briefly explain about design process.

Design Process

ww The design process includes series of steps that engineers apply in making functional
products and processes. The parts of the process often need to be repeated many times before
production of a product can start. The parts that get iterated and the number of such design cycles

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in any given project can be highly changeable.
One method of the engineering design process focuses on the following common aspects:
1. Research
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A considerable amount of time is used on research, or finding information. Consideration

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should be given to the available applicable literature, issues and successes linked with available
solutions, and need of marketplaces.

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The basis of information should be significant, including existing results. Reverse engineering
can be a successful technique if other solutions are available in the market. Added sources of

catalogs and personal organizations.

2. Feasibility assessment
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information include the trade journals, available government documents, local libraries, vendor

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The feasibility study is an analysis and assessment of the possible of a proposed design
which is based on detail investigation and research to maintain the process of decision creation.

et
The feasibility assessment helps to focus the scope of the project to spot the best situation. The
purpose of a feasibility assessment is to verify whether the project can continue into the design
phase.

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ww
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3. Conceptualization
Fig.2.1. Design Process

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A Concept Study is the stage of project planning that includes developing ideas and
taking into account the all features of executing those ideas. This stage of a project is done to

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reduce the likelihood of assess risks, error and evaluate the potential success of the planned
project.

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4. Establishing the design requirements
Establishing design requirements is one of the most essential elements in the design

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practice, and this task is usually performed at the same time as the feasibility analysis. The

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design requirements control the design of the project all over the engineering design process. A
few design requirements comprise maintainability, hardware and software parameters,
availability, and testability.
5. Preliminary design g.n
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The preliminary design fills the gap between the design concept and the detailed design
phase. During this task, the system configuration is defined, and schematics, diagrams, and
layouts of the project will offer early project configuration. In detailed design and optimization,
the parameters of the part being produced will change, but the preliminary design focuses on
creating the common framework to construct the project.
6. Detailed design
The next phase of preliminary design is the Detailed Design which may include of
procurement also. This phase builds on the already developed preliminary design, aiming to
further develop each phase of the project by total description through drawings, modeling as well
as specifications.
The advancement CAD programs have made the detailed design phase more competent. This is
because a CAD program can offer optimization, where it can shrink volume without
compromising the part's quality. It can also calculate displacement and stress using the FEM to

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find stresses throughout the part. It is the responsibility of designer to find whether these stresses
and displacements are acceptable, so the part is safe.
7. Production planning and tooldesign
The production planning and tool design is more than planning how to mass-produce the
project and which tools should be used in the manufacturing of the component. Tasks to
complete in this stage include material selection, identification of the production processes,
finalization of the sequence of operations, and selection of jigs, fixtures, and tooling. This stage
also includes testing a working prototype to confirm the created part meets qualification
standards.
With the finishing of qualification testing and prototype testing, the design process is completed.

(Or)

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Design process---Shingley Model

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It involves six steps

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Recognition of need

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Definition of problem

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Synthesis

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Change the design

Analysis and
Optimization
rin Yes

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Can the design be improved
Evaluation

Presentation
No et No

Design impossible for the

given specifications

1. Recognition of need
 Realization of problem exists in the design or in the product
 Identification of some defect in a current machine design
 New product opportunity
2. Definition of problem
 Specification of the item to be designed
 Functional characteristics, cost, quality, performance, etc.

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3. Synthesis
Preliminary ideas are developed through research of similar product or designs in use.
4. Analysis and Optimization
 Suitability for the specified design constraints
 If not suitable or design fails to satisfy the constraints
 Then redesign or modified iteration continues until the proposed design meet the
specifications (or) until feasibility is achieved.
 Then components, sub-assemblies or sub-systems are then synthesized into the
final overall system in a similar iterative manner.
5. Evaluation
 Prototyping

ww  Testing
 Quality
 Reliability testing

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6. Presentation
Documentation of the design through drawings, material specifications, assembly lists,
etc.
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Pahl and Beitz Model:
En
1. Clarification of the task: Collection of information, constraints on the design.

gin
2. Conceptual design: establishment of the functions to be included in the design,
3. Embodiment design: problems are resolved and weak aspects are eliminated

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4. Detail design: The dimensions, tolerance, materials and form of individual

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components of the design are specified in design for subsequent manufacturing.

3. Write briefly on Sequential and Concurrent Engineering.

g.n
et
Sequential Engineering:

 Sequential engineering is the term used to explain the method of production in a linear
system. The various steps are done one after another, with all attention and resources
focused on that single task.
 Sequential engineering is a system by which a group within an organization works
sequentially to create new products and services.
 The sequential engineering is a linear product design process during which all stages of
manufacturing operate in serial. Both process and product design run in serial and take
place in the different time.
 Process and Product are not matched to attain optimal matching.
 Decision making done by only group of experts.

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ww Sequential Engineering

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Concurrent Engineering:

 In concurrent engineering, various tasks are handled at the same time, and not essentially

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in the standard order. This means that info found out later in the course can be added to
earlier parts, improving them, and also saving time.

En
gin
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Concurrent engineering et
 Concurrent engineering is a method by which several groups within an organization work
simultaneously to create new products and services.
 The concurrent engineering is a non-linear product design process during which all stages
of manufacturing operate at the same time. Both product and process design run in
parallel and take place in the same time.
 Process and Product are coordinated to attain optimal matching of requirements for
effective quality and delivery.
 Decision making involves full team involvement.

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4. Write briefly on Computer Aided Design.

CAD is the intersection of Computer Graphics, Geometric modeling and Design tools (Fig.4.1.).
The concepts of computer graphics and geometric modeling and must be used innovatively to serve the
design process. CAD is the function of computer systems to support in the creation, modification,
analysis, or optimization of a design.

ww
w.E Fig.4.1.CAD

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 CAD software for design uses either vector-based graphics to explain the objects of traditional
drafting, or may also develop raster graphics showing the overall look of designed objects.

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During the manual drafting of engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey

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information, like dimensions, materials, processes, and tolerances.
 CAD is a significant industrial art used in many purposes, including industrial and architectural
design, shipbuilding, automotive, and aerospace industries, and many more. CAD is also

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extensively used to create computer animation for special effects in movies, and technical
manuals, frequently called as Digital Content Creation.

rin
 CAD software packages provide the designer with a multi window environment with animation

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which is regularly used in Digital Content Creation. The animations using wire frame modeling
helps the designer to see into the interior of object and to observe the behaviors of the inner
components of the assembly during the motion.

CAD Tools
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The CAD tools are mainly using for graphics applications and modeling. Aids such a color, grids,
geometric modifiers and group facilitate structural geometric models. Visualization is achieved
through shaded components and animation which focus design conceptualization, communication and
interference detection. FEM packages provide optimization in shape and structure. Adding tolerances,
tolerance analysis and investigating the effect of manufacturing on the design can perform by
utilizing CAD tools.

CAD Tools Design Process

Geometric modeling, Graphics aids, visualization and Conceptualization

manipulation

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Geometric modeling, Graphics aids, visualization and Modeling andSimulation

manipulation, animation, assemblies
Analysis packages, customized programs Design Analysis
Structural optimization Design Optimization
Dimensioning, tolerance, bill of materials Design evaluation
Communication andDocumentation
Drafting and detailing , Shaded images

Uses of CAD
CAD is one of the tools used by designers and engineers and is used in different ways depending
on the profession of the customer and the type of software.
CAD is one of the Digital Product Development activities within the Product Lifecycle

ww
Management practices with other tools, which are either integrated modules or individual, such as:
 Computer Aided engineering (CAE) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

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 Realistic Rendering and Simulation.
 Product Data Management (PDM).

asy
CAD is also used for the development of photo simulations that are frequently necessary in the
preparation of Environmental Impact Reports, in which proposed CAD buildings are superimposed into
photographs of existing situation to represent what that conditions will be like, where the proposed
services are allowed to be built.
En
Parameters and constraints can be used to get the size, shape, and other properties of the modeling

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elements. The features of the CAD system can be used for the several tools for measurement; such as
yield strength, tensile strength and electrical or electro-magnetic properties.

CAD System Architecture ee rin

Computer architecture is a pattern describing how a group of software and hardware technology

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standards relate to form a computer system. In general, computer architecture refers to how a computer is
designed and what technologies it is compatible with. Computer architecture is likened to the art of

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shaping the needs of the technology, and developing a logical design and standards based on needs.\

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ww
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asy
En
gin
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5. Write short notes on Scope and applications of CAD/CAM

Scope of CAD/CAM
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At the core of the CAD and CAM processes is a geometric model of the product under
design. Activities of the CAD process include mass properties, finite element analysis,
dimensioning. tolerancing, assembly modeling, generating shaded images, and documentation
and drafting. Activities of the CAM process include CAPP (Computer Aided Process Planning),
NC (numerical control) programming, design of injection mold, CMM (coordinate
measuringmachine)verification, inspection, assembly via robots, and packaging.

The CAD process and its tools utilize three disciplines: geometric modeling, computer
graphics, and design. The CAM process utilizes the disciplines of CAD itself, manufacturing,
and automation.

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CAD/CAM Applications

There are considerable numbers of applications for the various existing CAD/CAM
systems. For example, there are mechanical, electrical, and architectural CAD and CAM
products. An inspection of these various systems reveals that they have a generic structure and
common modules. Awareness of such structure and modules enables users to better
understand system functions for both evaluation and training purposes.

The major available modules are

The geometric engine (module) is the heart of a CAD/CAM system. It provides users
with functions to perform geometric modeling and construction. Editing and manipulation of

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existing geometry, drafting and documentation.The typical modeling operations that users can
engage in arc model creation, cleanup, documentation, and printing/plotting. Shaded images can
be generated as part of model documentation.

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asy
En
gin
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g.n
Fig.5.1 CAD and CAM disciplines
et
The applications module varies from one software system to another. However, there
are common applications shared by most CAD/CAM systems. Mechanical applications include
mass property calculations, assembly analysis, tolerance analysis and synthesis, sheet metal
design, finite element modeling and analysis, mechanisms analysis, animation techniques,
and simulation and analysis of plastic injection molding. Manufacturing applications include
CAPP, NC, CIM, robot simulation, and group technology.

The programming module allows users to customize systems by programming them to

fit certain design and manufacturing tasks.A CAD/CAM system requires advanced knowledge of

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the system architecture, its database format, and a high-level programming language such as C,
C++, Java, Scheme, or others.

The communications module is crucial if integration is to be achieved between

the CAD/CAM system, other computer systems, and manufacturing facilities. It is common to
network the system to transfer the CAD database of a model for analysis purposes or to transfer
its CAM database to the shop floor for production. This module also serves the purpose of
translating databases between CAD/CAM systems using graphics standards such as IGES and
STEP.

The collaborative module is emerging as an outcome of the widespread of the World

Wide Web and the Internet. This module supports collaborative design. Various design teams in

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different geographical locations can work concurrently on the same part, assembly, or drawing
file in real time over the Web. One team can make changes that other teams can view and accept

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or reject.

The various CAD/CAM systems support engineering design, analysis, and manufacturing

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applications. They all have a flexible pricing structure that allows customers to add on
applications as needed.

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6. Write short notes on: CAD, CAD process, components of CAD system, and
advantages of CAD systems.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) gin

ee
 CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to perform certain functions

rin
in the design process. Use of computer systems to assist in the creation,
modification, analysis, and optimization of a design
g.n
In general, a Computer Aided Design (CAD) package hasthree components: a) Design, b)

et
Analysis, and c) Visualization. A brief description of these components follows.

a) Design: Design refers to geometric modeling, i.e., 2-D and 3-D modeling, including, drafting,
part creation, creation of drawings with various views of the part, assemblies of the parts, etc.

b) Analysis: Analysis refers to finite element analysis, optimization, and other number crunching
engineering analyses. In general,a geometric model is first created and then the model is
analyzed for loads,stresses, moment of inertia, and volume, etc.

c) Visualization: Visualization refers to computer graphics, which includes: rendering a model,

creation of pie charts, contour plots, shading a model, sizing, animation, etc.

Each of these three areas has been extensively developed in the last 30 years Several books are
written on each of these subjects and courses are available through the academic institutions and
the industry.

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 Typical tools:

– Tolerance analysis

– Mass property calculations

– Finite-element modeling and visualization

 Defines the geometry of the design

Computer-Aided Design Process

Two types of activities: synthesis and analysis

ww  Synthesis is largely qualitative and hard to capture on computer.

 Analysis can be greatly enhanced with computers.

w.E  Once analysis is complete, design evaluation- rapid prototyping are done.

asy
En
gin
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Fig 6.1.Components of CAD/CAM/CAE Systems
et
CAD Hardware
There are basically two types of devices that constitute CAD hardware: a) Input
devices, and b) Output devices.
Input Devices
These are the devices that we use for communicating with computer, and providing our
input in the form of text and graphics. The text input is mainly provided through keyboard. For
graphic input, there are several devices available and used according to the work environment. A
brief description of these devices is given here.
Mouse: This is a potentiometric device, which contains several variable resistors that send
signals to the computer. The functions of a mouse include locating a point on the screen,

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sketching, dragging an object, entering values, accepting a software command, etc. Joystick and
trackballs are analogous to a mouse device, and operate on the same principle.
Digitizers: Digitizers are used to trace a sketch or other 2-D entities by moving a cursor over a
flat surface (which contains the sketch). The position of the cursor provides a feedback to the
computer connected with the device. There are electrical wires embedded in orthogonal
directions that receive and pass signals between the device and the computer. The device is
basically a free moving pen shaped stylus, connected to a tablet.
Light Pens: Lockheed‟s CADAM software utilized this device to carry out the graphic input. A
light pen looks like a pen and contains a photocell, which emits an electronic signal. When the
pen is pointed at the monitor screen, it senses light, which is converted to a signal. The signal is
sent to the computer, for determination of the exact location of the pen on the monitor screen.

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Touch Sensitive Screens: This device is embedded in the monitor screens, usually, in the form
of an overlay. The screen senses the physical contact of the user. The new generation of the
Laptop computers is a good example of this device.

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Other Graphic Input Devices: In addition to the devices described above, some CAD software
will accept input via Image Scanners, which can copy a drawing or schematic with a camera and

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light beam assembly and convert it into a pictorial database.
The devices just described are, in general, independent of the CAD package being used.

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All commercial CAD software packages contain the device drivers for the most commonly used
input devices. The device drivers facilitate a smooth interaction between our input, the software,

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and the computer. An input device is evaluated on the basis of the following factors:
• Resolution
• Accuracy
• Repeatability
• Linearity
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Output Devices
g.n
After creating a CAD model, we often need a hard copy, using an output device. Plotters and
printers are used for this purpose.
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A plotter is often used to produce large size drawings and assemblies, whereas, a laser jet printer
is adequate to provide a 3-D view of a model. Most CAD software require a plotter for producing
a shaded or a rendered view.

CAD Software
 CAD software is written in FORTRAN and C languages. FORTRAN provides the
number crunching, whereas, C language provides the visual images.
 The modern CAD software utilizes the open architecture system, i.e., software vendors
do not design and manufacture their own hardware. Third party software can be used to
augment the basic CAD package.
 Most popular CAD package will facilitate integration of the Finite Element Analysis and
other CAD software from more than one vendor. For example, IDEAS preprocessor can

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work with almost all the FEA packages for pre and post analyses.
 Networking is an important consideration in applications of CAD software. A model
created by one engineer must be readily accessible to others in an organization, which is
linked by a LAN or other means. The designer, analyst, management, marketing, vendor,
and others generally share a model. This is the concurrent engineering in action,
mentioned earlier.
CAD Platform
 In general, we can run CAD software on three different CAD platforms: Mainframe,
Workstation, and PC.
 When the CAD programs first became available, they could only be run on a mainframe
computer. However, as the PCs have become faster and cheaper, almost all the CAD

ww vendors have introduced a version of their CAD software that will effectively run on a
Pentium or higher computer. Currently, the most popular platforms are PCs and

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Workstations.
 Popularity of Workstations stems from their ability to network easily with other
computers, and also, due to their large memory storage capability. However, PC platform

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is still the most preferred medium for most engineers.
 Increasing popularity of the PC platform can be attributed to several factors, including,

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total user control, the speed, capability of storing large memory, ease of hardware
upgrading and maintenance, and the overall reasonable cost.

ginCAD PLATFORMS

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MAINFRAME WORKSTATIONS g.n
PCs

MAINFRAME
Large Data storage
WORKSTATIONS
Medium size data storage
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PCs
Limited data storage
Networked Networked Can be networked
Expensive Relatively inexpensive Inexpensive
Need interface language Runs on Unix Run on MS-Windows

No user control No user control User controlled

Good for Large corporations

Good for small companies Good for all users

Advantages of CAD/CAM systems

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 Greater flexibility, Reduced lead times, Reduced inventories, Increased Productivity,

Improved customer service, Improved quality, Improved communications with suppliers,
Better product design, Greater manufacturing control, Supported integration, Reduced
costs, Increased utilization, Reduction of machine tools, Less floor space

CAD/CAM Applications – Ref Q.No:5

7. Write short notes on: Concurrent Engineering, Characteristics of Concurrent

Engineering with example.

Characteristics of Concurrent Engineering

In concurrent engineering functional divisions like design, manufacturing and quality are

ww
integrated in a compatible environment. The integration comes in the form of instant delivery
of information about business processes across the enterprise. Cross functional units co-operate
concurrently rather than sequentially. The real-time sharing of information enables teams to

w.E
make design modifications early in a product development cycle, thus reducing unwanted
rework and engineering changes that increase cost of operations, reduce product quality and
delay the time-to-market.
asy
The concurrent engineering approach can be characterized by the following factors:
•
• En
Integration of product and process development and logistics support
Closer attention to the needs of customers
•
• gin
Adoption of new technologies
Continuous review of design and development process
•
•
•
Cross functional teams
Rapid prototyping
ee
Rapid and automated information exchange

rin
Example of Concurrent Engineering g.n
concurrent engineering. The planning of the car started in August 1990. et
The story of the development of Neon Car in USA is a typical example of success of

For each major item product teams were made. Supporting teams were organized for such
activities like dimension control, materials etc. The composition of a typical team included
representatives from engineering, stamping, manufacturing processes, assembly, design,
purchase, finance, product planning, materials handling and vendor development. Even
suppliers were part of the product development team. Each team took approximately one year
to complete a task. Subsequently process teams were organized to manufacture the product.
Four months before the launch the process teams were converted into launch teams to
successfully introduce the product in the market.
Another example for successful implementation of concurrent engineering is the
development of Scooty moped and other products by TVS Motors Ltd. in India. Before taking
up the design cross functional teams were formed to design and engineer the

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product.Thisreduced not only the product development time but also helped the manufacturer
to introduce the quality product in the market.
8. Briefly explain the Coordinate Systems and its types
Coordinate Systems
Three types of coordinate systems are needed in order to input, store, and display model
geometry and graphics. These are Model Coordinate System (MCS), Working Coordinate
System (WCS) and Screen Coordinate System (SCS), respectively. Other names for MCS are
database, master, or world coordinate system. Another name for SCS is device coordinate
system.
Model Coordinate System

ww The model coordinate system is defined as the reference space of the model with respect
to which all the model geometrical data is stored.

w.E
 It is a Cartesian system which forms the default coordinate system used by a particular
software program. The X, Y, and Z axes of the MCS can be displayed on the computer
screen. The origin of the MCS can be arbitrarily chosen by the user while its orientation

asy
is established by the software.
 The three default sketch planes of a CAD/CAM system define the three planes of the

En
MCS, and their intersection point is the MCS origin. When a CAD designer begins
sketching, the origin becomes a corner point of the profile being sketched. The sketch

gin
plane defines the orientation of the profile in the model 3D space.
 In order for the user to communicate properly and effectively with a model database, the

ee
relationship between the MCS orthogonal (sketch) planes and the model views must be

rin
understood by the user. Typically, the software chooses one of two possible orientations
of the MCS in space.

g.n
et
Fig 8.1.Possible orientation

 As shown in Figure8.1a, the XY plane is the horizontal plane and defines the model top
view. The frontand right side views are consequently defined by the XZ and YZ planes,
respectively. Figure 8.1b shows the other possible orientation of the MCS where the

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XY plane is vertical and defines the model front view. As a result, the XZ and the
YZ planes define the top and the right side views, respectively.
 Existing CAD/CAM software uses the MCS as the default WCS. In both orientations,
the XY plane is the default construction (sketch) plane. If the user utilizes such a plane,
the first face of a model to be constructed becomes the topor front view, depending on
which MCS is used.
 The MCS is the only coordinate system that the software recognizes when storing or
retrieving graphical information in or from a model database. Many existing software
packages allow the user to input coordinate information incartesian (x, y. z) and
cylindrical (r, θ, z) coordinates. This input informationis transformed to (x, y. z)
coordinates relative to the MCS before being stored in the database.

ww Obtaining views is a form of retrieving graphical information relative to the MCS. If the
MCS orientation does not match the desired orientation of the object being modeled,
users become puzzled and confused.

w.E
 Another form of retrieving information is entity verification. Coordinates of points
defining the entity are given relative to MCS by default. However, existing software

asy
allows users to obtain the coordinates relative to another system (WCS) by using the
proper commands or modifiers

Working Coordinate System

En
gin
 It is often convenient in the development of geometric models and the input of geometric
data to refer to an auxiliary coordinate system instead of the MCS. This is usually useful

ee
when a desired plane (face) of construction is noteasily defined as one of the MCS

rin
orthogonal planes, as in the case of inclined faces of a model. The user can define a
Cartesian coordinate system whose XY plane is coincident with the desired plane of

g.n
construction. That system is the Working Coordinate System, WCS. It is a convenient
user-defined system that facilitates geometric construction.

et
 It can be established at any position and orientation in space that the user desires. While
the user can input data in reference to the WCS, the CAD software performs the
necessary transformations to the MCS before storing the data.
 The ability to use two separate coordinate systems within the same model database in
relation to one another gives the user great flexibility. Some commercial software refers
to the WCS as isUnigraphics offers an example. Other software refers to it as a sketch
plane (Pro/E and SolidWorks) or constructionplane.
 A WCS requires three noncollinear points to define its XYplane. The first defines the
origin, the first and the second define the X axis, and the third points with the first
define the Y axis. The Z axis is determined as the cross product of the two unit vectors in
the directions defined by the lines connecting the first and the second (the X axis), and
the first and the third points (Y axis). We will use the subscript w to distinguish the

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WCS axes from those of the MCS. The XwYwplane becomes the active sketch (working)
or construction plane if the user defines a WCS.
 In this case, the WCS and its corresponding Xw,Yw plane override the MCS and the
default sketch plane, respectively. As a matter of fact, the MCS with its default sketch
plane is the default WCS with its Xw,Yw plane. All CAD/CAM software packages
provide users with threestandard WCSs {sketch planes) that correspond to the three
standard views: Front, Top, andRight sides. The user can define other WCSs or sketch
planes.
 There is only one active WCS (sketch plane) at any one time. If the user defines multiple
WCSs in one session during a model construction, the software recognizes only the last
one and stores it with the model database if the user storesthe model. The model tree

ww displayed by the CAD software shows the last selected (activated) sketch plane.

Once a WCS is defined, user coordinate inputs are interpretedby the software in reference to this

w.E
system. The software calculates the corresponding homogeneous transformation matrix between
the WCS and the MCS to convert these input values into coordinates relative to the MCS before

asy
storing them in the database. The transformation equation can be written as:

Pm = T Pw

En
where Pm is the position vector of a point relative to the MCS and Pw is the vector of the

gin
point relative to the active WCS. Each vector is given by:

P = [x y z 1] T

ee rin
The matrix [T] is the homogeneous transformation matrix. It is a 4 x 4 matrix and is
given by:

g.n
et
Where R m w is the rotation matrix that definesthe orientation of the WCS relative to the MCS
m
and P w org is the position vector that describes the origin of the WCS relative to the MCS. The
columns of R m w : give the direction cosines of the unit vectors in the Xw, Yw and Zw directions
relative to the MCS as shown in Figure .These direction cosines are the components of the unit
vectors along theaxes of the MCS.

If the WCS axes are along the MCS axes, then the direction cosines become 1, -1, or 0, and if
XwandYw are aligned along the Z and X axes of the MCS, respectively, the transformation
between the WCS and MCS is given by:

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Observe that one of the matrix in eqn. is inverse of the other; their manipulation produces the
identity Matrix, I.

ww
w.E
Screen Coordinate System

asy
 In contrast to the MCS and WCS, the screen coordinate system (SCS) is defined as a 2D
device-dependent coordinate system whose origin is usually located at the lower left

En
comer of the graphics display, as shown in Figure.
 The physical dimensions of a device screen (aspect ratio) and the type of device (raster)

gin
determine the range of the SCS. The SCS is mostly used in view-related clicks such as
definitions of view origin and window or clicking a view to select it for graphics
operations.
ee rin
 A 1024 x 1024 display has anSCS with arange of (0, 0) to (1024, 1024). The center of
the screen has coordinates of (512,512). This SCS is used by the CAD/CAM software to

g.n
display relevant graphics by converting directly from MCS coordinates to SCS (physical
device) coordinates. A normalized SCS can also be utilized. The range of the SCS can be
chosen from (0, 0) to (I, 1).
et
 Such representation can be translated by device-dependentcodes to the appropriate
physical device coordinates. The third method of defining an SCS is by using the drawing
size that the user chooses.
 If a size A drawing is chosen, the range of the SCS becomes (0,0) to (11,8.5) while
size B produces the range (0,0) to (17,11). The rationale behind this method stems from
the conventional drawing board sothat the draftingpaper is represented by the device
screen.

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Typical SCS

A transformation operation from MCS coordinates to SCS coordinates is performed by

the software before displaying the model views and graphics. Typically, for a geometric model,
there is a data structure to store its geometric data (relative to MCS), and a display file to store its

ww
display data (relative to SCS).

w.E
9. Explain the concepts of translation, scaling and rotators in 2-D transformation.
(JAN 2014)

asy
Geometric transformations have numerous applications in geometric modeling, e.g.,

En
manipulation of size, shape, and location of an object.
In CAD, transformation is also used to generate surfaces and solids by sweeping curves

gin
and surfaces, respectively. The term „sweeping‟ refers to parametric transformations, which are
utilized to generate surfaces and solids. When we sweep a curve, it is transformed through

ee
several positions along or around an axis, generating a surface.

rin
The appearance of the generated surface depends on the number of instances of the
transformation.
There are two types of transformations:
Modeling Transformation: g.n
et
This transformation alters the coordinate values of the object. Basic operations are
scaling, translation, rotation and, combination of one or more of these basic transformations.
Examples of these transformations can be easily found in any commercial CAD software. For
instance, AutoCAD uses SCALE, MOVE, and ROTATE commands for scaling, translation,
and rotation transformations, respectively.
Visual Transformation:
In this transformation there is no change in either the geometry or the coordinates of
the object. A copy of the object is placed at the desired sight, without changing the coordinate
values of the object. In AutoCAD, the ZOOM and PAN commands are good examples of
visual transformation.

Two-Dimensional (2D) Geometric Transformation:

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A geometric transformation is an operation that modifies its shape, size, position, orientation
etc. with respect to its current configuration operating on the vertices (position vectors).
Some of the important 2D transformations include:
1. Translation
2. Scaling
3. Rotation
4. Reflection
5. Shear
6. Twist
2D translation
Translation is nothing but moving an object across the screen from one position to another.

ww
The translation transformation positions the object to a new location.
 Translation is the process of moving an object from one position to another.

w.E  The translation transformation positions the object to a new location.

 The translation is accomplished by adding the coordinates of each corner point the
distance through which the object is to moved.
Translation of a point:
asy
Consider a 2D point P, having coordinates x,y. To translate point P by a distance ∆𝑥 in x-

En
direction and ∆𝑦 in y-direction, a translation matrix T is added to the original matrix. Now the

gin
point has new coordinates 𝑃′(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ )
The translation distance (∆𝑥, ∆𝑦) is called translation vector.

ee 𝑃′(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ )
rin
∆y
𝑃(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) g.n
∆x
et
(0,0)
Translation of a point

Let
P= Original position of the point,
P‟= New position of the point, and
T= Translation matrix
tx(∆𝑥), ty(∆𝑦)are the Translation distance along the x and yaxis respectively.

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x  x  t x , y  y  t y

 x  x  t x 
P    , P    , T   
 y  y  t y 
P  P  T
Translation of an object:
When the object is to moved, all the points of it are to be translated. The translation of
keypoints and connections of these points by other geometric entities like lines, arcs, etc.

𝐴′(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ )

ww ∆y
𝐶′(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ )

w.E A(x ,y
)
′
𝐵′(𝑥 , 𝑦 )′

asy 𝐵(𝑥 , 𝑦 )
C(x ,y )

En ∆x

(0,0)
gin Object Translation

𝐴𝑥′
𝐶𝑥′
𝐴𝑦′
𝐵𝑦′ =
ee 𝐴𝑥
𝐶𝑥
𝐴𝑦
𝐵𝑦 + [∆𝑥 ∆𝑦] rin
𝐶𝑥′ 𝐶𝑦′ 𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝑦
g.n
Example: Translate a triangle ABC with co-ordinates A (1,1), B(5,2), C(3,3), about the origin
by 3 units in the x-direction and 2 units in the y-direction.
Solution:
et
Given that ∆𝑥 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑦 = 2
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 1 1
And 𝐶𝑥 𝐵𝑦 = 5 2
𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝑦 3 3

𝐴𝑥′ 𝐴𝑦′ 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦
𝐶𝑥′ 𝐵𝑦′ = 𝐶𝑥 𝐵𝑦 + [∆𝑥 ∆𝑦]
𝐶𝑥′ 𝐶𝑦′ 𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝑦

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𝐴𝑥′ 𝐴𝑦′ 1 1 4 3
𝐶𝑥′ 𝐵𝑦′ = 5 2 + [3 2] = 8 4
𝐶𝑥′ 𝐶𝑦′ 3 3 6 5

ww
w.E
asy
En
The new coordinates of the translated triangle are A‟(4,3), B‟(8,4) and C‟(6,5).
2D Rotation

gin
 Rotation refers to the movement an object in such a way that the distance between a
certain fixed point and any given point of that body remains constant.

tehniques. ee
 Rotation transformation techniques is commonly used in rendering and animation

rin
g.n
et
 Consider the rotation of a point from initial position a P(x,y) to a new position P‟(x‟,y‟)
by an angle θ about the origin
 Here counterclockwise rotation is consider as positive and clockwise rotation as
negative.

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ww
Mathematically, the coordinates of P‟ are given by
X‟ = r cos(α+θ) =r cosαcosθ –r sinαsin θ

w.E
Y‟ = r sin(α+θ) = r sin αcosθ + r cosαsinθ
Substituting x = r cosα and y = r sinα into the equations gives
X‟ = x cosθ – y sin θ
Y‟ = x cosθ + y sinθ
asy
Rotation in angle  about a
En
pivot (rotation) point  xr , yr  .
gin
2D Scaling
ee rin
 Scaling is the transformation used to change, increase or decrease, the size of an object.
 Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original coordinates of an object by the
scaling factor Sxalong x-direction and Sy along y-direction.
g.n
 Scaling factor is always positive, if scaling factor is less than 1, the object is
compressed; if more than 1, the object is stretched.
et
 If scale factors are equal i.e., Sx=Sy=S, the object changes in size only and not in shape.
This scaling is known as uniform scaling.
 If scale factors are different i.e., Sx≠Sy, the object changes in size only and not in shape.
This scaling is known as non-uniform scaling.

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wwx  x  sx , y  y  s y

w.E
 x   sx
 y   0
  
0   x
s y   y 

P  S  P asy
En
Scaling about a fixed point  x f , y f 

gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Example:
If a triangle A(1,1), B(3,1), C(1,3) is scaled by a factor 2, find the new coordinates of the
triangle.
Given: A(1,1), B(3,1), C(1,3); uniform scale factor =2, the effect of scling is represented
graphically in Fig.

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2D reflection
 Reflection is a transformation in which the direction of one axis is reversed.
 Reflection transformation produces a mirror image of an object.

ww The reflection transformation is useful in the construction of symmetric objects. If the
object is symmetric with respect to plane, only half of the geometry is created and then

w.E
the half model is copied by reflection to develop the full model.

P’=M.P

±𝑚11 0 0 asy
M= 0
0
±𝑚22
0
0
±𝑚33
En
Reflection about x axis: gin
1 0 0
ee rin
M=0
0
−1 0
0 1
g.n
Reflection about y axis:

−1 0 0
et
M= 0 1 0
0 0 1

Reflection about xy plane (origin):

−1 0 0
M= 0 −1 0
0 0 1

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ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
In scaling transformation, the original coordinates of an object are multiplied by the

ee
given scale factor. There are two types of scaling transformations: uniform and non-uniform.

rin
In the uniform scaling, the coordinate values change uniformly along the x, y, and z
coordinates, whereas, in non-uniform scaling, the change is not necessarily the same in all the
coordinate directions.
Let us consider some typical cases g.n
 Case 1: a=d=1 and b=c=0 – No Change (identity)
 Case 2: d=1, b=c=0 – Scaling in x coordinate
 Case 3: b=c=0 – Scaling in both x and y coordinates
et

 Case 4; a=d =|s|>1 – Enlargement of the original entity

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 Case 5: 0<a=d=|s|<1 – Compression of the entity

 Case 6: b=c=0, a=1,d=-1 – Reflection about x- axis

 Case 7: b=c=0, a=-1,d=1 – Reflection about y- axis
 Case 8: b=c=0, a=d<0 – Reflection about the origin

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Homogeneous Coordinates
ee rin
Each of the above transformations with the exception of translation can be represented as a
row vector X, Y and a 2 X 2 matrix. However, all the four transformations discussed above can

g.n
be represented as a product of a 1 X 3 row vector and an appropriate 3 X 3 matrix. The
conversion of a two-dimensional co-ordinate pair (X, Y) into a 3-dimensional vector can be
achieved by representing the point as [X Y 1].
et

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ww
w.E
asy
En
After multiplying this vectorby a 3 X 3 matrix, another homogeneous row vector is

gin
obtained [X1 Y1 1]. The first two terms in this vector are the co-ordinate pair which is the
transform of (X, Y). This three dimensional representation of a two dimensional plane is called

called homogeneous transformation. ee

homogeneous co- ordinates and the transformation using the homogeneous co-ordinates is

10. Explain the concept of 3D transformation. (JAN 2014) rin

g.n
A three-dimensional object has a three-dimensional geometry, and therefore,
it requires a three-dimensional coordinate transformation. A right handed coordinate
system is used to carry out a 3-D transformation.
et
The scaling and translation transformations are essentially the same as two-
dimensional transformations. However, the points matrix will have a non-zero 3rd
column. Additionally, the transformation matrices contain some non-zero values in
the third row and third column.
Translation
In three-dimensional homogeneous coordinate representation, a point is transformed from
position P(x,y,z) to P‟= (x‟,y‟,z‟) this can be written as:
x‟ = x+ tx
y‟ = y+ ty
z‟ = z+ tz

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ww
w.E
Rotation
P’=T.P
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

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ww
w.E
asy
Parallel to one of the Coordinate Axis

In special cases where an object is to be rotated about an axis that is parallel to one of

En
the coordinate axis, we can obtain the desired rotation with the following transformation

gin
sequence.

1. Translate the object so that the rotation axis coincides with the parallel coordinate

ee
axis (for simplicity, let us take x-axis).
2. Perform the specified rotation about that axis.
rin
3. Translate the object so that the rotation axis is moved back to its original position.

g.n
et

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ww
w.E
asy
En
Scaling gin
ee
The matrix expression for the scaling transformation of a position P = (x, y, z)
relative to coordinate origin can be written
rin
g.n
et

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The matrix representation for an arbitrary fixed-point (xf, yf, zf) can be expressed as:

Reflection

ww
w.E
asy
En
 The matrix expression for the reflection transformation of a position P = (x, y, z)
relative to x-y plane can be written as:

gin
ee rin
g.n
 Transformation matrices for inverting x and y values are defined similarly, as
reflections relative to yzplane and xzplane, respectively.

Shears:
et
The matrix expression for the shearing transformation of a position P = (x, y, z), t
produce z-axis shear, can be written as:

• Parameters aandbcan be assigned any real values. The effect of this transformation is

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to alter x- and y- coordinate values by an amount that is proportional to the z value,

while leaving the z coordinate unchanged.

• Shearing transformations for the x axis and y axis are defined similarly.

ww
11. Explain computer graphics. (Or)

w.EWhatismeantbyInteractiveComputerGraphics?Explainitsvariouselements.(Nov0
8)

asy
Traditionally drawings are prepared on plane drawing sheets. This has several limitations.
The sketches have to be made only in two dimensions. Though the depth can be represented

En
by pictorial projections like isometric and perspective projections, the projections have to be

gin
necessarily reduced to two dimensions.
Use of computer graphics has opened up tremendous possibilities for the designer.
Some of them are listed below:

ee
 The object is represented by its geometric model in three dimensions (X, Y and Z).

rin
 The mathematical representation reduces creation of views like orthographic, isometric,
axonometric or perspective projections into simple viewing transformations.

g.n
 Though the size of the screen is limited, there is no need to scale the drawings.
 Drawings can be made very accurate.

 Sections can be automatically created. et

 The geometric models can be represented in color and can be viewed from any angle.

 The associativity ensures that any change made in one of the related views will
automatically reflect in other views.
 Revision and revision control are easy.
 Drawings (geometric models) can be modified easily.
 More important than all, drawings can be reused conveniently.
 Storage and retrieval of drawings are easy.

Modern computer graphics displays are simple in construction. They consist of basically
three components.
i. Monitor
ii. Digital Memory or Frame Buffer iii. Display Controller

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Most of the computer graphics displays use raster CRT which is a matrix of discrete cells
each of which can be made bright. A graphic entity like line or circle is represented as a
series of “points or dots” on the screen. Therefore, it is called as a point plotting device.

The video display screen is divided into very small rectangular elements called a
picture element or pixel. This happens to be the smallest addressable screen element.
Graphic images are formed by setting suitable intensity and color to the pixels which
compose the image.
Depending upon the resolution screens may have varying number of pixels. For
example, an SVGA monitor with a resolution of 1024 x 768 will have 1024 pixels in
every row (X - direction) and 768 pixels in every column (Y-direction). Monitors of

ww larger size will have resolution of 1024 x 1024 or more. A raster scan system displays the
image on a CRT in a certain fixed sequence.
The refresh rate is the number of complete images or frames scanned per second.

w.E
In the case of interlaced refresh cycle odd numbered raster lines are refreshed during
1/60th of a second. Even numbered raster lines are refreshed during the next 1/60th of a

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second. In non-interlaced displays, all lines are refreshed in 1/60th of a second. The
quality of non- interlaced display is hence, superior. These systems, however, require

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expensive frame buffer memory and display controller.
Graphic Primitives

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A drawing is created by an assembly of points, lines, arcs, circles. For example,
drawing shown in Fig consists of several entities. In computer graphics also drawings are

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created in a similar manner. Each of these is called an entity.

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The drawing entities that a user may find in a typical CAD package include :
point line, construction line, multi-line, polyline,circle spline, arc ellipse polygon,
rectangle.
g.n
et
A simple drawing
Graphics System
Graphics system consists of four subsystems:
a. Geometry engine subsystem b. Scan conversion subsystem
c. Raster subsystem
d. Display subsystem
These subsystems are shown in Fig schematically.

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GE OM E TRY

SCAN CONVERSIO N

RASTER

DISPLAY

Subsystems of a Graphics Engine

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Geometry Engine
The geometry engine accepts 3-D world co-ordinate data and converts them into

w.E X, Y screen co-ordinates. Depth information is manipulated using Z-buffer. Colors are
also processed. The geometry pipeline facilitates among other functions lighting,
clipping, and 3D to 2D projection, viewing transformations, rotation, scaling and
translation.
Scan Conversion asy
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The scan conversion subsystem carries out polygon decomposition, edge slope
calculations, span slope calculations and span interpolation. The output of the scan

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conversion is the pixel information to the raster subsystem.
Raster Subsystem

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The raster subsystem will have usually 24 bit planes. This will provide eight bit planes

rin
for each primary color (RGB) so that (28) shades of a single color can thus obtain.
Since the different colors are obtained by the three primary colors a total of (28)3colors
are available on the screen.
g.n
et
In a typical raster engine five 256K X 4D RAM provide 4 bits of Z-depth. The raster
information is stored in the frame buffer. Twenty 64 K X 4 video RAM provide 4 bits for
each pixel of 1280 X 1024 resolution. Entry level systems will have 12 bit planes and
high end systems will have 32 bit planes for the frame buffer. These provide the color
and depth for the images.
Display Subsystem
The display subsystem has multi-mode graphics processors which manage the display,
send the Red, Green, Blue color (RGB) data to the respective digital to analog converters
as well as provide a video output.
12. Write short notes on clipping, view ports, line drawing. (JAN 2014) (Or)
Explain the Cohen- Sutherland line-clipping approach with proper sketches.
(M.E.JAN2010)

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Clipping

 Clipping is the process of determining the visible portions of a drawing lying

within awindow. In clipping each graphic element of the display is examined to
determine whether or not it is completely inside the window, completely outside
the window or crosses a window boundary.
 Portions outside the boundary are not drawn. If the element of a drawing crosses
the boundary the point of inter-section is determined and only portions which lie
inside are drawn. Readers are advised to refer to books on computer graphics for
typical clipping algorithms like Cohen-Sutherland clipping algorithm. Fig shows
an example of clipping.

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 There is something missing between projection and viewing.
 Before projecting, we need to eliminate the portion of scene that is outside the viewing
frustum
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Modify end points of lines to lie in rectangle
Method: Is end-point inside the clip region - half-plane tests
–If outside, calculate intersection between the line and the clipping rectangle and make
this the new end point
 Both endpoints inside: trivial accept
 One inside: find intersection and clip
 Both outside: either clip or reject (tricky case)

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Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm
• Uses outcodes to encode the half-plane tests results

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Rules:
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– Trivial accept: outcode(end1) and outcode(end2) both zero

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– Trivial reject: outcode(end1) & (bitwise and) outcode(end2)
Nonzero Else subdivide
If neither trivial accept nor reject:
–Pick an outside endpoint (with nonzero outcode) rin
–Pick an edge that is crossed (nonzero bit of outcode)
–Find line's intersection with that edge g.n
–Replace outside endpoint with intersection point
–Repeat until trivial accept or reject
et

Polygon clipping

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Convert a polygon into one or more polygons that form the intersection of the
original with the clipwindow.

Sutherland-Hodgman
Polygon Clipping Algorithm

ww Subproblem:
Clip a polygon (vertex list) against a single clip plane

w.EOutput the vertex list(s) for the resulting clipped polygon(s)

• Clip against all four planes
–generalizes to 3D (6 planes)

asy
–generalizes to any convex clip polygon/polyhedron

En
To clip vertex list against one half-plane:
• if first vertex is inside - output it

gin
• loop through list testing inside/outside transition - output
depends on transition:
in-to-in: output vertex
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out-to-in: output intersection and vertex
out-to-out: no output
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in-to-out: output intersection
View port
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Drawing of Lines
Straight line segments are used a great deal in computer generated pictures. The
following criteria have been stipulated for line drawing displays:
i. Lines should appear straight

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ii. Lines should terminate accurately

iii. Lines should have constant density
iv. Line density should be independent of length and angle
v. Line should be drawn rapidly
The process of turning on the pixels for a line segment is called vector generation. If the end
points of the line segment are known, there are several schemes for selecting the pixels between
the end pixels. One method of generating a line segment is a symmetrical digital differential
analyzer (DDA).

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UNIT-II-Geometric Modeling

In CAD, we often need to draw different types of objects onto the screen. Objects are not flat all the
time and we need to draw curves many times to draw an object.

Types of Curves
A curve is an infinitely large set of points. Each point has two neighbors except endpoints. Curves can
be broadly classified into three categories − explicit, implicit, and parametric curves.

Implicit Curves

ww
Implicit curve representations define the set of points on a curve by employing a procedure that can
test to see if a point in on the curve. Usually, an implicit curve is defined by an implicit function of the
form −

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f(x, y) = 0

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It can represent multivalued curves (multiple y values for an x value). A common example is the
circle, whose implicit representation is

x2 + y2 - R2 = 0 En
Explicit Curves gin
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A mathematical function y = f(x) can be plotted as a curve. Such a function is the explicit

rin
representation of the curve. The explicit representation is not general, since it cannot represent vertical
lines and is also single-valued. For each value of x, only a single value of y is normally computed by
the function.
g.n
Parametric Curves
et
Curves having parametric form are called parametric curves. The explicit and implicit curve
representations can be used only when the function is known. In practice the parametric curves are
used. A two-dimensional parametric curve has the following form −

P(t) = f(t), g(t) or P(t) = x(t), y(t)

The functions f and g become the (x, y) coordinates of any point on the curve, and the points are
obtained when the parameter t is varied over a certain interval [a, b], normally [0, 1].

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Bezier Curves
Bezier curve is discovered by the French engineer Pierre Bézier. These curves can be generated under
the control of other points. Approximate tangents by using control points are used to generate curve.
The Bezier curve can be represented mathematically as –

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Properties of Bezier Curves

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Bezier curves have the following properties −


the control points.
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They generally follow the shape of the control polygon, which consists of the segments joining

They always pass through the first and last control points.

 En
They are contained in the convex hull of their defining control points.
The degree of the polynomial defining the curve segment is one less that the number of

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defining polygon point. Therefore, for 4 control points, the degree of the polynomial is 3, i.e.
cubic polynomial.




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A Bezier curve generally follows the shape of the defining polygon.
The direction of the tangent vector at the end points is same as that of the vector determined by
first and last segments.
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The convex hull property for a Bezier curve ensures that the polynomial smoothly follows the


control points.
g.n
No straight line intersects a Bezier curve more times than it intersects its control polygon.




They are invariant under an affine transformation.
et
Bezier curves exhibit global control means moving a control point alters the shape of the whole
curve.
A given Bezier curve can be subdivided at a point t=t0 into two Bezier segments which join
together at the point corresponding to the parameter value t=t0.

B-Spline Curves
The Bezier-curve produced by the Bernstein basis function has limited flexibility.

 First, the number of specified polygon vertices fixes the order of the resulting polynomial
which defines the curve.
 The second limiting characteristic is that the value of the blending function is nonzero for all
parameter values over the entire curve.

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The B-spline basis contains the Bernstein basis as the special case. The B-spline basis is non-global.

A B-spline curve is defined as a linear combination of control points Pi and B-spline basis functionNi,

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Properties of B-spline Curve

B-spline curves have the following properties −

 The sum of the B-spline basis functions for any parameter value is 1.
 Each basis function is positive or zero for all parameter values.
 Each basis function has precisely one maximum value, except for k=1.
 The maximum order of the curve is equal to the number of vertices of defining polygon.
 The degree of B-spline polynomial is independent on the number of vertices of defining
polygon.
 B-spline allows the local control over the curve surface because each vertex affects the shape
of a curve only over a range of parameter values where its associated basis function is nonzero.


ww


The curve exhibits the variation diminishing property.
The curve generally follows the shape of defining polygon.
Any affine transformation can be applied to the curve by applying it to the vertices of defining


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polygon.
The curve line within the convex hull of its defining polygon.

asy
Non-uniform rational Basis spline (NURBS) is a mathematical model commonly used in
computer graphics for generating and representing curves and surfaces. It offers great flexibility

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and precision for handling both analytic (surfaces defined by common mathematical formulae) and
modeled shapes. NURBS are commonly used in computer-aided design (CAD), manufacturing

gin
(CAM), and engineering (CAE) and are part of numerous industry wide standards, such as IGES,
STEP, ACIS, and PHIGS. NURBS tools are also found in various 3D modelling and animation
software packages.


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They can be efficiently handled by the computer programs and yet allow for easy human

g.n
interaction. NURBS surfaces are functions of two parameters mapping to a surface in three-
dimensional space. The shape of the surface is determined by control points. NURBS surfaces

et
can represent, in a compact form, simple geometrical shapes. T-splines and subdivision
surfaces are more suitable for complex organic shapes because they reduce the number of
control points twofold in comparison with the NURBS surfaces.
 In general, editing NURBS curves and surfaces is highly intuitive and predictable. Control
points are always either connected directly to the curve/surface, or act as if they were
connected by a rubber band. Depending on the type of user interface, editing can be realized
via an element’s control points, which are most obvious and common for Bézier curves, or via
higher level tools such as spline modeling or hierarchical editing.

General form of a NURBS curve

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SURFACES gin
Introduction
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g.n
Wire frame models are unable to represent complex surfaces of objects like car, ship, airplane wing,

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castings etc. A surface model can be used to represent the surface profile of these objects. Also, surface
model can be used for calculating mass properties, interference between parts, generating cross-sectioned
views, generating finite element mesh, and generating NC tool paths for continuous path machining.
Additionally, surface model can be used to fit experimental data, discretized solutions of differential
equations, construction of pressure surface, construction of stress distribution etc.
Surface creation on a CAD system usually requires wire frame entities: lines, curves, points, etc. All
analytical and synthetic curves can be used to generate surfaces.
In order to visualize surfaces on a graphic display, a mesh, say m x n in size is usually displayed; the mesh
size is controlled by the user. Most CAD systems provide options to set the mesh size.
A surface of an object is more complete and less ambiguous representation than its wire frame model; it is
an extension of a wire frame model with additional information.

A wire frame model can be extracted from a surface model by deleting all surface entities (not the
wireframe entities – point, lines, or curves!). Databases of surface models are centralized and associative,
manipulation of surface entities in one view is automatically reflected in the other views. Surface models
can be shaded and represented with hidden lines.

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Types of Surfaces
1. Plane Surface
This is the simplest surface, requires 3 non-coincidental points to define an infinite plane. The plane
surface can be used to generate cross sectional views by intersecting a surface or solidmodel with it.

ww
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Ruled (lofted) Surface
asy
This is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two boundary curves that define the surface.

En
Boundary curves can be any wire frame entity. The surface is ideal to represent surfaces that do not have
any twists or kinks.

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Surface of Revolution
This is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric objects. It is generated by rotating a planar
wire frame entity in space about the axis of symmetry of a given angle.

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Tabulated Surface

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This is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a given distance along a specified direction. The
plane of the curve is perpendicular to the axis of the generated cylinder.

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asy
En
Bi-linear Surface gin
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This 3-D surface is generated by interpolation of 4 endpoints. Bi-linear surfaces are very useful in finite

rin
element analysis. A mechanical structure is discretized into elements, which are generated by interpolating
4 node points to form a 2-D solid element.

g.n
et

Coons Patch
Coons patch or surface is generated by the interpolation of 4 edge curves as shown.

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Bezier Surface
This is a synthetic surface similar to the Bezier curve and is obtained by transformation of a Bezier curve.

asy
It permits twists and kinks in the surface. The surface does not pass through all the data points.

B-Spline Surface
En
This is a synthetic surface and does not pass through all data points. The surface is capable of giving very

gin
smooth contours, and can be reshaped with local controls.
Mathematical derivation of the B-spline surface is beyond the scope of this course. Only limited

ee
mathematical consideration will be given here.
Computer generated surfaces play a very important part in manufacturing of engineering products. A

rin
surface generated by a CAD program provides a very accurate and smooth surface, which can be generated
by NC machines without any room for misinterpretation. Therefore, in manufacturing, computer generated

g.n
surfaces are preferred. Since surfaces are mathematical models, we can quickly find the centroid, surface
area, etc. Another advantage of CAD surfaces is that they can be easily modified.

Interpolated Surfaces – Bilinear Surface et

A bilinear surface is obtained by linear interpolation between four points, which may or may not lie in the
same plane. The four points appear as vertices or corner points and the parameter values u and v create
lines at various intervals to provide the surface visibility,

shown in the figure. The parameters u and v are defined as

0 ≤ u ≤ 1, and 0 ≤ v ≤ 1

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Application of Bilinear Surfaces
g.n
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Bilinear patches are extensively used in 2-D finite element analysis (FEA). In FEA, an engineering
structure is defined by several bilinear surfaces (elements), which are created by joining points on the
structure’s geometry, called nodes. The nodes are connected to other nodes to create quadrilateral surfaces.
Points not lying on the nodes are calculated by interpolation. Thus, the entire structure is completely
defined by the nodes and the bilinear surfaces.

Drawbacks of Bilinear Surfaces

Bilinear surfaces have a very limited use, mainly, for FEA. Since only 4 points can be used in the
interpolation, the smoothness of the generated surface is limited. Additionally, there is no flexibility to
control shapes of the surface, unlike the sweeped surfaces.

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Interpolated Surfaces – Coons Patch

A linear interpolation between four bounded curves is used to generate a Coons surface, also called as
Coons patch. The method is credited to S. Coons who developed this concept for generating a surface.

Linear interpolation between the boundary curves P(0,v), P(u,0), P(1,v) , and P(u,1) gives the equation

Q(u,v) = (1-v) P(u,0) + u P(1,v) + v P(u,1) + (1-u) P(0,v)

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the values of u and v we get,
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The above equation gives wrong values at the corners (u,v = 0 and 1). For example, substituting

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Q(0,0) = P(0,0) + P(0,0) = 2P(0,0) g.n
Q(1,0) = 2P(1,0), etc.
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Which are obviously wrong values. Therefore, The coons patch is created by modification of the
interpolation equation, where the corners are subtracted. The modified interpolation equation is
given as,

P(u,v) = (1-v) P(u,0) + u P(1,v) – v P(u,1) + (1-u) P(0,v) –

(1-u) (1-v) P(0,0) – u (1-v) x P(1,0) - (1-u) v P(0,1) – u v P(1,1).

For computational purposes, it is more convenient to write this equation as,

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Applications

Coon’s surface is easy to create, and therefore, many 2-D CAD packages utilize it for generating
models. However, it has only a limited application since the surface is inflexible and cannot create
very smooth surfaces. It would be very difficult to produce a smooth automobile fender using the
Coons surface. Several CAD software, including AutoCAD, uses this surface for generating surfaces
between 4-bounded edges.

Linearly Sweeped Surfaces

A sweeped surface is generated when a curve is parametrically translated or rotated. In CAD, a surface is
represented by a series of curves, which are parametrically generated at various instances. For example, a

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cylindrical surface is generated when a circular arc is translated up to the given dimension using a
parameter t, where t varies as, 0 ≤ t ≤1.

In the figure shown, the cylindrical surface is generated when a circular arc is translated a distance L, with
the interim instances at t = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, … 1. Here, the parameter t is given 10 values, and therefore, the
surface of the cylinder is represented by 10 circular curves. The appearance of the surface improves as the
parameter t varies at smaller intervals. Thus, if t is varied with Δt = 0.01, there will be 100 circular curves
representing the surface.

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A surface is an extension of a curve. The parametric representation of a curve is given by a single-
vector equation of the form:

P(t) = [x(t) y(t) z(t)]

ee rin
g.n
Here, only one parametric variable or one degree of freedom is needed. Whereas, a surface
representation requires two parametric variables, and the equation is given as:

Q(s,t) = [x(s,t) y(s,t) z(s,t)] et

Tracing a point in the s and t directions, as shown in the figure on the next page, generates a surface.
One parameter variable is kept constant while varying the other one. A series of curves is created
along the s and t directions. For example, constraining the parameters s and t between zero and 1,
the set of curves generated along the s direction is,

P(0,t), P(0.1,t), P(0.2, t)………….P(1, t)

and the other set of curves along the t direction is,

P(s,0), P(s,0.1),…P(S, 0.9), P(s,1).

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Thus, creation of a surface requires creation of the multiple curves that constitute it. This concept can

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be applied to both, the surface that has an analytical formulation (conic sections) and to a free-form
surface (Bezier, B-spline).

Creating a Parametric Cubic Patch ee rin

g.n
Parametric cubic patch or surface is generated by four boundary curves; the curves are parametric
cubic polynomials. The equation of a parametric cubic curve was defined earlier as:

et

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Bezier Surface
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Just as parametric cubic curves are extended to parametric cubic patches, Bezier curves may be
extended to Bezier surface patch. While the surface passes through the four corner points, the
control points control all other points on the surface.
Using the placement of these points to specify edge slope is more intuitive than determining the
parametric slopes and twist vectors for the parametric cubic curve surface.
Bezier surface, as a result, is easier to use because the control points themselves approximate the
location of the desired surface. Bezier surfaces can be generated with any order of the Bezier
curve. Two surface patches can be joined and the two surfaces do not have to be of the same order,
one can be cubic and the other a quadratic.

Blending Bezier patches with slope continuity requires that (1) control points on the common
edges be shared and (2) three control points – one on the edge and ones on the either sides of the
edge – form a straight line, as shown in the figure below.

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ww
w.E
In Bezier surface:
asy
En
o The surface takes the general shape of the control points.

gin
o The surface is contained within the convex hull of the control points.

ee
o The corner of the surface and the corner control points are coincident.

rin
General Equation of the Bezier surface is given as,

Q(s,t) = Σ Σ Vi,jBi,n(s) Bj,m(t) g.n

0 ≤ s,t ≤1 et
Vi,jdefines the control points

Bi,n(s) & Bj,m(t) are the Bernstein blending functions in the s and t directions.

In matrix form, the Bezier surface can be represented by,

T T
Q(s,t) = [S] [M]B [V]B [([M) ]B [t]

For a cubic surface this equation reduces to:

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ww
w.E
asy
Note that, to represent a cubic Bezier surface, 16 control points must be specified, and several Bezier
surfaces can be combined to create a complex surface.

SOLID MODELING TECHNIQUES

En
gin
Solid modeling (or modeling) is a consistent set of principles for mathematical and computer modeling
of three-dimensional solids. Solid modeling is distinguished from related areas of geometric modeling

ee
and computer graphics by its emphasis on physical fidelity.[1] Together, the principles of geometric

rin
and solid modeling form the foundation of computer-aided design and in general support the creation,
exchange, visualization, animation, interrogation, and annotation of digital models of physical objects.

Application of Solid Models

g.n
In mechanical engineering, a solid model is used for the following applications:
1. Graphics: generating drawings, surface and solid models
et
2. Design: Mass property calculation, interference analysis, finite element Modeling, kinematics and
mechanism analysis, animation, etc.
3. Manufacturing: Tool path generation and verification, process planning, dimension inspection,
tolerance and surface finish.
4. Component Assembly: Application to robotics and flexible manufacturing:
Assembly planning, vision algorithm, kinematics and dynamics driven by solid models.

Solid Model Representation

There are three different forms in which a solid model can be represented in CAD:
• Wireframe Model
• Surface Model
• Solid Model

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Wireframe Models: Joining points and curves creates wireframe models. These models can be ambiguous
and unable to provide mass property calculations, hidden surface removal, or generation of shaded images.
Wireframe models are mainly used for a quick verification of design ideas.
Surface Models: Surface models are created using points, lines, and planes. A surface model is unable to
identify points that do not lie on the surface, and therefore, the moment of inertia, volume, or sections of
the model cannot be obtained. A surface model can be shaded for better visibility. Surface models are used
for modeling surfaces of engineering components.
Solid models: Solid models are the most preferred form of CAD models. and represent unambiguous
image of a component. A solid model can be used to analyze the moment of inertia, mass, volume, sections
of the model, etc.
Solid models are mathematical models of objects in the real world that satisfy specific properties, listed
below.
1. Bounded: The boundary must limit and contain the interior of the solid.

ww
2. Homogeneously Three-Dimensional: No dangling edges or faces be present so that the boundary is
always in contact with the interior of the solid.
3. Finite: The solid must be finite in size.

w.E
Solid Model Creation Scheme
A solid model can be generated by the following schemes.

asy
1. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
2. Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
3. Sweeping

En
gin
A brief description of these schemes follows

Constructive Solid Geometry Scheme

ee rin
This scheme is based on the principle that two primitives can be combined to produce a new solid model.
This method is also known as ‘Building Block’ method. The scheme uses the Union, Intersection, and

g.n
Subtraction techniques to create three-dimensional models, which are based on the Boolean operation. The
steps involved in generating a solid model are:

1. Select the primitives from a library

et
2. Go through the scaling, dimension modification, and any other transformations.
3. Combine the primitives to create the desired solid model.

Since CSG method uses solid primitives, internal details of the object are automatically contained in the
model. The model can be sectioned to reveal internal details and can be used for calculating mass, volume,
moment of inertia, etc.

New solid models can be created from the primitives or other solid models by the following operations:

• Union (U): Two solids are joined and the common volume of one of the primitives is neglected in the
resulting solid.
• Subtraction or Difference (-): One solid is subtracted from the other and the resultant solid retains
only the uncut portion of the solid.

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• Intersection (П): When two solids are combined, the resultant solid represents the common volume
of the two solids.

The most common primitive solids found in a CAD program are:

Block, Cylinder, Cone, Sphere, Wedge, and Torus.

Constructive solid geometry (CSG) (formerly called computational binary solid geometry) is a
technique used in solid modeling. Constructive solid geometry allows a modeler to create a complex
surface or object by using Booleanoperators to combine simpler objects. Often CSG presents a model
or surface that appears visually complex, but is actually little more than cleverly combined or
decombined objects.

ww
In 3D computer graphics and CAD CSG is often used in procedural modeling. CSG can also be
performed on polygonal meshes, and may or may not be procedural and/or parametric.

w.E
Workings of CSG

asy
The simplest solid objects used for the representation are called primitives. Typically they are the
objects of simple shape: cuboids, cylinders, prisms, pyramids, spheres, cones. The set of allowable

En
primitives is limited by each software package. Some software packages allow CSG on curved objects
while other packages do not.

gin
It is said that an object is constructed from primitives by means of allowable operations, which are

ee
typically Booleanoperations on sets: union, intersection and difference, as well as geometric
transformations of those sets.

rin
A primitive can typically be described by a procedure which accepts some number of parameters; for

g.n
example, a sphere may be described by the coordinates of its center point, along with a radius value.
These primitives can be combined into compound objects using operations like these:

et
Combining these elementary operations, it is possible to build up objects with high complexity starting
from simple ones.

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w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Applications of CSG
Constructive solid geometry has a number of practical uses. It is used in cases where simple geometric
objects are desired, or where mathematical accuracy is important.[3] Nearly all engineering CAD

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packages use CSG (where it may be useful for representing tool cuts, and features where parts must fit
together).

The Quake engine and Unreal engine both use this system, as does Hammer (the native Source engine
level editor), and Torque Game Engine/Torque Game Engine Advanced. CSG is popular because a
modeler can use a set of relatively simple objects to create very complicated geometry. When CSG is
procedural or parametric, the user can revise their complex geometry by changing the position of
objects or by changing the Boolean operation used to combine those objects.

One of the advantages of CSG is that it can easily assure that objects are "solid" or water-tight if all of
the primitive shapes are water-tight. This can be important for some manufacturing or engineering
computation applications. By comparison, when creating geometry based upon boundary
representations, additional topological data is required, or consistency checks must be performed to

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assure that the given boundary description specifies a valid solid object.

w.E
A convenient property of CSG shapes is that it is easy to classify arbitrary points as being either inside
or outside the shape created by CSG. The point is simply classified against all the underlying
primitives and the resulting boolean expression is evaluated. This is a desirable quality for some

asy
applications such as ray tracing.

B-REP

En
In solid modeling and computer-aided design, boundary representation—often abbreviated as B-rep

gin
or BREP—is a method for representing shapes using the limits. A solid is represented as a collection
of connected surface elements, the boundary between solid and non-solid.

ee
Boundary representation models are composed of two parts: topology and geometry (surfaces, curves

rin
and points). The main topological items are: faces, edges and vertices. A face is a bounded portion of a
surface; an edge is a bounded piece of a curve and a vertex lies at a point. Other elements are the shell

g.n
(a set of connected faces), the loop (a circuit of edges bounding a face) and loop-edge links (also
known as winged edge links or half-edges) which are used to create the edge circuits. The edges are
like the edges of a table, bounding a surface portion.

Boundary Representation (B-Rep) Scheme

et
This scheme is based on the concept that a physical object is bounded by a set of faces. A solid model is
created by combining faces and contains vertices, edges, loops, and bodies. Only the boundary surfaces of
the model are stored and the volumetric properties are calculated by the Gauss Divergence theorem, which
relates volume integral to surface integrals. This scheme can model a variety of solids depending on the
primitive surfaces (planar, curved, or sculptured). There are two types of solid models in this scheme:

1. Polyhedral solids
2. Curved solids
1. Polyhedral Solids: Polyhedral models consist of straight edges, e.g., a non-cylindrical surface: box,
wedge, combination of two or more non-cylindrical bodies, etc. Polyhedral solids can have blind or
through holes, and two or three-dimensional faces, with no dangling edges. A valid polyhedral abides by
the Euler’s equation:
F – E + V – L = 2 (B-G)

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Where,
F = Face
E = Edge
V = Vertices
L = Inner Loop
B = Bodies
G = Through holes
A simple polyhedral has no holes; each face is bounded by a single set of connected edges (bounded by
one loop of edges).
Euler’s equation for a simple polyhedral can be reduced to: F - E + V = 2
Example: For the box shown, F = 6, E = 12, and V = 8

Examples of other types of polyhedral are shown below.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Curved Solids: A curved solid is similar to a polyhedral object but it has curved faces and edges. Spheres

ee
and cylinders are examples of curved solids.

rin
g.n
et
Primitives: In B-rep, a model is made up of the following primitives:
• Vertex: A point in space
• Edge: A finite, no-intersecting space curve bounded by two vertices that are not necessarily distinct.
• Face: A finite connected, non-self-intersecting, region of a closed oriented surface, bounded by one
or more loops.
• Loop: An ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges. A loop defines a non-self-intersecting
closed space curve, which may be a boundary of a face.
• Body: Entity that has faces, edges and vertices. A minimum body is a point.

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B-rep scheme is closely related to the traditional drafting method.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

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Sweeping Scheme
Sweeping can create a solid model. The method is useful for creating 2 ½ – dimension models. The
generated models are axisymmetric and have uniform thickness (i.e., extruded models). There are two
types of sweeps: linear and rotational. In linear sweep, a closed 2-D sketch is extruded through the desired
length, creating a homogeneous and axisymmetric model, as shown in the figure.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

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Hidden line and surface removal

 OR visible line and surface determination (chapter 16)
 we have polygon faces defined for our object; we need to draw these faces so that faces
in front overwrite faces in the back

ww
w.E
 asy
this is a central problem in graphics and computational geometry: speed!

En
various algorithms devised which are suited to different needs and devices
o eg. a video technique may differ substantially from that for a pen plotter

Hidden lines and surfaces gin



ee
algorithms fall into 2 categories:
rin
1. image-precision (device-precision) algorithms: work on a pixel basis by determining
visibility at each pixel
g.n
o "sampling": samples object geometry at device-dependent increments
o algorithm complexity proportional to device resolution

 et
o because of sampling, can get aliasing problems (ie. "jagged line" error)
2. object-precision algorithms: determine visibility via the geometry of the model
o "continuous": finds most precise answers as possible
o compares n graphical objects with each other: n*n complexity
o however, more complex mathematics, so this is usually slower than image
precision

Types of algorithms
1. Visible-line determination: examine edge geometry, and determine edge segments that
are visible or are hidden
2. Z-buffer: device-precision algorithm that records the visible object found at each pixel
3. List priority algorithms: object-precise algorithms that sort objects such that when drawn
in that order, a correct rendering of hidden surfaces occurs

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4. Scan-line algorithms: image-precise algorithms that determine visibility one scan-line at a

time
5. Area subdivision algorithms: divide-and-conquer applied to object areas
6. Ray tracing: determine visible object by tracing line from user eye to each pixel in scene

... and others

Coherence
 some general principles apply to ALL computer graphics algorithms
 coherence: degree to which parts of object exhibit local similarities
 most parts of the objects in a drawing are more similar than not

ww 
o if you account for this, then changes can be done incrementally & therefore
quickly
face coherence: face shading is gradual

w.E



scan line coherence: each scan line typically changes little from those above and below it
area coherence: adjacent pixels are typically on the same face

asy
frame coherence: in animation, each frame differs very slightly from previous frame
 many hidden line techniques exploit these facts

Hidden line removal

En

gin
if you are drawing wireframes, then the hidden line problem is to find the lines or line
segments that are obstructed by interceding polygons, and not draw them in full or part

 ee
eg. functions of 2 variables: y = f(x,z)

rin
simple approach: for constant z values, compute values at x intervals, and draw lines
between


o need to remove line portions that are obstructed

g.n
Quick + dirty: if on a CRT, then start at min z value, compute y's for x's and z, rotate &
convert to 2D (screen coordinates), and draw it
o works from screen top to bottom, left to right et
o but each time you draw a new y value, erase everything BELOW that point
o effectively removes obstructed parts of drawing
o disadvantage: won't work for plotters (cannot erase lines!), and won't work for x-y
meshes
 Other algorithms (e.g. horizon line algorithm) are more general.
 By the way, can convert a 3D printer into pen plotter!

Hidden surfaces
 hidden line algorithms above are for functions on surfaces
 the more general problem is when you have assorted volumes in 3D space
o these volumes are not necessarily mathematical functions

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 general problem:
o given points P1=(x1,y1,z1), P2=(x2,y2,z2) are P1 and P2 on same projector to
viewers eye?
o and if so, which one is closer (ie. the one the eye sees) and should be drawn?
 note that this takes into account perspective, as well as colouring, shading, etc, since we
draw the actual colour of that object point
 hidden surface detection done after model is transformed and perspective applied
o parallel projection: compare projections (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
o perspective projection: apply perspective scaling t', and then compare points (x1',
y1') and (x2', y2')
 different algorithms attempt to make this comparison as efficient as possible
o eg, prune the # of points/surfaces to compare

ww
Efficiency techniques

w.Ea) perform volume clipping: then less objects to compare
b) check if object extents overlap

asy
o object extent: the minimum and maximum screen X and Y values
o a quick way to disregard hidden line checking

En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Efficiency:

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 c) back-facing polygon elimination:

 polygon normal: the perpendicular ray (direction) from the plane containing the polygon
 the equation of this plane determines the side of plane that normal points in graphics,
useful to make the normal point towards the front of the poly.
o if an object defined in terms of planar polygons, and if the object is closed, then
we can then disregard drawing polygons whose normals are pointing away from
user (neg values)
o graphics routines: compute normal for the polygon; if it points towards user then
use it; otherwise ignore it

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Backface elimination et
 this can be expensive: have to compute normal's direction wrt user eye
 however, there's a trick: when you use simple convex planar polygons, then you can use
right-hand rule to determine direction of normal
 define the polygon edges in a counterclockwise order
 when you wrap right hand fingers in this direction, thumb points at front normal
 then, the graphics routine simply checks if the polygon being drawn is being done so in a
counterclockwise fashion
o --> if yes, it is a front-facing one; if not, it is back-facing
 Quick mathematical way to determine it:
o use sign of Z-component of dot product of 2 polygon edges, selected via CCW
ordering of vertices.
o --> if positive: facing towards viewer

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o --> if negative : facing away from viewer

 OpenGL:
o glFrontFace(GL_CCW); (or GL_CW)
 specifies clockwise or counterclockwise
o glCullFace(GL_BACK); (or GL_FRONT)
 specifies back or front facing culling
o glEnable(GL_CULL_FACE);
 turns backface elimination on
o significant speedup: cuts number of polygons to process by half
o make sure that you define your polygons in counterclockwise direction if
GL_CCW set
o (if you see very little of object, you've defined polygon's in clockwise

ww
Z Buffering

w.Ez buffering (or depth buffering) is one of the simplest hidden surface algorithms
via hardware or software, an extra "z" buffer is maintained along with frame buffer. It

asy
keeps track of the distance to nearest object at each pixel location.
 initialized to minimum z value (eg. most negative)
 then, when object being drawn, if its z coordinate at a point is greater (more positive, less

En
distance to viewer) than z buffer value, it is drawn, and new z coord is saved; otherwise,
it is not drawn

gin
if a line seg in 3D is being drawn, then the intermediate z values between endpoint z
coords are interpolated: linear interpolation for polygons, and can compute z for more


complex surfaces
some problems:
ee rin
o aliasing: limited to size of z buffer word per pixel; can have imprecision at
extremely far distances --> important to have as small a viewing volume as


possible
g.n
possible to write into and manipulate z buffer memory directly, eg. cursors

Z buffer et

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ww
w.E
OpenGL: Z buffer asy

 En
graphics cards directly support z buffer
initialize (GLUT):

gin
glutInitDisplayMode(GLUT_RGB | GLUT_SINGLE | GLUT_DEPTH);
glEnable(GL_DEPTH_TEST);


ee
To use: clear the Z-buffer whenever a new frame is to be drawn:
rin
glClear(GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT);
 can combine with colour clearing: g.n
glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT | GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT);
et
 And that's it! must remember to clear the z-buffer whenever you draw a new frame

List-Priority algorithms
 These algorithms sort objects in an ordering that, when drawn, causes hidden surface
removal.
 if objects don't overlap, then simply sorting on "z" coordinate and drawing them from
farthest to nearest z will work
 However, in general, objects can overlap, so more complex criteria are needed

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Depth-sort
 also called "painter's algorithm": how a painter might paint a scene

ww
1. sort all polygons according to smallest z coordinate of each (ie. distance to viewer)
2. resolve overlaps (split polygons if necessary)
3. scan convert polygons from farthest to nearest

w.Ealgorithm works for objects that lie in planes of constant z

o (eg. windowing systems), or those whose z extents do not overlap

 asy
o --> step 2 not required then
otherwise, step 2 must test whether polygons do not overlap, if any of these tests are true:

En
o i) polygons' x extents overlap
o ii) polygons' y extents overlap

gin
o iii) their projection extents on x-y plane overlap
o iv) one polygon is on one side or the other of other's plane and if so, split them up

ee
using clipping
 with simple objects and meshes (eg. closed solid volumes), this technique is often quite

rin
efficient, because objects can be drawn from furthest to closest without worrying about
overlapping polygons.

Area subdivision (Warnock's Algorithm) g.n

 et
Idea: try to make an easy decision about which polygon is visible in a section of the
image (area coherence)
o If a decision cannot be made, subdivide the area recursively until one can be
made.
 Can be device-precise (stop at pixel) or object-precise (stop at error range)
 Recursive algorithm:
o divide image into 4 equal areas
o for each area (see tests below):
o 1. are all polygons disjoint from area? (test d)
 yes --> display background colour
o 2. only one intersecting or contained polygon (tests b, c)
 yes --> fill with background colour, and then draw contained polygon or
intersecting portion
o 3. one single surrounding polygon, no intersecting or contained polygons (test a)

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 yes --> draw area with that polygon's colour

o 4. more than one polygon is intersecting, contained in, or surrounding, but only
one polygon is surrounding the area and is in front of others (test a)
 yes --> draw area with that front polygon's colour
o e) ELSE --> subdivide the area into 4 equal areas and recurse
 4 test cases (shaded polygon is to be rendered):

ww
w.E
asy
En
Area subdivision
gin



precise level ee
Clipping the polygons at step 2 and draw can be done at an object precise or image

rin
Quitting: if none of the test cases have terminated, then you can stop either at image
precise or device precise resolution
g.n
o eg. if stopping at pixel resolution, then find the nearest polygon at the centre of
the area - colour the pixel that colour

et
o eg. for antialiasing, could compute the relative area of the area covered by
different polygons and the background, and give an average colour

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ww
w.E
Ray Tracing


asy
For each pixel, compute the colour that the viewer's eye will see in the scene
 hidden surface removal is a product of this
 ray tracing is also effective for photorealistic rendering

En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Ray Tracing

et
ray tracers need to compute intersection of eye ray with every object, and save the closest
object point found
o recall: ray is a direction in 3D space
o require various mathematical formulae to compute intersection of ray with planes,
spheres, ellipsoids, cylinders, other surfaces and volumes
 contrast ray tracing with pure Z buffering
o ray tracing: 1024 by 1024 screen, 100 objects --> 100 Million intersections to
compute
o Z buffering: saves nearest z value of objects that project to that pixel
 --> no intersections, and only visible pixels used
 Ray tracing still useful for its ability to calculate lighting & effects, which would have to
be done in Z buffering application anyway
 Can speed up ray tracing by exploiting coherence properties:

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o optimizing intersection calculations, by computing equation values in advance

and saving them; exploiting special properties of some geometries;
o avoiding intersection computations (object extent checks)
o exploiting spatial partitioning

Summary: hidden surface

 hardware advances mean that Z buffering is a simple and general means for hidden
surface determination
o when CPU's were slow and memory was expensive, it simply wasn't feasible!
 However, other approaches are useful / required for different applications:
o 3D functions - sorting patches is faster than Z buffer

ww
SHADING:
o pen plotters: require hidden line determination

w.E
SHADING

asy
In computer graphics, shading refers to the process of altering the color of an
object/surface/polygon in the 3D scene, based on its angle to lights and its distance from lights to
create a photorealistic effect. Shading is performed during the rendering process by a program
called a shader.
En
Angle to light source
gin
 Shading alters the colors of faces in a 3D model based on the angle of the surface to a
light source or light sources.
ee
 The first image below has the faces of the box rendered, but all in the same color. Edge

rin
lines have been rendered here as well which makes the image easier to see.
 The second image is the same model rendered without edge lines. It is difficult to tell
where one face of the box ends and the next begins.
g.n
 The third image has shading enabled, which makes the image more realistic and makes it
easier to see which face is which.
et
 Rendered image of a box. This image has no shading on its faces, but uses edge lines to
separate the faces. This is the same image with the edge lines removed. This isthe same
image rendered
 with shading of the faces to alter the colors of the 3 faces based on their angle to the light
sources

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Shading effects from floodlight. gin
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Shading is also dependent on the lighting used. Usually, upon rendering a scene a number
of different lighting techniques will be used to make the rendering look more realistic.
Different types of light sources are used to give different effects.
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Ambient lighting
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An ambient light source represents a fixed-intensity and fixed-color light source that affects all

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Objects in the scene equally. Upon rendering, all objects in the scene are brightened with the
specified intensity and color. This type of light source is mainly used to provide the scene with a
basic view of the different objects in it. This is the simplest type of lighting to implement and models
how light can be scattered or reflected many times producing a uniform effect.
Ambient lighting can be combined with ambient occlusion to represent how exposed each point
of the scene is, affecting the amount of ambient light it can reflect. This produces diffuse, non-
directional lighting throughout the scene, casting no clear shadows, but with enclosed and
sheltered areas darkened. The result is usually visually similar to an overcast day.

Directional lighting
A directional light source illuminates all objects equally from a given direction, like an area light
of infinite size and infinite distance from the scene; there is shading, but cannot be any distance
falloff.

Point lighting
Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in all directions.

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Spotlight lighting
Models a Spotlight. Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in a cone.
Area lighting
Light originates from a small area on a single plane. A more accurate model than a point light
ource.
Volumetric lighting
Light originating from a small volume, an enclosed space lighting objects within that space.
Shading is interpolated based on how the angle of these light sources reach the objects within a
scene. Of course, these light sources can be and often are combined in a scene.
The renderer then interpolates how these lights must be combined, and produces a 2d image to
be displayed on the screen accordingly.

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Distance falloff

Theoretically, two surfaces which are parallel, are illuminated the same amount from a distant

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light source, such as the sun. Even though one surface is further away, your eye sees more of it in
the same space, so the illumination appears the same. Notice in the first image that the color on
the front faces of the two boxes is exactly the same. It appears that there is a slight difference

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where the two faces meet, but this is an optical illusion because of the vertical edge below where
the two faces meet.Notice in the second image that the surfaces on the boxes are bright on the

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front box and darker on the back box. Also the floor goes from light to dark as it gets farther
away. This distance falloff effect produces images which appear more realistic without having to

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add additional lights to achieve the same effect.

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Flat shading
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Flat shading is a lighting technique used in 3D computer graphics to shade each polygon of an
object based on the angle between the polygon's surface normal and the direction of the light

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source, their respective colors and the intensity of the light source. It is usually used for high

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speed rendering here more advanced shading techniques are too computationally expensive. As a
result of flat shading all of the polygon's vertices are colored with one color, allowing

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differentiation between adjacent polygons. Specular highlights are rendered poorly with flat
shading: If there happens to be a large specular component at the representative vertex, that
brightness is drawn uniformly over the entire face. If a specular highlight doesn’t fall on the

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representative point, it is missed entirely. Consequently, the specular reflection component is
usually not included in flat shading computation.

Smooth shading
In contrast to flat shading with smooth shading the color changes from pixel to pixel. It assumes
that the surfaces are curved and uses interpolation techniques to calculate the values of pixels
between the vertices of the polygons.
Types of smooth shading include:
 Gouraud shading 3
 Phong shading 4

Gouraud shading
1. Determine the normal at each polygon vertex
2. Apply an illumination model to each vertex to calculate the vertex intensity
3. Interpolate the vertex intensities using bilinear interpolation over the surface polygon.

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Data structures
 Sometimes vertex normals can be computed directly (e.g. height field with uniform
mesh)
 More generally, need data structure for mesh
 Key: which polygons meet at each vertex
Advantages
 Polygons, more complex than triangles, can also have different colors specified for
each vertex. In these instances, the underlying logic for shading can become more intricate.

Problems
 Even the smoothness introduced by Gouraud shading may not prevent the appearance
of the shading differences between adjacent polygons.
 Gouraud shading is more CPU intensive and can become a problem when rendering

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 T-Junctions with adjoining polygons can sometimes result in visual anomalies. In

w.Egeneral, T-Junctions should be avoided.

Phong shading

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Phong shading is similar to Gouraud shading, except that the Normals are interpolated. Thus, the
specular highlights are computed much more precisely than in the Gouraud shading model:

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1. Compute a normal N for each vertex of the polygon.
2. From bilinear interpolation compute a normal, Ni for each pixel. (This must be

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renormalized each ime)
3. From Ni compute an intensity Ii for each pixel of the polygon.
4. Paint pixel to shade corresponding to Ii.

Other Approaches ee rin

Both Gouraud shading and Phong shading can be implemented using bilinear interpolation.

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Bishop and Weimer 5 proposed to use a Taylor series expansion of the resulting expression from
applying an illumination model and bilinear interpolation of the normals. Hence, second degree
polynomial interpolation was used. This type of biquadratic interpolation was further elaborated

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by Barrera et al., 6 where one second order polynomial was used to interpolate the diffuse light
of the Phong reflection model and another second order polynomial was used for the specular
light.
Spherical Linear Interpolation (Slerp) was used by Kuij and Blake for computing both the
normal over the polygon as well as the vector in the direction to the light source. A similar
approach was proposed by Hast, 8 which uses Quaternion interpolation of the normals with the
advantage that the normal will always have unit length and the computationally heavy
normalization is avoided.

COMPUTER ANIMATION

Computer animation, or CGI animation, is the process used for generating animated images
by using computer graphics. The more general term computer-generated imagery encompasses
both static scenes and dynamic images while computer animation only refers to moving images.

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Modern computer animation usually uses 3D computer graphics, although 2D computer graphics
are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time renderings.
Sometimes, the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another
medium, such as film.
Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the stop motion techniques used in
traditional animation with 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations.
Computer-generated animations are more controllable than other more physically based
processes, such as constructing miniatures for effects shots or hiring extras for crowd scenes, and
because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other technology. It
can also allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without the use of actors, expensive
set pieces, or props.
To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer monitor and

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repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to it, but advanced slightly in time (usually at
a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is
achieved withtelevision and motion pictures.

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For 3D animations, all frames must be rendered after the modeling is complete. For 2D vector
animations, the rendering process is the key frame illustration process, while tweened frames are
rendered as needed. For pre-recorded presentations, the rendered frames are transferred to a

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different format or medium, such as film or digital video. The frames may also be rendered in
real time as they are presented to the end-user audience.

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Low bandwidth animations transmitted via the internet (e.g. 2D Flash, X3D) often use software
on the end-users computer to render in real time as an alternative to streaming or pre-loaded high

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bandwidth animations.

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Unit-IV- ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

ASSEMBLY MODELLING:

• Assembly modeling is a combination of two or more components using parametric

relationships.
• Typically a designer would start with a base part
• Add other components to the base part using merge commands.

Assembly modeling is a technology and method used by computer-aided design and

product visualization computer software systems to handle multiple files that represent
components within a product. The components within an assembly are represented as solid or
surface models.

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The individual data files describing the 3D geometry of individual components are assembled
together through a number of sub-assembly levels to create an assembly describing the whole
product. All CAD and CPD systems support this form of bottom-up construction. Some

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systems, via associative copying of geometry between components also allow top-down method
of design.

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Components can be positioned within the product assembly using absolute coordinate placement
methods or by means of mating conditions.

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Mating conditionsare definitions of the relative position of components between each other; for

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example alignment of axis of two holes or distance of two faces from one another. The final
position of all components based on these relationships is calculated using a geometry constraint
engine built into the CAD or visualization package.

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The importance of assembly modeling in achieving the full benefits of PLM has led to ongoing
advances in this technology. These include the use of lightweight data structures such as JT that

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allow visualization of and interaction with large amounts of product data, direct interface to
between Digital Mock ups and PDM systems and active digital mock up technology that unites
the ability to visualize the assembly mock up with the ability to measure, analyze, simulate,
design and redesign.
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Top-down and bottom-up are both strategies of information processing and knowledge
ordering, used in a variety of fields including software, humanistic and scientific theories (see
systemics), and management and organization. In practice, they can be seen as a style of
thinking, teaching, or leadership.

A top-down approach (also known as stepwise design and in some cases used as a synonym of
decomposition) is essentially the breaking down of a system to gain insight into its compositional
sub-systems in a reverse engineering fashion. In a top-down approach an overview of the system
is formulated, specifying, but not detailing, any first-level subsystems. Each subsystem is then
refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many additional subsystem levels, until the entire
specification is reduced to base elements. A top-down model is often specified with the
assistance of "black boxes", which make it easier to manipulate. However, black boxes may fail
to elucidate elementary mechanisms or be detailed enough to realistically validate the model.

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Top down approach starts with the big picture. It breaks down from there into smaller
segments.[1]

A bottom-up approach is the piecing together of systems to give rise to more complex systems,
thus making the original systems sub-systems of the emergent system. Bottom-up processing is a
type of information processing based on incoming data from the environment to form a
perception. From a Cognitive Psychology perspective, information enters the eyes in one
direction (sensory input, or the "bottom"), and is then turned into an image by the brain that can
be interpreted and recognized as a perception (output that is "built up" from processing to final
cognition). In a bottom-up approach the individual base elements of the system are first specified
in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which then in
turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed. This
strategy often resembles a "seed" model, by which the beginnings are small but eventually grow

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in complexity and completeness. However, "organic strategies" may result in a tangle of
elements and subsystems, developed in isolation and subject to local optimization as opposed to
meeting a global purpose.

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Assembly Model Used for ...

Creation of orthographic assembly drawings.
Creation of explodedassemblies.
Facilitate packaging
Perform interference and clearance checks.

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Part/Sub-assembly Placement Examples of constraints applied to assemble components
– Alignment

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• surfaces, axes
• with offset distances
– Mating
• surfaces, edges
– Coincidence asy
• points, edges
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Assembly modeling
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•Parts modeling and representation
•Hierarchical relation
•Mating conditions ee rin
Assembly modeling
•Dependency among parts g.n
•Hierarchical relation and mating condition
•Mating condition and spatial relation et
•Assembly analysis: interference(Mating tolerance), mass property, kinematics /dynamics
•Design change=> auto updates of the assembly

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Representation of Parts model
•Individual part
•Geometric modeling
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•Attributes

Simplified Representation
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• Large assembly models can serious stain the processor capabilities of the hardware
system being used.
• In these cases, many assembly modelers provide means for simplifying the assembly.
• The use of instancing helps reduce complexity.

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Assembly Hierarchy
•The assembly hierarchy defines relationships of parts to each other
•There can be multiple levels of sub-assemblies

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Tolerance Analysis
Term used in dimensioning workpiecedimensions
•Nominal Size:
It has no specified limits or accuracy but indicates a close approximation to some standard size.
For eg.a half inch nut will fit into a half inch bolt.

•Basic Size:
It is the exact theoretical size from which the limits are established through the applications of
allowances and tolerances.
•Allowance:
An allowance is an intentional difference between maximum material limits of mating parts.

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•Tolerance:
A tolerance is the total permissible variation from the specified basic size of the part.

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•Limit:

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Limits are extreme permissible dimension of the part

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Mass Property Analysisr:sis

"Mass Properties" are physical attributes of a mechanical part that relate to how the component
will behave in an environment. These properties include familiar attributes such as the weight
and volume of the object. They also include more advanced physical information such as its
center of mass and moments of inertia. Below is Table 1 that describes the type of Mass
Properties that one can generate from a solid computer model.

SOLID MODEL MASS PROPERTIES

1. SURFACE AREA: The surface area is the total area of the boundary

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2. BOUNDING BOX: The bounding box is a rectangular box that encloses the
solid model and fits exactly the model's upper and lower X, Y, and Z extents.

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3. VOLUME: The volume of a body is the total volume of space enclosed by its
boundary surfaces.

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4. CENTROID: Centroid of a volume is the origin of coordinate axes for which

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first moments of the volume are zero. It is considered center of a volume.

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For a homogeneous body in a parallel gravity field, mass center and center
of gravity coincide with the centroid.

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5. MASS: The mass of a body is the measure of its property to resist change in
its steady motion. The mass depends on the volume of the body and the
density of the material of which the body is made. et
6. MOMENTS OF INERTIA: A moment of inertia is the second moment of
mass of a body relative to an axis, usually X, Y, or Z. It is a measure of
body's property to resist change in its steady rotation about that axis. It
depends on body's mass and its distribution around the axis of interest.

7. PRODUCTS OF INERTIA: Products of inertia are expressions similar to

moments of inertia. They describe the lack of symmetricity in mass
distribution relative to two axes of interest.

ME6501-COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN Unit-IV

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Unit-IV- ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

8. PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA: Principal moments of inertia are

extreme (maximal, minimal) moments of inertia for a body. They are
associated with principal axes of inertia which have origin at the centroid,
and the direction of each usually given by the three unit-vector components.
For these axes, the products of inertia are zero.

9. RADII OF GYRATION: The radius of gyration is the distance from the axis
of interest where all the mass can be concentrated while still yielding the
same.

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ME6501-COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN Unit-IV

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