Volume 6, Issue 7, July – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Evaluation of Methods Applied for Extraction and

Processing of Oil Palm Products in Selected States of
Southern Nigeria
Etuk E.U., Obafemi A.A., and Abagwa O.
Institute of Natural Resource, Environment and Sustainable Development, Faculty of Science, University of Port Harcourt, Port
Harcourt, Nigeria

Abstract:- The study evaluated the methods applied for (Bassey, 2016). Oil palm is also an essential food item.
extraction and processing of oil palm products in the About 90 percent of the palm oil produced ends in food
selected States of Southern Nigeria. The study adopted products, while the remaining 10 percent is used for
the use of cross sectional research design and made use industrial production. As a result of its many uses demand is
of 560 structured copies of questionnaire to elicit growing fast as the world’s population increases and
information from the oil palm farmers and producers standards of living rise (FAO, 2014). Production of palm oil
using purposive and random sampling techniques. is more sustainable than other vegetable oils. It consumes
Descriptive statistics were used for analyzing the data. considerably less energy in production, uses less land and
Results showed that majority (74.2%) of respondents generates more oil per hectare than other leading vegetable
were females and majority (78.3%) were within the age oils-rapeseed, Europe’s leading oil, or soybeans (Onoja and
of 36 and 55 years. More than 70% of respondents made Achike, 2015). Palm oil is used for preventing vitamin A
use of maximum of one hectare of land for oil palm deficiency and is rumored to be good for cancer sufferers,
production. Findings also revealed that native method of brain disease, aging; and treating malaria, high blood
oil palm extraction and processing dominated the entire pressure, high cholesterol, and cyanide poisoning. Palm oil
study area; and followed by squeeze press; with small is used for weight loss and increasing the body’s
scale utilization dominating in terms of oil palm metabolism. As a food, palm oil is used for cooking and
producers and methods applied for extraction in the frying. Industrially, palm oil is used for manufacturing
study area. The study therefore recommended that cosmetics, soaps, toothpaste, waxes, lubricants, and ink
government should support the oil palm (Bassey, 2016). Palm oil can be used to produce biodiesel,
farmers/producers with loans and adequate credit which is also known as Palm Oil Methyl Ester (Federal
facilities that will aid crude oil palm extractions and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016). Oil
productions because of its socio-economic benefits to palm is a typical crop of the rainy tropical lowlands. The
rural livelihoods and food production processes in the plant belongs to the kingdom Plantae, family Arecaceae, sub
study area and the increasing demands of crude oil palm. family Arecoideae, tribe Cocoeae, genius Elaeis, and it is
scientific name is Elaeis guineensis (Gledhill, 2008; FAO,
Keywords:- Methods, Extraction, Processing, Oil Palm, 2014). It is in the family along with coconut and date palms.
Southern Nigeria.
Palm produce accounted for about 82.1 % of the
I. INTRODUCTION Nigeria’s total domestic export between 1966 and 1973
(Adeniyi et al., 2014) and about 22 % of the foreign
The Oil palm is as old as creation. Every part of the exchange earnings up to the beginning of the civil war
tree is useful economically and for domestic purposes. It is (Modebe, 1978). As at 1986, the Nigeria’s domestic palm oil
generally agreed that the Oil Palm originated in the tropical production was estimated to be 760,000 metric tonnes while
rain forest region of West Africa (Food and Agriculture her imports then stood at 179,000 metric tonnes. Palm
Organization (FAO), 2014). The main belt runs through the kernel, a by-product of palm oil is also consequently
southern latitudes of Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, produced in large quantities in Nigeria during the same
Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo and into the equatorial period. Palm kernel output however declined from 419,000
region of Angola and the Congo (Agriculture Organization metric tonnes during the period 1960 –1965 to 385,000
of Nigeria (AON), 2019). Processing oil palm fruits for metric tonnes from 1985 –1987 probably due to poor market
edible oil has been practiced in Africa for thousands of outlet for the product. The oil palm is one of the important
years, and the oil produced, highly coloured and flavoured, economic crops in the tropics (Adeniyi et al., 2014). It is the
is an essential ingredient in much of the traditional West most important source of oil and produces more oil per
African cuisine. The traditional process is simple, but hectare than any of the oil producing crops. The primary
tedious and inefficient (FAO, 2014). Mature palms are products of the oil palm are palm oil (from the mesocarp)
single-stemmed and grow to 20 m tall. The leaves are and palm kernel oil obtained from the kernels (seeds). Palm
pinnate and reach between 3-5 m long. In Nigeria, it is oil contains carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, a high prized
cultivated in the South East Zone and the Niger Delta areas energy vitamin rich food used for cooking in oil producing

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countries of Africa. Palm oil and palm kernel oil provide by process control laboratories ensure smooth, efficient
raw materials in the manufacture of soaps and detergents, operation. Although such large installations are capital
margarine, candle, confectionery, epoxy resins, bakery intensive, extraction rates of 23 - 24 percent palm oil per
trade, lubricants, pomades and cosmetics. Other uses include bunch can be achieved from good quality Tenera (PIND,
palm kernel cake obtained from the crushing of palm kernel 2011).
to extract oil. It serves as additives in livestock feed
manufacture. Conversion of crude palm oil to refined oil involves
removal of the products of hydrolysis and oxidation, colour
Processing oil palm fruits for edible oil has been and flavour. After refining, the oil may be separated
practiced in Africa for thousands of years, and the oil (fractionated) into liquid and solid phases by thermo-
produced, highly coloured and flavoured, is an essential mechanical means (controlled cooling, crystallization, and
ingredient in much of the traditional West African cuisine. filtering), and the liquid fraction (olein) is used extensively
The method used to extract vegetable oil depends on the as a liquid cooking oil in tropical climates, competing
type of raw material available. Raw materials may be successfully with the more expensive groundnut, corn, and
grouped according to the part of the plant that contains the sunflower oils.
fat or oil (seed, bean, nut or fruit). The main difference in
raw materials is the moisture content. Raw materials with Extraction of oil from the palm kernels is generally
low moisture content include seeds and beans and some separate from palm oil extraction, and will often be carried
nuts, which are dried on harvest. Palm fruit, olive fruits and out in mills that process other oilseeds (such as groundnuts,
some coconuts are processed wet (Adebiyi et al., 2017). rapeseed, cottonseed, shea nuts or copra). The stages in this
Only seeds, nuts and fruits that contain considerable process comprise grinding the kernels into small particles,
amounts of edible oil are used for small-scale oil extraction. heating (cooking), and extracting the oil using an oilseed
Other types (for example maize) may contain edible oil, but expeller or petroleum-derived solvent. The oil then requires
the quantities are too small for economic processing on a clarification in a filter press or by sedimentation. Extraction
small-scale. However, not all oil-rich seeds and fruits have is a well-established industry, with large numbers of
edible oil; some contain toxins (poisons, usually of bacterial international manufacturers able to offer equipment that can
origin) or have unpleasant flavours; these are used only for process from 10 kg to several tonnes per hour (Poku, 2002).
varnishes, paints, etc. Others, (for example castor oil) need Alongside the development of these large-scale fully
very careful processing to make them safe for use as mechanised oil palm mills and their installation in
medicines. These are not suitable for small-scale processing plantations supplying the international edible oil refining
(FAO, 2014). industry, small-scale village and artisanal processing has
continued in Africa. Ventures range in throughput from a
Palm fruit contains about 56 percent oil (25 percent on few hundred kilograms up to 8 tonnes FFB per day and
a fresh fruit bunch basis) which is edible with no known supply oil to the domestic market (Poku, 2002).
toxins. It is thus suitable for small-scale processing.
Research and development work in many disciplines - Efforts to mechanise and improve traditional manual
biochemistry, chemical and mechanical engineering - and procedures have been undertaken by research bodies,
the establishment of plantations, which provided the development agencies, and private sector engineering
opportunity for large-scale fully mechanized processing, companies, but these activities have been piecemeal and
resulted in the evolution of a sequence of processing steps uncoordinated. They have generally concentrated on
designed to extract, from a harvested oil palm bunch, a high removing the tedium and drudgery from the mashing or
yield of a product of acceptable quality for the international pounding stage (digestion), and improving the efficiency of
edible oil trade. The oil winning process, in summary, oil extraction. Small mechanical, motorized digesters have
involves the reception of fresh fruit bunches from the been developed in most oil palm cultivating African
plantations, sterilizing and threshing of bunches to free the countries. Palm oil processors of all sizes go through these
palm fruit, mashing the fruit and pressing out the crude palm unit operational stages. They differ in the level of
oil. The oil is further treated to purify and dry it for storage mechanization of each unit operation and the
and export (FAO, 2014; Federal Ministry of Agriculture and interconnecting materials transfer mechanisms that make the
Rural Development, 2015). system batch or continuous. The scale of operations differs
at the level of process and product quality control that may
Large-scale plants, featuring all stages required to be achieved by the method of mechanization adopted (Singh
produce palm oil to international standards, are generally et al., 2013; FAO, 2014).
handling from 3 to 60 tonnes of FFB/hr. The large
installations have mechanical handling systems (bucket and There are several works done on oil palm processing
screw conveyers, pumps and pipelines) and operate and extraction. Ezeoha et al. (2012) reviewed literature on
continuously, depending on the availability of FFB. Boilers, the problems and prospects of indigenous design and
fuelled by fibre and shell, produce superheated steam, used manufacture of palm kernel oil screw press in Nigeria; while
to generate electricity through turbine generators. The lower Akande et al. (2013) examined the level oil palm production
pressure steam from the turbine is used for heating purposes mechanization in selected local government areas of Oyo
throughout the factory. Most processing operations are and Osun States, Nigeria. Oke (2002) evaluated palm oil
automatically controlled and routine sampling and analysis processing in Egbedore LGA of Osun State, Nigeria. Oil

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palm resources have been undergoing different ways of II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
being extracted and processed as recognised by different
studies but most of these studies did not undergo The study was carried out in communities in Akwa
quantification in terms of methodological approach used; Ibom, Imo and Rivers State, Southern Nigeria. They are
and also most of the studies have been restricted to a located geographically within latitude 4o 02’ 00’’N and 6o
particular region aside the Niger Delta. The present study is 00’ 00’’N and longitude 6o 00’ 00’’E and 8o 30’00’’E
examining the extraction and processing methods for palm (Figure 1). The study areas experience a tropical climate
oil in the core Niger Delta, Nigeria with a view to adopting consisting of rainy season (usually from April to November)
quantification approach. and dry season (December to March). High temperatures
and humidity as well as marked wet and dry seasons
characterize the climate of the area (Kuruk, 2004).

Figure 1: Study Area States

The geology is basically sedimentary and is dominated remaining 46 wards were obtained from the 3 LGAs in
by the geology of arcuate Niger delta; composed of an Rivers State. The total number of wards of 114 was
overall classic sequence which reaches a maximum considered high for the study. Thus, a sample size of 50%
thickness of 9-12 kilometers (lbe, 1988). The vegetation of was determined from the total number of each ward in each
the area is characterized by mangrove forests, brackish LGA. In other words, half of the size of each total number of
swamp forests and rain forests. The study adopted the cross wards (50%) was used as criteria for selecting oil palm
sectional research design (Schmidt and Kohlmann, 2008). farmers and processors as participants for the study. In each
The study involved using primary data acquired from the selected ward, ten (10) oil palm farmers and processors were
field surveys using structured questionnaire which was selected to give a total of 560 respondents for the study.
administered on the sampled oil palm producers and Thus, based on the number of wards, the sample size for the
business men and women in the study areas. The population study was 560 respondents. The sampling procedure
of study involved all oil palm processors in three LGAs employed multi-stage sampling, purposive sampling and
under each three States (that is; Akwa Ibom (Esit Eket, Nsit random sampling techniques. Oil palm agricultural zones
Ubium and Ibesikpo), Imo (Ezinihitte Mbaise, Obowo and namely; Akwa Ibom, Imo and Rivers States were
Aboh Mbaise) and Rivers States (Ikwerre, Etche and purposively selected among Niger Delta member states
Emohua)). The study area was divided into wards and a total because of the intensity of oil palm processing activities in
of 114 wards were obtained for the study whereby, 34 wards these areas and also that oil palm processing is largely a
were recorded for the 3 LGAs in Akwa Ibom, another 34 rural based enterprise (Onoh and Peter-Onoh, 2012; Eze et
wards were obtained from 3 LGAs in Imo State; while the al., 2014; Uche et al., 2017). Thus, rural communities as

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Volume 6, Issue 7, July – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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grouped by wards in each LGA under each state were used bracket of between 46 and 55 years; while the remaining
as the study areas where questionnaire administrations were 9.4% of sampled respondents are 56 years and above. Thus,
carried out for the study in line with the study objectives. more respondents within the age bracket of 26 and 55 years
Descriptive statistics in form of frequency and percentages were sampled for the study with majority (49.1%) being
were used for the data analyses. contributed from sampled oil palm farmers from Imo State.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The information for the level of education revealed
that 5.5% sampled respondents had primary level education;
Socio-economic Characteristics of Sampled Respondents 59.2% of sampled respondents had secondary level
The information displayed on Table 1 describes the education; 23.9% of respondents have tertiary level of
socio-economic characteristics of sampled respondents. In education; while the remaining 11.5% of sampled
Akwa Ibom State, it was revealed that 26.0% oil palm respondents have other forms of education that teaches them
farmer were males while 74.0% were females; in Imo State, to read and write. The occupational status of respondents for
27.3% respondents were males while 72.7% were females; the study indicated that 30.9% are farmers; 60.3% of the
however, least number of males (24.4%) were sampled from respondents are oil palm traders; while the remaining 8.8%
Rivers State with highest number of females of 75.6%. The of respondents are oil palm businessmen/women or retailers.
distribution revealed that more female oil palm The average monthly income of sampled respondents
farmers/traders/retailers were sampled for the study. The showed that 0.4% earn on the average #30,000; 4.4% of
information for the age distribution of sampled respondents respondents earn between #31,000 and #45,000; 18.3% of
revealed that 12.4% of sampled respondents were between sampled respondents earn on the average between #46,000
the age bracket of 26 and 35 years; 44.5% of sampled and #60,000; 47.7% of sampled respondents earn between
respondents were between the age bracket of 36 and 45 #61,000 and #80,000; while the remaining 29.2% of
years; 33.8% of sampled respondents falls within the age sampled respondents earn at least #81,000 and above.

Table 1: Socio-economic Characteristics of Sampled Respondents

State
Socio-economic Status Akwa Ibom Imo Rivers Total
Gender Male 39 44 52 135
26.0% 27.3% 24.4% 25.8%
Female 111 117 161 389
74.0% 72.7% 75.6% 74.2%
Age 26-35 years 15 20 30 65
10.0% 12.4% 14.1% 12.4%
36-45 years 69 79 85 233
46.0% 49.1% 39.9% 44.5%
46-55 years 51 49 77 177
34.0% 30.4% 36.2% 33.8%
56 years and above 15 13 21 49
10.0% 8.1% 9.9% 9.4%
Level of Education Primary 15 3 11 29
10.0% 1.9% 5.2% 5.5%
Secondary 87 100 123 310
58.0% 62.1% 57.7% 59.2%
Tertiary 32 41 52 125
21.3% 25.5% 24.4% 23.9%
Others 16 17 27 60
10.7% 10.6% 12.7% 11.5%
Occupation Farmer 49 47 66 162
32.7% 29.2% 31.0% 30.9%
Oil Palm Trader 91 98 127 316
60.7% 60.9% 59.6% 60.3%
Business/Retailer 10 16 20 46
6.7% 9.9% 9.4% 8.8%
Average monthly #31,000 - #60,000 0 2 0 2
income 0.0% 1.2% 0.0% 0.4%
#61,000 - #90,000 2 19 2 23
1.3% 11.8% 0.9% 4.4%
#91,000 - #120,000 27 41 28 96

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18.0% 25.5% 13.1% 18.3%
#121,000 - #150,000 74 67 109 250
49.3% 41.6% 51.2% 47.7%
#151,000 and above 47 32 74 153
31.3% 19.9% 34.7% 29.2%

Methods of Extraction and Processing of Oil Palm presented on Table 3. The results revealed that among LGAs
Products in the Study Area in Akwa Ibom State, Ibesikpo (11.6%) utilizes more of less
than 1 hectare of land for oil palm business; Aboh Mbaise
Land Area (hectares) Utilized for Oil Palm Production (11.1%) also showed that more oil palm farmers utilizes less
The land area (hectares) utilized for oil palm than 1 hectare of land; 18.5% was indicated for oil palm
production among sampled States is presented on Table 2. It farmers in Etche LGA with less than 1 hectare of land.
was revealed that more of Rivers oil palm producers However, in general, the study sampled more oil palm
(42.9%) (43.5%) and (37.7%) utilizes less than 1 hectare, 1 farmers in Ibesikpo and Ezinihitte LGAs with land area
hectare and between 1 and 2 hectares of land for oil palm utilization of more than 4 hectares in the study area. The
production in the study area. However, more oil palm information on Table 4 further shows the analysis for land
producers were sampled in the LGAs in Rivers State due to utilization among sampled oil palm producers in the study
higher number of wards. For land area space between 3 and area. The column analysis revealed that in the study area
4 hectares and above 4 hectares showed slightly lower land 36.1% of oil palm producers utilizes less than 1 hectare of
utilization for LGAs in Rivers State (32.6%) and (28.6%) land; 36.8% of oil palm farmers utilizes at least an hectare of
against Akwa Ibom (32.6% and 37.1%) and Imo States land; 11.6% of oil palm farmers occupied a land space of
(34.8% and 34.3%) which may be due to the cost of land in between 1 and 2 hectares; while the remaining 8.8% and
Rivers state which is usually higher in Rivers State than the 6.7% of sampled oil palm producers have between 3 and 4
other states. hectares and above 4 hectares of land for oil palm
cultivation in the study area.
In the same analysis, land utilization for oil palm
production was compared across LGAs and this was

Table 2: Land Area (Hectares) Utilized for Oil palm Production

State
Hectares of Land Used Akwa Ibom Imo Rivers Total
Less than 1 hectare 53 55 81 189
28.0% 29.1% 42.9% 100.0%
I hectare 51 58 84 193
26.4% 30.1% 43.5% 100.0%
Between 1 and 2 hectares 18 20 23 61
29.5% 32.8% 37.7% 100.0%
Between 3 and 4 hectares 15 16 15 46
32.6% 34.8% 32.6% 100.0%
Above 4 hectares 13 12 10 35
37.1% 34.3% 28.6% 100.0%
Total 150 161 213 524
28.6% 30.7% 40.6% 100.0%

Table 3: Hectares of Land Utilized for Oil palm Production (Row)

LGAs
Akwa Ibom Imo Rivers
Esit Nsit Aboh
Land Area (Hectares) Eket Ubium Ibesikpo Ezinihitte Obowo Mbaise Ikwerre Etche Emohua Total
Less than 1 hectare 15 16 22 18 16 21 24 35 22 189
7.9% 8.5% 11.6% 9.5% 8.5% 11.1% 12.7% 18.5% 11.6% 100.0%
I hectare 17 18 16 22 16 20 27 32 25 193

8.8% 9.3% 8.3% 11.4% 8.3% 10.4% 14.0% 16.6% 13.0% 100.0%
Between 1 and 2 7 6 5 6 6 8 6 8 9 61
hectares
11.5% 9.8% 8.2% 9.8% 9.8% 13.1% 9.8% 13.1% 14.8% 100.0%

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Between 3 and 4 5 4 6 6 6 4 6 5 4 46
hectares
10.9% 8.7% 13.0% 13.0% 13.0% 8.7% 13.0% 10.9% 8.7% 100.0%
Above 4 hectares 4 3 6 6 5 1 3 3 4 35

11.4% 8.6% 17.1% 17.1% 14.3% 2.9% 8.6% 8.6% 11.4% 100.0%
Total 48 47 55 58 49 54 66 83 64 524
9.2% 9.0% 10.5% 11.1% 9.4% 10.3% 12.6% 15.8% 12.2% 100.0%

Table 4: Hectares of Land Utilized for Oil palm Production (Column)

Land Area (Hectares)
Less than 1 Between 1 and Between 3 and Above 4
State LGAs hectare I hectare 2 hectares 4 hectares hectares Total
Akwa Ibom Esit Eket 15 17 7 5 4 48
31.3% 35.4% 14.6% 10.4% 8.3% 100.0%
Nsit Ubium 16 18 6 4 3 47
34.0% 38.3% 12.8% 8.5% 6.4% 100.0%
Ibesikpo 22 16 5 6 6 55
40.0% 29.1% 9.1% 10.9% 10.9% 100.0%
Imo Ezinihitte 18 22 6 6 6 58
31.0% 37.9% 10.3% 10.3% 10.3% 100.0%
Obowo 16 16 6 6 5 49
32.7% 32.7% 12.2% 12.2% 10.2% 100.0%
Aboh Mbaise 21 20 8 4 1 54
38.9% 37.0% 14.8% 7.4% 1.9% 100.0%
Rivers Ikwerre 24 27 6 6 3 66
36.4% 40.9% 9.1% 9.1% 4.5% 100.0%
Etche 35 32 8 5 3 83
42.2% 38.6% 9.6% 6.0% 3.6% 100.0%
Emohua 22 25 9 4 4 64
34.4% 39.1% 14.1% 6.3% 6.3% 100.0%
Total 189 193 61 46 35 524
36.1% 36.8% 11.6% 8.8% 6.7% 100.0%

Oil Palm Production Process method of boiling palm fruits. Plate 3 describes the modern
The oil palm production processing normally follows method of heating up the palm fruits before being processed
the steps displayed on Table 5. The first process is the and transferred to the Clarification Tank (the whole process
softening of the palm fruits which is being is automated but only need a controller that monitors the
pounded/skimmed into paste like product after which the oil process). Plate 4 showed a local clarification tank that
extraction process starts; and the final stage is the separates the oil from the fibre and nuts. Plate 5 and Plate 6
clarification stage which is basically for removing of describes the modern and local method of oil clarification
impurities and the separation of particles from the extracted process that separates palm oil from the fibre and nuts.
oil palm. Plate 1 and Plate 2 gives a clear picture of the local

Table 5: Processing Steps of Palm oil products

Process Methods
Local (Native) Modern (Automated)
Softening of the palm fruits Boiling of palm fruits in a big pot using Palm fruits are heated up in a container using
by heating firewood pressured heaters
Maceration Pounding Skimming
Oil Extraction A Colander pounds the oil palm paste Palm oil extracting Machine called Pioneer Mill
which is mixed water and heated to release (Revolver Press)
oil
Clarification A manually wheeled clarification tank An automated giant sized clarification tank
(Removal of impurities)

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Plate 1: Local heating method: Boiling of palm fruits with firewood

Plate 2: Local method of boiling palm fruits

Plate 3: Palm fruits Heater and Processor Machine that is connected to the Clarification Tank

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Plate 4: Local Oil extractor which pound the paste to release the oil

Plate 5: A modern Clarification tank (Large scale business)

Plate 6: A local Clarification Tank (Small scale business)

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Extraction Methods
The information on Figure 2 reveals the typical process of palm oil extraction. The actual palm oil extraction process starts
from the bunch threshing (which is the separation of the bunch from the nuts); to fruit digestion (process of releasing the palm oil
in the fruit through rupture of breaking down of oil bearing cells); to pulp pressing (pressing stage that involves extracting the oil
out of the digested palm pulp); to oil clarification (removing impurities from the palm oil); and packing the oil that comes out of
the clarification process.

BUNCH
RECEPTION

BUNCH
STERILIZATION

BUNCH
THRESHING Empty Bunches

FRUIT
DIGESTION

PULP NUT & FIB R E

PRESSING NUT RECOVERY

OIL NUT DRYING

CLARIFICATION

OIL DRYING NUT CRACKING

KERNEL
OIL PACKING SEPARATION Shells

Kernels
KERNEL
STORAGE
Figure 2: Chart of Palm Oil Extraction (also include the extraction of palm kernel oil)

Extraction Methods across Sampled LGAs was observed that the pioneer methods were practiced
The extraction methods across LGAs are displayed on among oil palm farmers/producers/business men and women
Table 6. The distribution revealed that native extraction who have between 3, 4 and above 4 hectares of land devoted
methods were by 69.5% sampled oil palm producers; 29.6% for oil palm production. However, oil palm farmers with less
of sampled oil palm producers utilize the squeeze press than 1 hectare of land devoted for oil palm business utilizes
methods; while the remaining 1.0% of sampled oil palm the native and squeeze method of oil extraction (native
producers utilizes the pioneer mill method. Thus, only 2 methods (47.5%) and squeeze press (10.3%)). These
(3.6%) from the total sampled oil palm producers in the observations are similar for oil palm producers who devoted
three (3) LGAs under Akwa Ibom use the pioneer mill in between 1 and 2 hectares for oil palm production (native
Ibesikpo LGA; 1 which represents 1.7% of the total methods (42.6%) and squeeze press (24.5%)).
population of sampled oil palm producers in the three (3)
LGAs under Imo State utilize the pioneer mill in Ezinihitte Furthermore, the scales of individual oil palm producer
LGA; while 3.0% from the total sampled oil palm farmers with their extraction methods are displayed on Table 8. The
under Rivers State utilizes the pioneer mill in Ikwerre LGA. study indicated majority of sampled oil palm producers
The squeeze press method was being practiced by 29.6% in (98.6%) which totaled 68.9% from the overall total who
the study area of which the utilization showed slight employed the native method of extracting oil run a small
variations in frequency of usage across LGAs. The cross scale oil palm production business. The population of 55.5%
tabulation between hectares of land utilized by oil palm of oil palm producers who practiced the squeeze press
producers and extraction methods is displayed on Table 7. It method operates their oil palm production on a medium

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scale basis. Lastly, 0.5% of oil palm producers who utilizes total 14.1% from the overall total are on a large scale oil
the native method, and 43.2% who utilize the squeeze palm production in the study area.
method and 100.0% who utilizes the pioneer mill which

Table 6: Cross Tabulation of Methods Applied for Oil Extraction for Oil Palm with LGAs
Extraction Methods
LGAs Native method Squeeze press Pioneer Mill (Revolver Press) Total
Akwa Ibom Esit Eket 27 21 0 48
56.3% 43.8% 0.0% 100.0%
Nsit Ubium 31 16 0 47
66.0% 34.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Ibesikpo 39 14 2 55
70.9% 25.5% 3.6% 100.0%
Imo Ezinihitte 35 22 1 58
60.3% 37.9% 1.7% 100.0%
Obowo 32 17 0 49
65.3% 34.7% 0.0% 100.0%
Aboh Mbaise 44 10 0 54
81.5% 18.5% 0.0% 100.0%
Rivers Ikwerre 39 25 2 66
59.1% 37.9% 3.0% 100.0%
Etche 70 13 0 83
84.3% 15.7% 0.0% 100.0%
Emohua 47 17 0 64
73.4% 26.6% 0.0% 100.0%
Total 364 155 5 524
69.5% 29.6% 1.0% 100.0%

Table 7: Cross Tabulation of Extraction Methods and Hectares of Land Utilized for Oil Palm farming and Production
Extraction Methods
Pioneer Mill
Native (Revolver
Hectares of Land Utilized method Squeeze press Press) Total
Less than 1 hectare 173 16 0 189
47.5% 10.3% 0.0% 36.1%
I hectare 155 38 0 193
42.6% 24.5% 0.0% 36.8%
Between 1 and 2 hectares 32 29 0 61
8.8% 18.7% 0.0% 11.6%
Between 3 and 4 hectares 1 41 4 46
0.3% 26.5% 80.0% 8.8%
Above 4 hectares 3 31 1 35
0.8% 20.0% 20.0% 6.7%
Total 364 155 5 524
100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Table 8: Cross Tabulation of Scale Utilized by Oil palm producers and Methods Applied for Extraction
Extraction Methods
Pioneer Mill
Scale Utilized Native method Squeeze press (Revolver Press) Total
Small Scale 359 2 0 361
98.6% 1.3% 0.0% 68.9%
Medium scale 3 86 0 89
0.8% 55.5% 0.0% 17.0%
Large scale 2 67 5 74
0.5% 43.2% 100.0% 14.1%
Total 364 155 5 524
100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

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Volume 6, Issue 7, July – 2021 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
IV. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Engineering. 2013-Special Issue - 2nd International
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Findings revealed that more females were found in the 4(9):36-39.
occupation of extracting and processing of oil palm [5]. Bassey, O.I. (2016). Overview of oil palm production
products. This is agreement to the study of Walker (2010) in Nigeria; Comparative social and environmental
who reported that women play an important role in the impacts; Case of Ekong Anaku Community in Cross
production, storage and commercialization of the red palm River State, Nigeria. Institute of Social Science,
oil. Majority of the methods for extracting and processing Erasmus University Rotterdam.
oil palm resources were native methods. This may be [6]. Bello, R.S., Bello, M.B., Essien, B.A., Saidu, M.J.
attributed to the simple way that this kind of extraction (2015). Economic Potentials of Oil Palm Production
method demands. Although, it is simple but tedious and in UDI, Enugu State. Science Journal of Business
inefficient (Adeniyi et al., 2014; Bello et al., 2015). Kwasi and Management, 3(5-1): 16-20.
(2002) reported that pounding (digestion) and oil extraction [7]. Eze, S.O., Nwoha, V.U. & Adiele, C.S. (2014). Oil
are the most tedious and essential operations in traditional Palm Processing Among Farmers in Imo State:
palm fruit processing; therefore, early efforts concentrated Implications for Market Orientation and
on these tasks. In small-scale processing, digestion, that is, Entrepreneurship in Extension Practice in Nigeria.
the breaking up of the oil-bearing cells of the palm fruits’ Journal of Agriculture, Extension and Rural
mesocarp, is the most labour intensive activity. The general Development, 2(7): 114-120
traditional method of oil extraction consists of steeping the [8]. Ezeoha, S.L, Akubuo . C.O. and Ani, A.O. (2012):
pounded fruit mash in hot or cold water; removing fibre and Indigenous Design and Manufacture of Palm Kernel
nuts in small baskets and hand squeezing; filtering out Oil Screw Press in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects.
residual fibre from the oil/water emulsion in perforated International Journal of Applied Agricultural Research
metal colanders or baskets; boiling and skimming palm oil 7(2):67-82
from the oil/water mixture and drying the recovered oil [9]. FAO (2002): “Food and Agricultural Organization of
(Poku, 1998). United Nations” Publications Rome 2002. pp: 225-
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V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS [10]. Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
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The study concluded that the major method of security (NPFC). Expansion Phase Project Report
extracting and processing oil palm in Imo, Rivers and Akwa 2006-2015
Ibom States in Nigeria was native methods and majority of [11]. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2014).
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