Child and Adolescent Development Module

PART I- Introduction
Unit 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

-Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
“By virtue of being born to humanity, every human being has a right to the
development and fulfillment of his potentialities as a human being.”
-Ashley Montagu
INTRODUCTION
Every living creature is called to become what it is meant to be. The caterpillar is
meant to become a butterfly; a seed into a full grown herb, bush or tree; and a human
baby into a mature person, the person “who is fully alive, the glory of God” in the words
of St. Irenaeus.
How this development happens is what we learn in our biology class. We have
seen it to be a fantastic process. So wonderful a process that we can’t help but
experience a feeling of awe for the Power or the Force or the Principle (theists call this
Power or Force or Principle (God) behind all these.
The process of development involves beginnings and endings. What was this
organism then? What will this organism be?
A number of researches on human development have been conducted. A lot of

theories on human development have been forwarded. Researches on human
development continue as existing theories get corrected, complemented or replaced. Up
to the present several issues on human development are unresolved and so the
searches for explanations continue.
In this Unit, you will be acquainted with human development as a process, the
developmental tasks that come along with each developmental stage and relevant
issues that are raised about human development.
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Module 1 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
“All the worlds a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and entrances, and one man in his time plays many parts…
-William Shakespeare
CHALLENGE :
At the end of this module , the students are expected to :
⮚ define human development in your own words.
⮚ draw some principles of human development.
⮚ distinguish two approaches to human development.
INTRODUCTION
As you read this module and do the activity, you will undergo the process of
development. What principles govern this development proven? What do experts say
about development? These are the concerns of this Module.
DEFINITION
MEANING OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an orderly pattern that
moves toward greater complexity and enhances survival.
Human development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at

conception and continues through the life span. Development includes growth and
decline. This means that development can be positive or negative (Santrock, 2002).
Some major principles of human development
Here are some major principles of human development:
1. Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)

Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit crawl then walk before they can run.
PROXIMODISTAL- The muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier
as compared to the hands and fingers.
CEPHALOCAUDAL- During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the

top- the head- with physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation
gradually working its way down from top to bottom.
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of

development processes and the rate of development are likely to vary among
individuals. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)
Naschielle and Kenn may become were premised on many “ifs”. Meaning if they
come from a good home with loving and caring parents they may develop into
warm and responsible children, adolescents and adults. If they come from a
deprived environment, they may develop into carefree and irresponsible
adolescents and adults.
3. Development takes place gradually. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm

Naschielle and Kenn won’t develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes
years before they become one. In fact, that’s the way of nature. The seed does
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not germinate overnight. While some changes occur in a flash of insight , more
often it takes a week, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that
result in the display of development characteristics.
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological,

cognitive and socioemotional processes (Santrock, 2002). These biological,
cognitive and socioemotional processes are inextricably intertwined.
BIOLOGICAL - processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature.

The brains of Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will gain height and weight.
They will experience hormonal changes when they reach the period of puberty,
and cardiovascular decline as they approach late adulthood.
COGNITIVE – processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence,

and language. Naschielle and Kenn develop from mere sounds to a word
becoming two words, the two words becoming a sentence. They would move on
to memorizing their first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw in every flag ceremony to
imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and
solving complex math problem.
SOCIOEMOTIONAL – processes include changes in the individual’s

relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality.
As babies, Naschielle and Kenn responded with a sweet smile when
affectionately touched and frowned when displeased and even showed temper
tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted. From aggressive
children, they may develop into a fine lady and a gentleman or otherwise,
depending on a myriad of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or
may end up betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards.
Two approaches to human development
1. TRADITIONAL APPROACH - If you believe that Naschielle and Kenn wil show
extensive change from birth to adolescents, little or no change in adulthood and
decline in late old age.
2. TERMED LIFE-SPAN APPROACH - In contrast, if you believe that even in
adulthood development change takes place as it does during childhood.
What are the characteristics of the life-span perspective? Paul Baltes (Santrock, 2002),
an expert in LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT, gives the following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage

dominates development.
2. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological,

cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions
.
3. Development is plastic. Development is possible throughout the life-span.
4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing

world.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth,

maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals of human development.
APPLICATION
1. “Growth is an evidence of life.” What does this mean?

2. Define development in your own words.
3. State the 5 major principles of human development from a life-span perspective.
Give at least one application of each principle in the teaching-learning process.
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4. Research further on the cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of
development.
a. Illustrate both patterns by a drawing or diagram.
b. How do you apply your knowledge of cephalocaudal and proximodistal
patterns in your teaching?
5. In the light of researches on human development, which of the two approaches is
closer to the truth traditional or lifespan? Why?
BIG IDEAS
Do the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in this chapter.
1. Meaning of human development __________________________________

2. Four principles of human development and their educational implications.
PRINCIPLE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
3. Patterns of development
a. The direction of growth following the cephalocaudal pattern is
from__________________ to the______________________.
b. The direction of growth following the proximodistal pattern is from
_______________ to the________________________.
4. Two approaches to human development
TRADITIONAL vs. LIFE-SPAN APPROACH
CONCEPT APPROACH
Traditional Life-span
Development during
childhood
Development during
adulthood
Developmental stage/s as
focus of study
5. Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective.
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Module 2 THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
“Who are you? asked the caterpillar. Alice replied rather shyly, “I - I hardly know,
Sir, just at present – at least I know who I was when I got up this morning but I
must have changed several times since then.”
-Lewis Carroll
CHALLENGE :
In this Module, you are challenged to:

⮚ Define developmental tasks in an experiential manner.
⮚ Identify developmental stages of learners in different year levels.
⮚ Describe the developmental tasks in each stage.
⮚ State for yourself how these developmental tasks affect your role as a
facilitator of learning.
INTRODUCTION
For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task. What

happens when the expected developmental tasks are not achieved at the corresponding
developmental stage? How can you help children achieve these developmental tasks?
DEFINITION
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Pre-natal Stage- from conception (when the ovum is fertilized by the

spermatozoon producing a zygote or fertilized egg) to the time of birth.
2. Babyhood/Infancy (0-2 years old) - foundation age when basic behavior

patterns are organized and many ontogenetic skills emerge.
3. Early Childhood (2-6 years old) - characterized as pre-gang, exploratory and

questioning age. Language and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial
socialization is experienced.
4. Late Childhood (6-12 years old) - Gang age, age of creativity, development of
social, self-help, play and school skill.
5. Adolescence (13-19 years old) – transition age from childhood to adulthood

when sex maturation and rapid physical development occurs resulting to
changes in way of feeling, thinking and acting.
6. Early Adulthood (19-40 years old) – age of adjustment to new patterns of life
and new roles such as spouse , parent and bread winner.
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7. Middle Age (40-retirement years – transition age when adjust to initial physical
and mental decline are experienced.
8. Old Age (retirement-death) – increasing rapid physical and mental decline.

Psychological as well as physical illnesses are experienced.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Development happens quickly during the prenatal period, which is the time
between conception and birth. This period is generally divided into three stages:
1. The Germinal Stage – the two weeks period after conception. Conception
occurs when a sperm cell combines with an egg cell to form a zygote. About
thirty-six hours after conception, the zygote begins to divide quickly. The resulting
ball of cells moves along the mother’s fallopian tube to the uterus
Around seven days after conception, the ball of cells stars to become embedded
in the wall of the uterus. This process is called implantation and takes about a
week to complete. If implantation fails, as is quite common, the pregnancy
terminates. One key feature of the germinal stage is the formation of a tissue
called the placenta.
The placenta has two important functions:

o Passing oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood into the embryo or
fetus.
o Removing waste materials from the embryo or fetus.
2. The Embryonic Stage
⮚ Also known as the period of embryo.
⮚ The cell known as zygote before is now known as embryo.
⮚ By the 14th day after fertilization, the blastocyst is already implanted in the
uterus.
⮚ The umbilical chord attaches the placenta functionally to the mother.
⮚ The foundations for the eyes, ears, nose, mouth extremities (upper and
lower) and the digestive system have been laid on the 8th week.
The 1 ½ inches long embryo, weighing one- teeth to one- fifteenth of ounce,
develops at the end of the first month. This period is considered as the most
critical period for the reason that the embryo is most vulnerable to damage
and defect.
During the first trimester (3 months of pregnancy) almost all birth defects
occur and chances are, the defects will be permanent.
3. The Fetal Stage
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⮚ Fetal Period (8 weeks to birth)
⮚ Also called as the period of the fetus.
⮚ The embryo before is now known as fetus in this stage.
⮚ The fetal stage begins with the formation of the first bone cells.
⮚ Various organs grow functionally and take the apperance of the human
body.
⮚ The fetus can now kick and can manipulate its extremeties (upper and
lower) and can open its mouth, frown, and turn its head, as well as take a
few “breaths” by the end of the third month.
⮚ By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is one foot long and weighs a
pound.
⮚ At the end of the sixth month, the fetus’ eyelids can be opened; it develops
grasps and more than enough taste buds.
⮚ The fetus weighs two pounds and it’s all organ systems have become
functional at the end of the seventh month.
⮚ During the eighth and ninth month, the fetus becomes round and heavy
and is able to lift its head.
ADVERSE FACTORS AFFECTING FETAL DEVELOPMENT
Although the womb provides protection, the fetus remains indirectly connected to
the outside world through its mother. Several factors that are linked to the mother can
harm the fetus:
⮚ Poor nutrition
⮚ Use of alcohol
⮚ Smoking
⮚ Use of certain prescription or over-the-counter drugs
⮚ Use of recreational drugs such as cocaine, sedatives, and narcotics
⮚ X- rays and other kinds of radiation
⮚ Ingested toxins, such as lead
⮚ Illnesses such as AIDS, German measles, syphilis, cholera, smallpox,
mumps, or severe flu.
APPLICATION
1. Answer this question. What are the implications of these developmental tasks
to your role as a facilitator of learning? Let’s pay particular attention to the
stages that correspond to schooling – Early Childhood, Middle and Late
Childhood and Adolescence.
LET’S DO! ☺
A. EARLY CHILDHOOD- What are the preschool teachers supposed

to do with pre-schoolers?
- Help them develop readiness for school and to be too
academic in teaching approach. They ought to give much
time for preschoolers to play. Or perhaps help preschoolers
develop school readiness by integrating children’s game in
school activities.
B. MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD
- Elementary school teachers ought to help their pupils
by______________________________________________
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________________________________________________
________________________________________________
C. ADOLESCENCE
- High school teachers ought to help their students by
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Allow students to do each of the following:
a. Come up with an object to symbolize each period or stage of
development.
b. Do a multimedia presentation of the outstanding characteristics and
developmental tasks of each developmental stage. You may use the
text of Santrock found under each collage of pictures in the ACTIVITY
PHASE of this lesson.
c. Sing an appropriate song for each developmental stage.
3. Discuss the meaning of the quotation beneath the title of the lesson. Relate it
to the stages of development.
4. Complete this unfinished sentence.
- Developmental tasks are
______________________________________________.
5. Show the developmental stages by means of a diagram inclusive of the ages.
Write also the outstanding characteristics trait and developmental task of
each developmental stage.
REFLECTION
a. Reflect on your early childhood, middle and late childhood days. Were
you able to acquire the developmental tasks expected of early, middle,
late childhood and adolescence? What facilitated your acquisitions of
the ability to perform such tasks? Write your reflections.
b. Having mastered the developmental tasks of early childhood middle
and late childhood and adolescence, reflect on what you should do
as a teacher to facilitate your students’ acquisition of these
developmental tasks. Write down your reflections.
Module 3 ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

“The interaction of heredity and environment is so extensive that to ask which is

more important, nature or nature, is like asking which is more important to a
rectangle, height or width.”
-William Greenough
CHALLENGE
In this Module, you are challenged to:

⮚ take an informed stand/position on the three (3) issues on
development
INTRODUCTION
Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and other people’s
development. These paradigms of human development while obviously lacking in
scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework for understanding ourselves
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and others. Scholars have come up with their own models of human development. Back
up by solid research, they take stand on issues on human development.
APPLICATION
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
As far as our discussions are concerned, which statement is correct and which
one is wrong? Put a CHECK before the correct statement and mark WRONG for the
wrong one. If you mark a statement WRONG, explain why.
_____1.Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than environment.
_____2.What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can no longer
be changed.
_____3.From the perspective of life-span developmentalist, later experiences is the key

determinants of a person’s development.
REFLECTION
1. Relate what you learned here to your personal development. Reflect on your
own personal development. Reflect on your personal development. What has helped
you become the person that you are now? Is what you have become a product of the
mere interaction of heredity and environment? Or is what you have become a product of
both heredity and environment interacting and what you have decided or determined
yourself to become? (Self-determination or freedom is a third factor). Write your
reflections.
Module 4 RESEARCHES IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

-Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph.D.
“Research is to see what everybody else has seen and to think what nobody else
thought.”
-Albert Szent- Gyorgi, Hungurian Biochemist
CHALLENGE
In this Module, you are challenging yourself to:

⮚ explain the basic principles of research
⮚ demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers and
producers of developmental research
⮚ read researches on child and adolescent development and make simple
research abstracts out of researches read
INTRODUCTION
You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This module is not intended
to be a substitute for that three-unit course. It is simply meant to supplement what you
got or will still get in the Research course.
As you may have noticed, most if not all of what is presented about the
development of the child and the adolescent are products of research. It might interest
you to know how these concepts/ theories were arrived at. Or after having been
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exposed to a number of researches cited in this course, hopefully, you may be so
inspired that you, too, would like to start conducting researches on your own or join a
group for research.
DEFINITION
Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research

-Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to
use in decision-making for the benefit of learners and their families. Research enables
teachers to come up with informed decision on what to teach and how to teach.
Teachers as Researches
-The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation
writers. It is for students and Teachers, too. Let us learn on how to conduct research by
finding out the different research principles and the research methods and designs with
focus on child and adolescent development.
The scientific Method

-One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method,
since research is a systematic and a logical process. As such, researches basically
follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific method. They are
as follows:
1. identify and define the problem

2. determine the hypothesis
3. collect and analyze data
4. formulate conclusions
5. apply conclusions to the original hypothesis
Research Designs
-Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide
us with valuable information about child and adolescent development. To be able to
conduct quality research, it is important that you know various research designs and
different data-gathering techniques used by developmental researchers.
Ethical Principles
-To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researches are
subject to ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs the
behavior of teachers, there also exist ethical standards that guide the conduct of
research.
Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers

-Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and
nothing, to lose when get involved in the research process.
-Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift

from thinking about teacher research as something done to teachers to something done
by teachers (Zeichner 1999; Lampert 2000).
APPLICATION
A Research Abstract- A research abstract is a brief summary that appears at the

beginning of the article. It has the following parts:
⮚ Title
⮚ Researcher/s
⮚ Date of Research
⮚ Introduction
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⮚ Methods
⮚ Findings/Results of the Study
⮚ Conclusions and Recommendations
⮚ References
NOTE: Surf the internet for samples of research abstracts/researches on child and adolescent
development. Select one research abstract then using the matrix given below, write the problem, the
research methodology, the findings and conclusions.
REFLECTION
It is said that because teachers are overloaded with work, they usually frown on
the conduct of research. Reflect on the consequences of this attitude. What can be
done to prevent this? Write your reflections here.
Module 5 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

“The ego is not master in its own house.”

-Sigmund Freud
CHALLENGE
In this Module, the students are expected to:

⮚ Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.
⮚ Draw implications of Freud’s theory to education.
INTRODUCTION
Freud’s views about human development are more than a century old. He can be
considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory
about the unconscious and also about sexual development.
Believe that a person’s behavior can be motivated by strong unconscious drive or

urges toward self-satisfaction.
DEFINITION
FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
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THE ID- Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s
personality because as a baby, it works so that the baby’s essential needs are met. The
id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or
satisfaction of its needs.
THE EGO- As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a pre-schoolers, he/she
relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates
using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is
practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative
consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As
such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id meet
its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
THE SUPEREGO- Near the end of the preschool years or the end of the phallic stage,
the superego develops. The superego embodies a person’s moral aspect. This
develops from what the parents, teachers, and other persons who exert influence impart
to be good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence
on what one considers right and wrong.
THE TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
THE UNCONSCIOUS
- Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs,
feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious level.
THE CONSCIOUS
- Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind.
Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our
everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality;
most of what we are hidden and out of reach.
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THE SUBCONSCIOUS
- The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we
can reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but
still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our telephone
number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored
in the preconscious.
STAGE – AGE –CHARACTERISTICS

⮚ Oral - Birth to 1 ½ y/o Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratifications
and exploration) Primary need: security Major conflict: weaning.
⮚ Anal - 1 ½ to 3 y/o Source of pleasure: anus and bladder (sensual satisfaction
and self-control) Major conflict: toilet training.
⮚ Phallic - 4 to 6 y/o - Center of pleasure: child’s genital (masturbation) - Major
conflict: Oedipus and Electra Complex.
⮚ Latency - 6 y/o to puberty - Energy directed to physical and intellectual activities
- Sexual impulses represses - Relationship between peers of same sex.
⮚ Genital - Puberty onwards - Energy directed towards full sexual maturity and
function and development of skills to cope with the environment.
APPLICATION
1. Freud used the case study method to gather the data he used to formulate his
theories. Among the many case studies, five really stood out as bases of his concepts
and ideas. Do further reading of these case studies and write a reaction paper on one of
these case studies focusing on how he explained the personality development of the
individuals in the case studies.
From your internet search engine, just type Freud’s case studies. It will be easy to find a
pdf file which you can readily download.
2. Note Freud’s ideas about hypnosis, free association and interpretation of dreams. Do
you think his ideas are still useful today? Explain your views.
3. RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to Freud’s Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
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REFLECTION
From the Module on Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned that...
Module 6 PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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“The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new
things, not simply of repeating what other generations have done- men who are
creative, inventive and discoverers.”
-Jean Piaget
CHALLENGE

⮚ Describe Piaget’s stages in your own words.
⮚ Conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with children.
⮚ Match learning activities to the learner’s cognitive stage.
INTRODUCTION
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of

educational psychology. This theory fuelled other researchers and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
DEFINITION
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
⮚ Children “construct” their understanding of the world through their active

involvement and interactions.
⮚ Studied his 3 children to focus not on what they knew but how they knew
it.
⮚ Described children’s understanding as their “schemas” and how they use
● Assimilation
● Accommodation
● Equilibration
SCHEMA
-Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by
which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an
individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.
ASSIMILATION
-This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog,
this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by
adding this new information (a different looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
ACCOMMODATION
-This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now sees
another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might
try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, “Look mommy, what a funny looking
dog. Its bark is funny too!” Then the mommy explains. “That’s not a funny looking
dog, that’s a goat! With mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now create a
new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filling cabinet.
EQUILIBRATION
-Piaget believed that that people have the natural need to understand how
the world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life.
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Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of
schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This
means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood.
We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish
equilibrium once more.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT STAGES
SENSORI-MOTOR STAGE
Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his senses and motor abilities to understand the
world
Object Permanence – is the understanding that objects continue to exist even
when they cannot be seen, heard, or toucht
PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages 2-7: the child uses mental representations of objects and is able to use
symbolic thought and language.
SYMBOLIC FUNCTION- between the ages of 2 and 4, a child can perform

Symbolic Functions or think about objects even though they are not real or
present.
CENTRATION - is the tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation

and neglect other, possibly relevant aspects.
INTUITIVE THOUGHT- means having the ability to understand or know

something without any direct evidence or reasoning process.
EGOCENTRISM- is the inability to differentiate between self and other.
ANIMISM- is the belief that objects that are inanimate (not living) have
feelings, thoughts, and have the mental characteristics and qualities of living
things. They are attaching human qualities and feelings to an inanimate
object.
TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING - involves seeing a relationship between two

things that are not actually related. Your child may be using transductive
reasoning if she tells you that an orange is a ball. Because both the ball and the
orange are round, her transductive reasoning tells her that they both must be a
ball.
EXPERIMENTALTASK
-In this task, a child is presented with two identical beakers containing the
same amount of liquid. The child usually notes that the beakers do contain the
same amount of liquid. When one of the beakers is poured into a taller and
thinner container, children who are younger than seven or eight years old
typically say that the two beakers no longer contain the same amount of liquid,
and that the taller.
Container holds the larger quantity(centration), without taking into consideration
the fact that both beakers were previously noted to contain the same amount of
liquid. Due to superficial changes, the child was unable to comprehend that the
properties of the substances continued to remain the same (conservation).
CONCRETE OPERATIONS STAGE

Ages 7-11; the child uses logical operations or principles when solving
problems.
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SERIATION- which refers to the ability to sort objects or situations according to
any characteristic, such as size, color, shape, or type
CLASSIFICATION- is the ability to identify the properties of categories, to

relate categories or classes to one another, and to use categorical information to
solve problems.
CONSERVATION- is the understanding that something stays the same in

quantity even though its appearance changes. To be more technical conservation
is the ability to understand that redistributing material does not affect its mass,
number, volume or length.
DECENTERING (also known as Decentration) refers to the ability to consider

multiple aspects of a situation. In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the
third stage is called Concrete Operational stage, where a child age 7-12 shows
increased use of logic. One of the logical processes that develop is that of
Decentering.
For example, when asked to choose between two lollipops, a child
might choose based on how one flavor is better than the other even though the
other is the same size and color.
REVERSIBILITY- which refers to the ability to recognize that numbers or

objects can be changed and returned to their original condition
FORMAL OPERATIONS STAGE

Ages 12 up; the use of logical operations in a systematic fashion and with the
ability to use abstractions
HYPOTHETICAL REASONING- This is the ability to come up with different

hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final
decision or judgement.
ANALOGICAL REASONING- This is the ability to perceive the relationship in

one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in
another similar situation or problem.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING- This is the ability to think logically by applying a

general rule to a particular instance or situation.
APPLICATION
This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family members.

Choose a story you want to use for this activity. It can be from a story you have read or
a movie or “telenovela” that you watched or plan to watch. Use the matrix below to
relate the characters to Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development.
Title of Story/ Movie: _______________________________

Write a brief summary of the story
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
REFLECTION
From the module on Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, I learned that…
17
Module 7 ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
“Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear
death.”
-Erik Erikson
CHALLENGE

⮚ Explain the 8 stages of Life to someone you care about.
⮚ Write a short story of your life using Erikson’s stages as frame work.
⮚ Suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as
a future teacher.
INTRODUCTION
o Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are a very relevant, highly

regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving
learning and trials which help us to grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory
guides us and helps to tell us why.
o Erik Erikson was a psychoanalyst who identified eight stages of
psychosocial development.
o Epigenetic Principle
o Psychosocial Crisis
DEFINITION
STAGE 1- INFANCY (BIRTH – 1 ½ YEARS OLD)
- To develop a basic trust in the mothering figure and to generalize it to others.

The child trusts those who care for her and mistrusts a stranger.
*Courtesy to: Erson B. Dagdag/ St. Louis Review Center prepared materials.
18
STAGE 2- TODDLER (1 ½ - 3 YEARS OLD)
- To gain some self-control and independence within the environment.
- Learns to walk and use his hands

- If encouraged, develops autonomy
- If discouraged and punished harshly and excessively the child develops dependence
and shame, doubt and self-pity
STAGE 3- PRESCHOOL (3 - 6 YEARS OLD)
- To develop a sense of purpose and the ability to initiate and direct one’s own activities -
Begins to explore his social and physical world, discovering what he can accomplish
- Aware of various social roles imitates adult’s behavior.
- When punished develops sense of guilt.
- The family is responsible for the child’s behavior and action.
*Courtesy to: Erson B. Dagdag/ St. Louis Review Center prepared materialsSTAGE 4-
SCHOOL AGE (6 - 12 YEARS OLD)
- To achieve a sense of self-confidence.

- Child’s world broadens
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- Technical skills are learned
- Peer group influence Identification and/ or separation with sexes Play age
- When the child cannot accomplish the expectations from him, he develops a sense of
inferiority
STAGE 5- ADOLESCENTS (12 – 18 YEARS OLD)
- To integrate the tasks mastered in the previous stages into a secure sense of self.
- Always asking Who Am I?
- Struggles with society’s demands and physical changes in his body
- Peer group becomes an essential source of rules of behaviour
*Courtesy to: Erson B. Dagdag/ St. Louis Review Center prepared materials.STAGE 6- YOUNG
ADULTHOOD (18 - 25 YEARS OLD)
- To form an intense, lasting relationship or a commitment to another person, a cause,

an institution, or a creative effort.
- Develops warm intimate relation with another person and failure to develop such
relationship results to isolation
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STAGE 7- ADULTHOOD (25 - 65 YEARS OLD)
- To achieve the life goals established for one self while considering the welfare of future
generations.
- The most productive years of adulthood
- The individual’s worth is dependent on his contribution to family and society
STAGE 8- MATURITY (65 - DEATH)
- To review one’s life and derive meaning from both positive and negative events, while
achieving a positive sense of self.
- The individual comes to the temporal limits of his life
- The period of achievement and sense of integrity
- Failure to achieve one’s goals results to regret and despair.
- Fear of the end of life
APPLICATION Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial
development as framework. Go through each of the stages that apply to you (most
probably, stages 1-5 or 6). Ask information from your parents and other significant
21
persons in your life. Look at old baby books and photo albums. Also, include the results
of your questionnaire in the activity section. Write a narrative for each stage.
REFLECTION: From Erikson’s Stages of Psycho-social theory of development , I

learned …..
Module 8 KOHLBERG ’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

“Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and

standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole
society.”
-Lawrence Kohlberg
CHALLENGE

⮚ Explain the stages of moral development
⮚ Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to
moral dilemmas.
⮚ Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as
teacher later on.
INTRODUCTION
Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral

decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was
interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on the
findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right from
wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.
DEFINITION
22
APPLICATION
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to KOHLBER’G Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
23
REFLECTION:
From this module of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, I learned…
Module 9 VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

“What a child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow she/he will be able to do

alone.”
-Lev Vygotsky
CHALLENGE

⮚ Explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-cultural” theory
⮚ Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development
⮚ Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.
INTRODUCTION
The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very
important role in cognitive development. He believed that individual development could
not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context within which
development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance
given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplishes a task.
Agreed that children are active learners, but their knowledge is socially
constructed.
 Cultural values and customs dictate what is important to learn.
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 Children learn from more expert members of the society.
 Vygotsky described the “zone of proximal development”, where learning
occurs.
DEFINITION
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Importance of CULTURE- humans use of tools and symbols to learn
–dictates what we learn and how
- the values, beliefs, customs and skills of a social group.
SOCIAL–INTERACTION – cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members

of the society is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that
make up communities culture.
CENTRAL ROLE OF LANGUAGE:
Language- is made possible because of our culture (tools and symbols). The learning of
language (or signs) is brought about by social-processes, and language or signs
ultimately make thought possible
APPLICATION
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to VYGOTSKY’S Theory. Fill out the matrix
below.
25
REFLECTION
From the Module on Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory, I learned that…
Module 10 BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

“Children need people in order to become human.”

-Urie Bronfenbrenner
CHALLENGE

⮚ Describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model
⮚ Identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s
development.
⮚ Use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that
affect a chils and adolescent development
INTRODUCTION
Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the different
factors that exert influence on an individual’s development. It points out the ever
widening spheres of influence that shape every individual, from his/her immediate family
to the neighborhood, the country, even the world!
26
DEFINITION
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

The varied systems of the environment and the interrelations hips among the
systems shape a child's development.
Both the environment and biology influence the child’s development.
The environment affects the child and the child influences the environment.
THE MICROSYSTEM- activities and interactions in the child’s immediate

surroundings: parents, school, friends, etc.
THE MESOSYSTEM- relationships among the entities involved in the child‘s

microsystem: parents’ interactions with teachers, a school's interactions with the day
care provider
 THE EXOSYSTEM- social institutions which affect children indirectly: the parents
work settings and policies, extended family networks, mass media, community
resources
 THE MACROSYSTEM- broader cultural values, laws and governmental resources
 THE CHRONOSYSTEM- covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s

environments.
- Changes which occur during a child’s life, both personally,

like the birth of a sibling
27
APPLICATION
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to BRONFENBRENNER’S Theory. Fill out the

matrix below.
28
REFLECTION
From the Module on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory, I learned that…
29
PART II- Development of the Learners at
Various Stages
Unit 1 Pre-natal Period

Module 11 Pre-natal Development
“The history of man for nine months preceding his birth would, probably, be far
more interesting, and contain events of greater moment than all three scores and
ten years that follow it.”
-Samuel Taylor Coleridge
English Poet, Essayist, 19th Century
CHALLENGE
At the end of this Module, the students are expected to:

⮚ Trace the course of the pre-natal development process that you went
through
⮚ Explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development
⮚ Become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion
stand.
INTRODUCTION
All the developmental theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt on the

developmental process after birth. None of them was concerned with what development
went on before birth. To make the description of human development complete. It may
be good to understand the beginnings of the child and the adolescent.
DEFINITION
HUMAN LIFE BEGINS AT CONCEPTION

-That which is in the mother’s womb is indeed a developing human being.
An unborn baby of eight (8) weeks is not essentially different from one of eighteen (18)
weeks or twenty-eight (28) weeks. From conception the zygote, the embryo and the
fetus are undeniably human life.
-Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have and
all that we are have been there at the moment of conception! The facts that you will turn
bald at age 50 have been there already at the moment of conception. What was added
in the process of development is nutrition.
-I remember the film on abortion that I once saw, “The Silent Scream
(http://www.mccl.org/). The mother submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion in
her third month of pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted his scalpel into the woman’s
womb to crush the head of the fetus, very clearly in that film, the fetus had his/her
mouth open like he was screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the
abortionist. That’s why the film was given the tiltle “The Silent Scream”. This only
means that the developing being in the womb is a human being not just a
conglomeration of cells or tissues.
-Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb is supposed
to be the safest of all places for human development. Unfortunately, however, with the
scourge of abortion, it has become a tomb!
-The development that takes place in 3 stages proves that the developing
embryo in a mother’s womb is truly a human being.
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THE STAGES OF PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
It may be good to watch the video on High Tech Photographs of Fetal

Development / Pro-Life Anti-Abortion Video at YouTube before you read these notes on
stage of pre-natal development. (see video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WtDknjng8TA
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods; germinal, embryonic, and
fetal.
1. GERMINAL PERIOD- (First 2 weeks after conception)- this includes; a)

creation of the zygote, b) continued cell division and c) and the attachment of
the zygote to the uterine wall.
In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and
outer layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, the inner layer of
cells that develops during the germinal period, develops later into the embryo.
The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that develops also during the
germinal period, later provides nutrition and support for the embryo (Nelson,
Textbook of Pediatrics, 17th ed., 2004)
2. EBRYONIC PERIOD- (2-8 weeks after conception)- In this stage, the name of
the mass cells, zygote, become embryo. The ff. developments take place:
a) Cell differentiation intensifies
b) Life-support systems for the embryo develop and
c) Organs appear
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are
formed. The embryo’s endoderm, the inner layer of cells, develops into the
digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two
parts- the ectoderm and the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer
which becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and
skin parts (nails, hair) the mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the
circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems. This process
of organ formation during the first two months of pre-natal development is called
organogenesis.
THREE LAYERS OF THE EMBRYO:
⮚ PLACENTA- is a life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped

group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the
offspring intertwine but do not join.
⮚ UMBILICAL CORD- contains two arteries and one vein that connect
the baby to the placenta.
⮚ AMNION- is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which
the developing embryo floats.
3. FETAL PERIOD- (2 months to 7 months after conception)- growth and

development continue dramatically during this period. The details of the
developmental process are as follows (Santrock, 2002):
a) 3 months after conception- fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs
about 1 ounce; fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs,
opens and closes its mouth, and moves its head; the face, forehead,
eyelids, nose, chin can now be distinguished and also the upper arms,
lower arms, hands, and lower limbs; the genitals can now be identified
as male or female.
b) 4 months after conception- fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4-7
ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; pre-natal
reflexes are stronger; mother feels arm and leg movements for the first
time.
31
c) 5 months after conception- fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close
to a pound; structures of the skin (fingernails, toenails) have formed;
fetus is more active.
d) 6 months after conception- fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs
one and half pound; eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer
of head covers the head; grasping reflex is present and irregular
movements occur.
e) 7 months after conception- fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3
pounds.
f) 8 and 9 months after conception- fetus grows longer and gains
substantial weight, about 4 pounds.
APPLICATION
1. Pretend you are “JUNIOR”, 4 months old in the womb. Your mother is
concentrating on doing abortion. Write her a letter convincing her that you are
a human being developing contrary to what she and other pro-abortionists are
thinking. Describe to her the development that has taken place in 4 months.
Reflect what you learned on pre-natal development in this Module.
2. Here are the 3 stages of pre-natal development. Label them.
3. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given graphic

organizer.
32
REFLECTION
Look at yourself. You are perfectly made. The cells of your lips are at
your lips; your mouth is close to your nose. You can breathe normally. Did it ever occur
to you that it could have been otherwise? Write down your reflections here.
Unit 2 Infancy and Toddlerhood

Module 12 Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers
“A baby is God’s opinion that life should go on.”

-Carl Sandburg,
American Historian, Poet & Novelist
CHALLENGE

⮚ Trace the physical development that you have gone through infants and
toddlers.
⮚ Draw implications of these principles and processes to parenting and
caregiving.
INTRODUCTION
We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall continue to
trace the developmental process by following the infant or the baby who is just born up
to when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is
infancy which, in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first
two years of life.
DEFINITION
PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
A. Physical and Motor development

⮚ Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform
various tasks, a process better known as motor development. Initially,
babies’ movements are simply the uncontrolled, reflexive movements
they are born with, over time, they learn to move their body parts
voluntarily to perform both gross (large) and fine (small) motor skills. In
general, babies begin developing motor skills form head to tail
(cephalocaudal), the center of the body outward( proximodistal). They
learn to control their head and neck before they learn to maneuver
their arms; they learn to maneuver their arms before they learn to
manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to move their torso before the
learn how to move their arms and legs.
⮚ The sucking reflex allows babies to drink milk and nourish themselves
in the days of life.
⮚ Another permanent and life-supporting reflex is heard turning in the
first days of life.
33
⮚ Another permanent life-supporting reflex is head turning. This reflex
allows a baby to turn his head if something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed
animal) is blocking his airflow.
⮚ Another reflex that also babies survive is the rooting reflex. When
babies root, they may nuzzle their face and mouth into the caregiver’s
chest or shoulder.
⮚ The rest of the flexes have less survival value but are still notable. For
the first 3 to 4 months, babies have an amazing grasping ability and
reflex. They will grasp anything place in their palm and hold it with
amazing strength for their size. Some infants in the first weeks of life
can support their entire body weight through that grasp.
⮚ While this reflex may not have any survival function in modern times, it
does help babies bond with caregivers and family in the first weeks of
life. Similarly, for the first two months, babies will ‘step” with their legs if
they are held vertically with their feet touching a surface. Even though
this reflex disappears months before babies begin walking purposely,
experts believes stepping helps infants learn how their legs works can
be used.
⮚ The Moro response is another reflex that is present during the first 6
months of life, but doesn’t seem to have a purpose in modern life. A
baby with arch her back, flail out, and then curl up if she feels as
although she is being dropped.
⮚ The final reflex is Tonic Neck. During the first 4 months, when babies
lie awake on their backs with their heads facing to one side, they will
extend the arm on the side of their body that they’re facing and reflex
the other arm at an angle, in a position that resembles fencing pose.
This reflex may help prepare them for voluntary reaching later in their
environment.
⮚ Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop “toddling”, or using
the awkward, wide-legged robort-like stance that is the hallmark of new
walkers. As they develop a smoother gait, they also develop the ability
to run, and hop. Children of this age can participate in throwing and
catching games with larger balls. They can also push themselves
around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.
⮚ Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method
of bringing both feet together on each step before proceeding to the
next step (in contrast, adult place one foot on each step in sequence);
However, young children may still need some “back up” assistant to
prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill. Children
of this age will also be stumped when it’s time to go back down the
stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. 3
to 4 years old can jump and hop higher as higher as their leg muscles
grow stronger? Many can even hop on one foot for shorts period of
time.
⮚ By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the
adult fashion (i.e. taking one step at a time); their running continues to
smooth out and increase in speed. Children of this age can also skip
and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding
their tricycles (or bicycles), and can be drive them faster.
⮚ During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine easier skills.
They’re running even faster and can start to ride bicycles with training
wheels for added stability. In addition, they can step sideways. Children
34
of this age begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the
jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their
own. They often start jumping rope, skating, hitting balls with bats, and
so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning to play organized
sports as soccer, basketball, t-bale or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6
years old often like to participate in physical extracurricular activities
such as karate, gymnastics, or dance. Children continue to refine and
improve their gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond.
REFLECTION
1. Having learned the physical development of infants and toddlers, as a future

parent or as caregiver of children of children, reflect on:
⮚ What you should do more often for infants and toddlers.
⮚ What you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth
and development.
2. Reflect on the quotation above the title of this Module.
Module 13 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

“Keep me away from the wisdom which does not cry, the philosophy which does
not laugh and the greatness which does not bow before children.”
-Kahlil Gibran
CHALLENGE

⮚ Trace your own cognitive development as infants and toddlers
⮚ Draw implications of cognitive development concepts to parenting
INTRODUCTION
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way a baby thinks.

This includes his/her language, communication and exploration skills. Example of
cognitive activities includes paying attention, remembering learning to talk, interacting
with toys and identifying faces.
DEFINITION
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
❖ The bran’s ability to change from experience is known as Plasticity.

The human brain is especially plastic early in life, which is why the
“nurture” part of the equation is so important
Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic-this is the mechanism
of learning-but plasticity declines in adulthood.
As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several’critical periods, a s
developmental phase in which the brain requires certain environmental
input ot it will not develop normally.
35
Early Milestones in Brain Growth
❖ 4 months: the infant’s brain responds to every sound produced in all
the languages of the world.
❖ 8 to 9 months: Babies can form specific memories from their
experiences, such as how to push a ball to make it roll.
❖ 10 months: Babies can now distinguish and even produce the sounds
of their own language (such as “da-da”) no longer pay attention to the
sounds of language that are foreign.
❖ 12 months: Babies whose parents say, for example” Lookee at the
doggie” will go to the appropriate picture of a dog in a picture book
more often than those babies who are talked to normal, flatter voices.
❖ 12 to 18 months: Babies can keep in memory something that has
been hidden and find it again, even if it has completely covered up.
They can also hold memory sequences of simple activities, such as
winding up a jack-in-the-box until the figure pos up.
❖ 24 months: Preschool children now clear picture in mind of people
who are dear to them, and the get upset when separated from these
people (even their peers)
❖ 30 months: Preschool children can hold in mind a whole sequence of
spatial maps and know where things are in their environment.
❖ 36 months: A preschool child can now two different emotions in his
mind at the same time, such as being sad that he spilled ice cream on
his cloths but glad that he’s at birthday party.
B. Factors Affecting Development
Maternal Nutrition- the nutritional status of the women during adolescent

pregnancy and lactation has a direct impact on the child’s health and
development.
Child Nutrition- the Child’s state of nutritional balance is crucial in his early
developmental age.
Early Sensory Stimulation- Toys, soothing sounds and other sensorial
stimulation contribute to the child’s development.
C. Exceptional Development
Physical Disabilities- Persons with physical disabilities may experience

functional, visual, orthopedic, motor, or hearing impairments, which may
impact upon their ability to walk, play and learn. Physical disabilities are also
often defined and categorized by some degree of limitation in the use of
upper or lower extremities and maintaining posture and positioning.
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactive

Disorder (ADHD)-Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and
Hyperkinetic Disorder (as officially know in U.K., through ADHD is more
commonly used) is generally considered to be a developmental disorder,
largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the world’s population.
The disorder typically presents itself during childhood, and is characterized by
a present pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity, as well as forgetfulness,
36
poor impulse control or impulsivity and distractibility, ADHD is currently
considered to be a persistent and chronic condition for which no medical cure
is available ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in children and, over the past
decade.
D. Linguistic and Literary Development

A. Natural History and Language Development
Language development is a process that starts early in human life, when a
person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry.
Children’s language development moves from simplicity to complexity. Infants
start without language. Yet by four months of age, babies can read lips and
discriminate speech sounds.
❖ Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words without associated
meaning, but as children age, words acquire meaning, and connections
between words are formed, in time, sentences start to form as words are
joined together to create logical meaning. As a person gets older, new
meaning and new associations are created and vocabulary increases as
more words are learned.
❖ Infant use their bodies, vocal cries and other preverbal vocalizations to
communicate their wants, needs and dispositions. Even though most
children begin to vocalize and eventually verbalize at various ages and at
different rates, they learn their first language without conscious instruction
from parents or caretakers. It is seemingly effortless task that grows
increasingly difficult with age. Ofcourse, before any learning can begin, the
child must be biologically and socially mature enough.
Biological Preconditions- Linguist do not all agree on what biological factors

contribute to language development, how ever most do agree that our ability to acquire
such a complicated system is specific to the human species, Furthermore, our ability to
learn language may have been developed through the evolutionary process and that the
foundation for language may be passed down genetically.
Second Preconditions- it is crucial that children are allowed to socially interact with
other peope who can vocalize and respond to questions. For language acquisition to
develop successfully, children must be in an environment that allows them to
communicate socially in that language.
There are a few different theories as to why and how children develop language. The
most popular explanation is that language is acquired through imitation. However, this
proves to be more of a folk tale than anything. Two most accepted theories in language
development are psychological and functional. Psychological explanations focus on the
mental processes involved in childhood language learning. Functional explanations look
at the social process involved in learning the first language.
B. Bilingual Language Development

❖ There are two major patters in bilingual language acquisition;
simultaneous Bilingualism and Sequential bilingualism. In simultaneous
bilingualism, the child acquires two languages at the same time before the
age of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of words from both
languages in the first stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when
distinction between the two languages takes place, and the child uses
each language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the
child is 3 years old, but the child can draw in on the knowledge and
experience of first language while acquiring the second language.
37
❖ Detecting delays in the speech and language of multilingual children
presents a challenge. The authors state that “the key is to obtain
information about the child’s entire language system, not just the primary
or secondary language”.
❖ The following “red flags” may indicates that the child who is
simultaneously acquiring two languages id experiencing problems with
language development.
✔ No sounds by 2-6 months
✔ Less than one new words per week for 6-15 month-old children.
✔ Less than 20 words ( in the two languages combined by 20 months:
and
✔ No use of word combinations and a very limited vocabulary by age
2-3 years
✔ Red flags for abnormal language development in the sequential
acquisition of two language include.
✔ Lack of normal milestones in the first language
✔ Prolonged phase of not talking
✔ Difficulty of retrieving words
Factors Affecting Language Development
1. Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the child)

2. Delayed general development (global developmental delay), physical
development motor skills), cognitive development etc.
3. Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested in language, prefers
other modalities e.g. physical activities
4. Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles; lips, tongue etc.
5. Medical problems
6. Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks” communication intent”
7. Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax etc.
8. Changes in child’s environment e.g. moving
9. Exposure to too many languages for the child
10. Inadequate opportunity for speech e.g. the child everyone talks for, the “babied”
child has a more dominant sibling etc.
11. Emotional factors e.g. behavioral problems, anxiety, pressure to perform etc.
12. Short attention span.
13. Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties
C. Exceptional Development
Aphasia- Aphasia (or aphmia) is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend
language due to injury to brain areas specialized for these functions. It is not a result of
deficits in sensory, intellect, or psychiatric functioning. Depending on the area and
extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not
write, or vice versa, or display any of wide variety of other deficiencies in language
comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not to speak.
Dyslexia-Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty

with written language, particularly with reading and spelling. Dyslexia is the result of a
neurological differences but is not intellectual disability. Most people with dyslexia have
average or above average intelligence.
Evidence suggests that dyslexia results for differences in how the brain processes
written and/or verbal language. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties
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resulting from other causes, such as deficiencies in intelligence, a non-neurological
deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction.
REFLECTION
1. Go back to the quotation from Kahlil Gibran beneath the title of this Module.
Reflect on it.
2. What struck you most in the cognitive development of infants and toddlers?
Remember cognitive development includes development of memory and
acquisition of language. Write your reflections here.
Module 14 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT INFANTS AND TODDLERS

“When you’re drawing up your list of life’s miracles, you might place near the top
the first moment your baby smiles at you… Today, she looked right at me. And
she smiled… Her toothless mouth opened, and she scrunched her face up and it
really was a grin… The sleepless nights, the worries, the crying-all of a sudden it
was all worth it… She is no longer just something we are nursing and carrying
along-somewhere inside, part of her knows what’s going on, and that part of her
is telling us that she’s with us.”
-Bob Greene
CHALLENGE

⮚ Describe the socio-emotional development processes that you went
through as an infant and toddler.
⮚ State the implications of research findings on infants’ and toddlers’
socio-emotional development to parenting and child care.
INTRODUCTION
Simply put, socio-emotional development has something to do with the

development of a person’s ability to master one’s emotions and the ability to relate to
others. It necessarily includes temperament, attachments and social skills.
DEFINITION
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German developmental

psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of
human beings, and for coing the phrase identity crisis.
❖ Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are marked by a
conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome,
for example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an important event that is conflict
resolves itself around, for example, meaning of one’s life.
❖ Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as “ virtues”, a
term used, in the context of Erikson work, as it is applied to medicines,
meaning” potencies”For example, the virtue that would emerge from
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successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly counter-intuively, Erikson’s
research reveals with breath-taking clarity how each individual must learn
how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension
with one another not rejecting one end of the tension or the other.
❖ Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and
accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage
surface. Thus, “trust” and “mistrust” must both the understood and
accepted, in order for realistic “hope” to emerge as a viable solution at the
first stage. Similarly,”integrity” and “despair” must both be understood and
embraced, in order for actionable wisdom to emerge as a viable solution
at the last stage.
❖ Bandura bases his theory on the acquisition of complex behaviors on a
triangular diagnram illustrating the interactive effect of various factors.
These three factors are behavior (B), the environment (E), and the
internal events that influence perceptions and actions. (P). the relationship
between these three factors is known as reciprocal determinism.
❖ Bandura identified three types of rienforcers of behavior. These were
direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement.
Direct reinforcement would be directly experienced by the learner.
Vicarious reinforcement would be observed to be consequences of the
behavior of the model. Self-reinforcement would be feelings of satisfaction
or displeasure for behavior gauged by personal performance standards.
❖ Bandura describes three types of modeling stimuli, which are live models,
symbolic models, and verbal descriptions or instructions. Of these three, in
American society, the greatest range of exposure is in the form of symbolic
models through mass media.
❖ In Bandura’s later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social
Learning Theory. These are his work on the self-regulatory system and
self-efficacy. In the area of self-regulatory system/ self-evaluative
behaviors he said that this system us based upon cognitive subprocesses
that:
- Perceive
- Evaluate
- Regulate behavior
Social Cognitive Theory- Utilized both in Psychology and Communications

posits that portions of an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to
observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside
media influences
An important point in the social cognitive theory is that the learner’s behavior is guided
by cognitive processes rather than formed or shaped by reinforced practice. Four
component parts are responsible for the learning and performance acquisition. These
are:
1. Attentional processes
❖ Observer characteristics
-perceptual/cognitive capacities
-arousal level
-past performance
❖ Event characteristics
-relevance
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-affective valence
-complexity
-functional value
-model’s characteristics
Intrinsic rewards
2. Retentional processes
-cognitive skills
-cognitive organization
-cognitive rehearsal
3. Motor reproduction process

-physical capabilities
-subskill mastery
-selection & organization of responses
-feedback
4. Motivational processes
-incentive preference
-social bias
-internal standards
-external reinforcement
-self- reinforcement
-vivacious reinforcement
Emotional Intelligence- (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient

(EQ), describes an ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the
emotions of one’s self, of others, and of groups. As relatively new area of psychological
research, the definition of EI is constantly changing.
The Emotional Competencies (Goleman) model
The El model instroduced by Daniel Goleman focuses in EL as wide array of

competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured by multi-rater
assessment and self-assessment ( Bradberry and Greaves, 2005). In working with
Emotional Intelligence (1998) Goleman explored the function of EI on the job, and
claimed EI to be the largest single predictor of success in the workplace, with more
recent confirmation of these findings on a worldwide sample seen in Bradberry and
Greaves, “The Emotional Intelligence Quick Book” (200%)
Goleman’s model outlines four main EI constructs:
Self-awareness- the ability to read one’s emotions and recognize their impact while
using gut feelings to guide decisions
Self- management- involves controlling one’s emotions and impulses and adapting to
changing circumstances.
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Social awareness- the ability to sense, understands, and reacts to other’s emotions
while comprehending social networks.
Relationships management- the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while
managing conflict.
Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI.

Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must
be worked on and developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman posits that
individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential
for learning emotional competencies.
APPLICATION
1. “The hand that rocks the cradle rocks the world.” How does this relate to an
infant’s and toddler’s development?
2. Compose your own version of Nolte’s “Children Learn What They Live”. Rap it
or sing it.”
REFLECTION
1. Based on stories you heard for your parents and grandparents about your first
three years in the world, reflect on the kind of home environment you have
had as an infant and as a child? How has it affected you?
Unit 3 Early Childhood

Module 15 PRESCHOOLERS’ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
“A child reminds us that playtime is an essential part of our daily routine.”

-Anonymous,
CHALLENGE

⮚ Describe preschool children’s physical growth
⮚ Identify the different gross and fine motor skills
⮚ Draw implications of these concepts on physical development on teaching
preschoolers
INTRODUCTION
The preschooler years is commonly known as “the years before formal schooling
begins.” It roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as the years before
formal school, it is by no way less important than the grade school years.
DEFINITION
Significant Changes in Physical Growth
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-Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much
slower in pace than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers
move, from remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a more slender
appearance of a child. The trunk, arms, and legs become longer.
Gross and Fine Motor Development
Gross motor- development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large
muscles.
GROSS MOTOR CATEGORIZED INTO THREE:

⮚ LOCOMOTOR SKILLS- are those that involve going from one
place to another, like walking, running, climbing and etc.
⮚ NON-LOCOMOTOR SKILLS- ones are those where the child stay
in place, like bending, stretching, turning and swaying.
⮚ MANIPULATIVE SKILLS- are those that involve projecting and
receiving objects, like throwing, striking, bouncing, catching and
dribbling.
Fine Motor Development- refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller
muscles in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included
here are picking, squeezing, pounding, and opening things, holding and using a
writing implement.
APPLICATION
1. Make your own photo essay about the physical development of preschoolers.
Observe preschoolers in action and take their pictures. Describe the gross
and fine motor skills that you saw them do.
REFLECTION
From this Module on the Physical Development of Preschoolers, I learned that…

Explain why?
Module 16 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS

“There are children playing in the street who could solve some of my top
problems in physics, because they have modes of sensory perception that I lost
long ago.”
-J. Robert Oppenhelmer
CHALLENGE

⮚ Describe the cognitive development that takes place among preschoolers
⮚ Apply concepts on preschoolers’ cognitive development in pre-school
teaching and in child care
⮚ Take an informed stand/ position on current preschool teaching pranctices
INTRODUCTION
Someone once wrote in his journal: “Childhood is a world of miracle and wonder;
as if creation rose, bathed in light, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and astonishing.
The end of childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When the world seems
familiar, when one has got used to existence, one has become an adult.”
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Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of childhood. Do you remember
how you were as a prescholer? What do you remember most as a preschooler? What
did you enjoy doing?
DEFINITION
PRESCHOOLERS’ SYMBOLIC AND INTUITIVE THINKING
SYMBOLIC STAGE- preschool children show progress in their cognitive

abilities by being able to draw objects that are not present, by their dramatic increase in
their language and make-believe play.
INTUITIVE SUBSTAGE- preschool children begin to use primitive

reasoning and ask a litany of questions. The development in their language ability
facilitates their endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit
considerable cognitive development, their improved cognitive processes still show some
aspects of immaturity or limitations.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Theories of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget-Swiss psychologist (1896-1980). His theory provided many central

concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of the
intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world
and perform logical operations on representations of the concepts grounded in the
world. The theory concerns the emergence and acquisitions of the schemata-schemes,
of one perceives the world-in”developemental stages”, time when children are acquiring
new ways of mentally representing-information.
1. Sensorimotor period (years 0-2)

Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in
addition to explore their world. Their initial schemas are formed through
differentiation of the congenital reflexes:
❖ The first sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage, occurs

form birth to six weeks and is associated primarily with the
developmental reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by
Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth following moving or
interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an
object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over this first
six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions;
for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.
❖ The second sub-stage, primary circular reaction phase, occurs

form six weeks to four months and is associates primarily with the
development of habits. Primary circular reactions or repeating of an
action involving only one’s body begins. An example of this type of
reaction would involve something like an infant repeating the
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motion of passing their hands before their face. The schema
developed during this stage inform the infant about the
relationships among his body parts (e.g. in passing the hand in
form of his eyes he develop a motor schema for moving his arm so
that the hand becomes visible.
❖ The third sub-stage, the secondary circular reactions phase,

occurs from four to nine months and is associated primarily with the
development of coordination between vision and apprehension.
Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a
desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations
between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally
grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the
amusement of friends, family, younger and older siblings,
grandparents, etc. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of
an action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a
switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between
means also occurs. This is perhaps of one of the most important
stages of a child’s growth as it signifies the drawn for logic.
However, babies still only have a very early rudimentary grasp of
this and most of their discoveries have an “accidental” quality to
them in that the initial performance of what will soon becomes a
secondary circular reactions occurs by chance; but the operant
conditioning causes the initial “ accidental” behavior (which was
followed by an “interesting pattern of stimulation) to be repeated.
And the ability to repeat the act is the result of primary circular
reactions established in the previous stage. For example, when the
infant’s hand accidentally makes contact with an object in hid field
of vision is based on the primary circular reaction bringing his hand
into his field of vision. Thus, the child learns (at the level of
schemata) that “if he can see it then he can also touch it” and this
results in a schemata which is the knowledge that is external
environment is populated with solid objects.
❖ The fourth sub-stage, called the coordination of secondary

circular reactions stage, which occurs from nine to twelve months,
is when Piaget thought that object permanence developed. In
addition, the stage is called the coordination of secondary circular
reactions stage, and is primarily with the development of logic and
the coordination between means and ends, this is extremely
important marks the beginning o goal orientation or intentionally, the
deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.
❖ The fifth sub-stage, tertiary circular reactions phase, occurs from

twelve to eighteen months and is associated primarily with the
discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child
at this juncture as the “young scientist”, conducting
pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting
challenges.
❖ The six sub-stage, considered “beginning of symbolic

representation”, is associated primarily with the beginnings of
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insight, or true creativity. In this stag the trial- and error application
of schemata, which was observable during the previous stage,
occurs internally ( at the level of schemata rather than of motor
responses), resulting in the sudden appearance of new effective
behaviors (without any observable trial-and-error). This is also the
time when symbols (words and images) begin to stand for other
objects. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.
2. Preoperational period (years 2-7)

The Preoperational stage is the second of four stage of cognitive
development. By observing sequence of play, Piaget was able to
demonstrate that towards the end of the second year a qualitatively new
kind of psychological functioning occurs (Pre) Operatory Thought in
Piagetian theory is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The
hallmark of the preoperational stage is spare and logically inadequate
mental operations.
According to Piaget, the Pre Operational stage of development follows the

Sensorimotor stage and occur between 2-7 years of age. It includes the
following processes.
1. Symbolic functioning- characterized by the use of mental symbols,

words, or pictures, which the child uses to represent something which
is not physically present
2. Centration-characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one

aspect of a stimulus or situation. For example, in pouring a quantity of
liquid from an narrow beaker into a shallow dish, a preschool child
might judge the quantity of liquid to have decreased, because it
is”lower”- that is, the child attends to the height of the water, but not the
compensating increase in the diameter of the container.
3. Intuitive thought- occurs when the child is able to believe in

something without knowing why she or he believes it.
4. Egocentrism- a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a

child to only think for her or his own point of view. Also, the inability of a
child to take the point of view of others. Example, if a child is in trouble,
he or she might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot see myself my mom
cannot either.
5. Inability to Conserve-though Piaget’s conservation experiments

(conservation of mass, volume and number after the original for m has
been changed. For example, a child in this phase will believe that a
string which has up in”o-o-o-o” pattern will have a larger number of
beads than a string which has a oooo: pattern, because the latter
pattern has less space between Os; or that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has
more liquid in it than a wide, short 8-ounce cup.
6. Animism- The child believes that inanimate objects have :lifelike”

qualities and are capable of action. Example, a child plays with a doll
46
and treats it likes a real person. In a way this like using their
imagination.
3. Concrete operational period (years 7-11)

The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive
development in Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the
Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages 7 and 11 years and is
characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important process during
this stage are:
a. Seriation- the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size,

shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given
different-shaded objects they may make a colour gradient.
b. Classification-the ability to name and identify sets of objects

according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the
idea that one set of objects can include another, a child is no longer
subject to the illogical limitations of animasim ( the belief that all
objects are alive and therefore have feelings)
c. Decentering- where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a

problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an
exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide,
taller cup.
d. Reversibility- where the child understands that numbers or objects
can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a
child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4 +4 equals 8, 8/4 will
equal 4, the original quantity
e. Conservation- understanding that quantity, length or number of items

is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items.
For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full cup
they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will
conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled up.
f. Elimination of Egoncentrism- the ability to view things from another’s

perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a
comic in whom Jane puts a doll under the box leaves the room, and
then Sarah moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child
in the concrete operation stage will stay that Jane will still think it’s
under the box even through the child knows it is in the drawer
4. Formal operation period (years 11-adulthood)

The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of
cognitive development in the Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the
Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age (
puberty) and continuous into adulthood. It is characterized by acquisition
of the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from
the information available. During this stage the young adult is able to
understand such things as love”shades of gray”, logical proofs, and
values,
47
Lev Vtgotsky-Psychologist, was born in 1896 in Orsha, Belarys (then a
part of the Russian Empire). Vygotsky was tutored privately by Solomom
Asphiz and graduated from Moscow State University in 1917. Later, he
attended the Institute of Pyschology in Moscow (1924-34), where he
worked extensively on ideas about cognitive development, particularly the
relationship between language and thinking. His writings emphasized the
roles of historical cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that
language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society.
Perhaps Vygotsky’s most important contribution concerns the

inter-relationship of language development and thought. This concept,
explored in Vygotsky’s book “Thinking and Speaking”, establishes the
explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner
speech and oral language), and the development of mental concepts and
cognitive awareness. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner
speech as being qualitatively different than normal (external) speech, For
Vygotsky, social interaction is important for learning, e.i. children learn
adults and other children
Information Processing Theory
There are three primary stages in IP Theory:
❖ Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and attended.

❖ Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or extended
period of time depending upon the processes following encoding
❖ Retrieval- The information is found at the appropriate time, and
reactivated fr use on a current task, the true test of effective
memory.
The initial appeal of information processing theories was the idea that cognitive
processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a
path along which information is taken into the memory system, and reactivated when
necessary. Most theories of information processing center around three main stages in
the memory process.
Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model, hold ALL sensory information for a VERY BRIEF time
period.
❖ Capacity: we hold an enormous amount, more that we can ever perceive.

❖ Duration: Extremely brief- in order of 1 to 3 seconds
The Role of Attention
❖ To move information into consciousness, we need to attend to it. That is, we only
have the ability to perceive and remember later those things that pass through
the attention gate.
Short Term Memory (working Memory)
❖ Capacity: What you can say about in 2 seconds. Often said to be 7+/_2 items.
❖ Duration: Around 18 seconds or less
❖ To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to rehearse
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❖ There are two types of rehearsal- Maintenance and Elaborative
Long Term Memory
The final storing house of memorial information, the long term memory store holds
information until needed again.
❖ Capacity: unlimited?
❖ Duration: indefinite?
Executive Control Processes
❖ Also known as executive processor, or Metacognitive skills

❖ Guide the flow of information through the system, helps the learner make
informed
❖ Example processes-attention, rehearsals, organization, Sometimes call
METACOGNITVE SKILLS
Forgeting
The ability to access information when needed
❖ There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

❖ Decay-Information is not attended to, and eventually fades away. Very
prevalent in Working memory.
❖ Inference-New or old information blocks’ access to the information in
question.
Methods for Increasing the Probability of Remembering
❖ Organization- info that is organized efficiently should be recalled

❖ Deep processing- This is focusing upon meaning.
❖ Elaboration- Connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.
❖ Generation- Things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear.
❖ Context-Remembering the situation helps recover information
❖ Personalization- making the information relevant to the individual
❖ Memory Methods
❖ Memorization ( note the same as learning)
❖ Serial Position Effect ( recency and primacy) you will remember the beginning
and end of list most readily
❖ Part Learning- Break up the list to increase memorization
❖ Distributed Practice- Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the
info in at once ( Massed Practice)
❖ Mnemonics Aids
❖ Loci Method- Familiar place, associate list with items in place (i.e. living room)
❖ Peg-type- Standard list is a cue to the target list.
❖ Acronym – SCUBA
❖ Chain Mnemonics- EGBDF
❖ Key words Method- Association of new word/ concept with well knows
word/concept that sounds similar.
Theories of Intelligence
1. Psychometric Theories
Psychometric theories have sought to understand the structure of intelligence;
from it takes, it categories, and its composition. Underlying psychometric
intelligence theory is a psychological model according to which intelligence is a
49
combination of abilities that can be measured by mental testing. These tests
often include analogies , classification / identification, and series completion.
Each test score is equally weighted according to the evidence of underlying
ability in each category
British psychologist Charles E. Spearman published the first psychometric theory

1904. His theory noted that people who excelled on one mental ability test often
did well on the others, and people who did poorly on one of them tended to do
poorly with others. Using this concept, Spearman devised a technique of
statistical analyzing that examined patterns of individual scores. This analysis
helped him discover what he believed to be the two sources if these individual
differences: the”general factor” which is our general intellectual ability, and a
test-specific factor.
American psychologist L.L. Thurstone disregarded with Spearman’s theory and

his isolation of the “general factor” of intelligence. Thurstone believed that the
“general factor “ resulted from Spearman;s method of analysis, and that if
analysis were more thorough, seven factors would emerge. These seven factors
were collectively called the “primary mental abilities” and included verbal
comprehension, verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, numbers, spatial
visualization, inductive reasoning, memory, memory and perceptual speed.
Most psychologists agree that a broader subdivision of abilities than Spearman’s

classification is necessary, but only some agree with hierarchal subdivision. It
quickly became apparent to many psychologists that were problems that could
not be addressed by psychometric theories. The number of abilities could not be
positively identified, and the differences between them could not be clearly
defined due to the limitations of testing and analysis. However ,the most
significant problem extended beyond the number of abilities: what happens in
someone’s mind when they are using the ability in question? Psychometric
theories had no means of addressing this issue, and cognitive theories began to
fill this gap.
2. Cognitive Theories
During the era of psychometric theories, people’s test scores dominated the
study of intelligence. In 1957, American psychologist Lee Cronbach criticized
how some psychologists study individual differences and other study
commonalities in human behavior, but the two methods never meet. Cronbach
voiced the need for two methods to be united, which let to the development of
cognitive theories of intelligence.
Without understanding the processes underlying intelligence, we cannot come to

accurate conclusions when analyzing test scores or assessing someone’s
performance. Cognitive analysis helps the interpretation of the test scores by
determining to what degree the score reflects reasoning ability and the degree to
which it is a result of not understanding the questions or vocabulary.
Psychometric theories did not differentiate between these two factors, which
have a significant effect on the determination of intelligence. Many people are
excellent reasoners but have modest vocabularies, and vice versa.
Underlying the cognitive approach to intelligence is the assumption that

intelligence is comprised of a set of mental representations of information, and a
50
set of processes that operate the mental representations. It is assumed that a
more intelligent person represents information better, and operates more quickly
on these representations than does a less intelligent person.
Several different cognitive theories of intelligence have emerged over the years.
One was introduced by Earl Hunt, Nancy Frost, and Clifford Lunneborg, who in
1973 showed one way on which psychometric and cognitive modeling could be
combined. Instead of using conventional psychometric tests, they used tasks that
allowed them to study the basis of cognition-perception, learning and memory.
Individual differences in the tasks became apparent, which they related to
differing patterns of performing and operating manual representations.
Several years later, Robert Stemberg suggested an alternative approach to
studying cognitive process. He argued, based on evidence he had gathered, that
there weak only a weak relationship between basic cognitive tasks and
psychometric test scores because the tasks being used were too simple.
Although simple task involve cognitive processes, they are peripheral rather than
central.
Although opposing cognitive theories exist, they are all based on the serial
processing of information, which means that cognitive processes are executed
one after another in a series.
The assumption is that we process chunks of information one at a time, trying to

combine the processes into an overall problem-solving strategy. Other
psychologists have challenged this idea, arguing that cognitive processing is
parallel, meaning that we process large amounts of information simultaneously.
However, it has proved difficult to distinguish between serial and parallel models
of information processing.
Despite evidence and support of cognitive intelligence theories, a major problem

remains regarding the nature of intelligence. Cognitive theories do not take into
account that the description of intelligence may differ from one cultural group to
another. Even within mainstream cultures, it will known that conventional tests do
not reliably predict performance. Therefore in addition to cognition, the context in
which the cognition operates also needs to be accounted for.
Exceptional Development (Cognitive Development)
Giftedness- For many years, psychometricians and psychologists, following the

footsteps of Lewis Terman in 1916, equated giftedness with high IQ. This
“legacy” survives to the present day, in that giftedness and high IQ continue to
be equated in some conceptions of giftedness. Since that early time, however,
other researchers (e.g, Cattell, Guilford, and Thurnstone) have argued that
intellect cannot be expressed in such a unitary manner, and have suggested
more multifaceted approaches to intelligence. Research conducted in the 1980s
has provided data which support notions of multiple components to intelligence.
This is particularly evident in the examination of “giftedness” by Stenberge and
Davidson in their edited Conceptions of Giftedness. The many different
conceptions of giftedness presented, although distinct, are interrelated in several
ways. Most of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple qualities,
not all of which are intellectual, IQ socres are often viewed as in adequate
measures of giftedness. Motivation, high self concept, and creativity are they key
qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of giftedness.
51
Mental Retardation- is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic
motor and language skills (“milestones”) during child hood, and a significantly
below-normal global intellectual capacity as an adult. One common criterion for
diagnosis of mental retardation is tested intelligence quotient (IQ ) of 70 or below
and deficits in adaptive functioning.
People with mental retardation may be described as having developmental

disabilities, global development delay or learning qualities.
Autism- is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social

interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all
exhibited before a child is three years old. These characteristics distinguish
autism form milder spectrum disorder (ASD).
Autism affects many parts of the brain, how this occurs is poorly understood.
Parents usually notice signs in the first year or two of their child’s life, Early
intervention may help children gain self-care and social skills, although few of
these interventions are supported by scientific studies. There is no cure, with
severe autism, independent living is unlikely; with milder autism, there are some
success stories for adults, and an autistic culture has developed, with some
seeking a cure and others believing that austism is a condition rather than a
disorder.
Asperger’s Syndrome- (also Asperger’s Syndrome, Asperger’s disorder,

Asperger’s AS, or AD ) is one of several autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
characterized by difficulties in social interaction and by restricted and stereotyped
interests and activities. AS is distinguished for other ASDs in having no general
delay in language or cognitive development,
There is no single treatment for AS, and the effectiveness of particular
interventions is supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving
symptoms and function. The mainstay of treatment is behavioral therapy,
focusing on specific deficits to address poor communication skills, obsessive or
repetitive routines, and clumsiness. Most individuals with AS can learn to cope
with their differences, but may continue to need moral support encouragement to
maintain an independent life. Adults with AS have reached the highest levels of
achievement in fields such as mathematics, physics and computer science,
Researchers and people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away
from the notion that AS is a difference rather than a disability.
Down Syndrome_ Down syndrome or Trisonomy 21 ( usuall Down’s Syndrome in

Bristish English) is a specific disorder caused by the presence of all or part if an extra
21st chromosome. It is named after John Longdon Down, the Bristish doctor who
described it in 1866. The condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor
differences in structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of
cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome can
be identifies during pregnancy or at birth. Individuals with Down syndrome can have a
lower than average cognitive ability, often ranging form mild to moderate learning
disabilities. Developmental disabilities often manifests as tendency toward concrete
thinking or naivete. A small number have severe to profound mental disability. The
incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1,00 births
52
APPLICATION
Questions for Discussion

1. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler’s:
⮚ Animism
⮚ Egocentrism
⮚ Centration
⮚ Lack of conservation
⮚ Irreversibility
⮚ Transductive Reasoning
REFLECTION
From the Module on the Cognitive Development of Prescholer, I learned that…

Explained why?
Module 17 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESCHOOLER

“One test of the correctness of educational procedure is the happiness of the

child.”
-Maria Montessori
CHALLENGE

⮚ Explains Erikson’s “crisis” of early childhood, initiative versus guilt
⮚ Explain the development of the preschoolers’ sense of self and
self-esteem
⮚ Discuss how children develop gender identity.
⮚ Describe the stages of play and how it impacts socio-emotional
development
⮚ Discuss the different caregiving styles and their effect on preschoolers
⮚ Describe how significant relationship with parents, siblings and peers
affect the preschooler
INTRODUCTION
Socio-emotional development is crucial in the preschool years. We hear a lot of

parents and teachers and preschool administrators say that attending preschool is more
for “socialization” than for formal academic learning. There is wisdom in this. During the
preschool years, children learn about their ever widening environment (Remember
Module 10 on Bronfenbrenner?) Preschoolers now discover their new roles outside their
home. They become interested to assert themselves as they relate with other people. A
lot of very important social skills they will learn during the preschool years will help them
throughout life as adults. These skills can even determine the individual’s later social
adjustments and consequent quality of relationships in adult life.
DEFINITION
The Erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the stages in which they may be
acquired are:
Hope- basic Trust vs. Mistrust
Will- Autonomy vs, Shame and Doubt
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Purpose- Initiative vs.Guilt
Competence- Industry vs. Inferiority
Fidelity- Identity vs. Role Confusion
Love- (in intimate relationships, work and family ) Intimacy vs, Isolation
Caring- Generativity vs, Stagnation
Wisdom- Integrity vs. Despair
PARTEN’S STAGES OF PLAY
-Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension. As
the preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases. Mildred Parten,
in the 1930’s did a study on children’s play behavior which led to;
PARTEN’S STAGES OF PLAY
1. UNOCCUPIED- The child appears not to be playing but directs his attention
on anything that interest him.
2. ONLOOKER- The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to
them but does not enter into play with them.
3. SOLITARY PLAY- The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to
them but does not enter into play with them.
4. PARALLEL PLAY- The child plays with toys similar to those near him, but
only plays beside and not with them. No interaction takes place.
5. ASSOCIATIVE PLAY- The child plays with others. There is interaction among
them, but no task assignment, rules and organization are agreed upon.
6. COOPERATIVE- The child plays with others bound by some agreed upon
rules and roles. The goal is maybe to make something, play a game, or act
out something.
CAREGIVING STYLE
- Affect the socio-emotional development of the children.
BAUMRIND’S CAREGIVING STYLE
⮚ Authoritative- high demandingness and high responsiveness.

⮚ Permissive- low demandingness and high responsiveness.
⮚ Authoritarian- high demandingness and low responsiveness.
⮚ Negligent- low demandingness and low responsiveness.
APPLICATION
1. Choose a big idea from this module and expand it through internet searches and
downloads. Prepare powerpoint presentation or a movie (movie maker) intended
for use of parents of preschoolers.
2. The best caregiving style is the authoritative style. From all that you have learned
from this module, make a list of 10 qualities that an authoritative preschool
teacher should have:
54
REFLECTION
From the Module on the Socio-Emotional Development of Prescholer, I learned that…

Explained why?
Unit 4 The Primary Schooler

Module 18 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIMARY PUPIL
-Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed.
“There is always one moment in childhood when the door opens and lets the
future in.”
-Deepak Chopia, Indian Physician and Author
CHALLENGE

⮚ Describe the different physical characteristics of early school-aged
children in your words
⮚ Enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts in this module in the
teaching-learning process.
INTRODUCTION
Middle childhood is the stage when children undergo so many different changes-
physically, emotionally, socially and cognitively. This is the stage between 6 to 12 years
old. Children in this stage receive less attention than children in infancy or early
childhood. The support of the family and friends of the child is very important during this
phase of development.
DEFINITION
Physical development involves many different factors, height, weight, and

appearance, visual, hearing, and motor abilities. Primary school children undergo many
different changes as they go through this stage of development. This could be caused
by different factors; both natural and environmental.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much
changes in the body will take place:
⮚ Genes
⮚ Food
⮚ Climate
⮚ Exercise
⮚ Medical conditions
⮚ Diseases/ Illnesses
BONES AND MUSCLES

-Childhood years are the peak bones producing year. This is the best time o
teach children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy
bones throughout their lives.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
55
-Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their
bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle
strength and skills.
UNIMANUAL- requires the use one hand.
BI-MANUAL- requires the use of two hands activities becomes easier.
GRAPHIC ACTIVITIES- such as writing and drawing are now more controlled but are
still developing. They can print their names and copy simple designs, letters and
shapes.
COORDINATION- is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in particular

way to bring about a particular result (Strickland, 2000).
BALANCE- is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in
different positions.
STATIC BALANCE- is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like

balancing in one foot.
DYNAMIC BALANCE- is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving (Owens,

2006).
SPEED- is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time.
AGILITY- is one’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body.
POWER- is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports.
Development of these skills may spell the difference between success and failure in
future endeavors of the child.
APPLICATION
1. Complete the graphic organizer below and share your output in class.
56
REFLECTION
From the Module on the Physical Development of Primary School

Children, I learned that… Explained Why?
Module 19 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS

“…If you become a teacher, by your pupils you’ll be taught.”

-O. Hammerstein
CHALLENGE

⮚ Describe the characteristics of children in the concrete operational stage
⮚ Explain the importance of information-processing skills and how they
affect the child’s cognitive development
⮚ State the different cognitive milestones in primary-schoolers
INTRODUCTION
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to cognitive development.

According to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the
relations between the person and the environment. Everything that a person
experiences is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations, Piaget
described four main periods in cognitive development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is
not the same at different ages.
DEFINITION
CONCRETE OPERATION- is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive

development. It spans from ages 7 to approximately 11 years.
57
LOGIC- concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make
use of inductive logic.
⮚ INDUCTIVE LOGIC- involves thinking from a specific experience to
a general principle. But in this stage, children have great difficulty in
using DEDUCTIVE LOGIC or using a general principle to
determine the outcome of a specific event.
REVERSIBILITY- one of the most important developments in this stage is an
understanding or reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An
example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental
categories. (For example in arithmetic, 3 + 4= 7 and 7 – 4= 3)
COGNITIVE MILESTONE
- Elementary-aged children encounter development milestones. They

develop certain skills within a particular time frame. The skills they learn are in a
sequential manner, meaning they need to understand numbers before they can
perform a mathematical equation.
INFORMATION-PROCESSING SKILLS
- Several theorists argue that like the computer, the human mind is a
system that can process information through the application of logical rules and
strategies.
APPLICATION
Look at the semantic map below. Write down words which come to your
mind when COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is mentioned. Find a pair and compare
your answers.
58
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What were the common ideas regarding cognitive development?

2. Are there new ideas regarding cognitive development which you found
intriguing?
3. With the advent of the computer age, do you think cognitive development is
affected? Explain your answer?
REFLECTION
From the Module on the Cognitive Development of Primary School Children, I

learned that… Expand your answer.
Module 20 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

“The secret of education lies in respecting the pupil.”

-Ralph Waldo Emerson
CHALLENGE

⮚ Identify the different characteristics of primary school-aged children in this
stage of development
⮚ Discuss the different factors that affect the socio-emotional growth of the
primary-schoolers.
INTRODUCTION
The development theorist, Erik Erikson, formulated eight stages of man’s

psychosocial development. Each stage is regarded as a “psycho-social crisis” which
arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial stage.
Here, children have to resolve the issue on industry vs. inferiority.
DEFINITION
ERIK ERIKSON’S FOURTH STAGE OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
- INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY is the psychosocial crisis that

children will have to resolve in this stage. Industry refers to child’s
involvement in situations where long, patient work is demanded of
them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a
feeling of failure when they cannot finish or master their school
work.
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
- One’s self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs

regarding personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities,
values, goals and roles.
59
SCHOOL YEARS
- In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children

tend to become increasingly self-confident and able to cope well
with social interactions. The issues of fairness and equality
become important to them as they learn to care for people who are
not part of their families.
- Children, during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group.

PEER GROUPS are characterized by children who belong
approximately to the same age group and the same social
economic status.
ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Some adult may perceive that some children’s behavior towards other
children as antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit or kick other children when
they are introduced, it is fairly.
SELF-CONTROL
Once children reach school age, they begin to make pride in their ability to
do things and their capacity to exert effort. They like receiving positive feedback
from their parents and teachers.
APPLICATION
Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will you
help these learners cope with their socio-emotional difficulties?
REFLECTION
From the Module on Socio-emotional Development of Primary School Children, I

learned that…
60
Unit 5 Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler)
Module 21 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERMEDIATE PUPIL
“The period of late childhood is the period of calm before the growth spurt of
adolescence.”
-Anonymous
CHALLENGE

⮚ Identify the different physical characteristics of intermediate schoolers
⮚ Discuss ways and practices which will aid children in successfully
developing physically
⮚ Design a simple exercise program appropriate for intermediate school
children
INTRODUCTION
The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this stage, especially
with their increasing familiarity with school work and other possible activities provide
them with a greater opportunity to develop their motor skill functioning.
DEFINITION
PHYSICAL CHANGES
-Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry. They
get so busy with their school work, interacting with their friends, exploring other possible
activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on a leisurely pace.
APPLICATION
1. Being healthy physically greatly helps children to succeed in their everyday

undertaking in their late adulthood. Design a simple exercise program
appropriate for children ages 9 to 12. Divide your program into three parts:
⮚ Part 1: WARM UP ACTIVITIES- May include breathing exercises
and stretching routines.
⮚ Part 2: EXERCISE PROPER- May consist of three to four sets of

exercises which may focus on the following areas: a) body balance
and posture, b) endurance, c) muscle strength and/or d) agility.
⮚ Part 3: COOLING DOWN or QUIETING ACTIVITY- includes

another set of breathing and stretching exercises.
2. As a teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help intermediate school
children develop physically?
61
REFLECTION
From the Module on the Physical Development of Intermediate School Children, I
learned that… Explained Why?
Module 22 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS

“It is with children that we have the best chance of studying the development of
logical, mathematical, physical and faith knowledge.”
-Jean Piaget
CHALLENGE

⮚ Examine the cognitive characteristics of intermediate school children
⮚ Discuss important factors that affect the cognitive development of
intermediate school children
⮚ Enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the learning
environment, learning activities and instructional materials
INTRODUCTION
Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, rapid development
of mental skills is evident. According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can
now organize thoughts effectively, although, they can only logically perceive the
immediate situation. They can apply what they have learned to situations and events
that they can manipulate. Thus, their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited.
But with proper guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest of the
community, these children can easily succeed in their intellectual endeavors.
DEFINITION
INITIAL COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

-Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they
can now utilize. Their thinking skills have become more effective as compared during
their primary years.
READING DEVELOPMENT
-Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack.
Because of the presence of previous knowledge, they now have a wide vocabulary.
ATTENTION
-Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to
younger children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is required by the
given task.
CREATIVITY
-Is not the finding of a thing, but making something out of it after it is
found.–James Russell Lowell
THE IMPACT OF MEDIA
62
-Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity during which children
are actively involved in learning.- Anderson and Collins, 1988
APPLICATION
What can teachers do to help encourage creativity in children? Consider the

following areas in the teaching-learning process.
REFLECTION
From the Module on the Cognitive Development of Intermediate School Children,

I learned that…
63
Module 23 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS
“It is difficult to make children miserable when they feel worthy of themselves.”
-Anonymous
CHALLENGE

⮚ Identify the socio-emotional characteristics of children in their late
childhood stage
⮚ Determine the qualities of family life that affect older children’s
development including changes in family interactions
⮚ Interview a parent regarding their child’s socio-emotional development
INTRODUCTION
At this period of socio-emotional development, children are spending less time in

the home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or with other
children, rather than with adults. Older children have already familiarized themselves
with other children. They are already used to interacting with different ages and gender.
For many of them, these social networks are not only sources of social support but also
different forms of learning.
DEFINITION
UNDERSTANDING SELF-COMPETENCE, SELF-IDENTITY AND SELF-CONTENT
SELF COMPETENCE- One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period
of development is the acquisition of feelings of self-competence.
INDUSTRY- Refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful “work”.
SOCIAL COMPARISON- Distinguishing themselves from others.
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PERSPECTIVE-TAKING- This ability increases with age. Perspective taking enables
the child to: a) judge others’ intentions, purposes and action, b) give importance to
social attitudes and behaviors and to c) increase skepticism of others’ claims.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Similar to the other areas of development, children in this stage, show improved
emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotion can be
experienced in a single experience.
BUILDING FRIENDSHIPS
As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in peer interaction
increases. For them, good peer relationships are very important.
FAMILY
Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by success and failure.
APPLICATION
-Based on the readings and researches that you have, what are the factors which
greatly affect the socio-emotional development of children in their late childhood stage.
65
REFLECTION
From this Module on the Socio-Emotional Development of Intermediate

Schoolers, I learned that…
Unit 6 Adolescence (The High School Learner)

Module 24 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE HIGH SCHOOL LEARNER
-Paz I. Lucido, Ph.D.
“Adolescence is just one big walking pimple.”

-Carol Burnett
CHALLENGE

⮚ Define adolescence
⮚ Describe the physical and sexual changes accompanying puberty
⮚ Identify the psychological consequences of early and late maturation in
the period of adolescence
⮚ Identify symptoms, causes of possible habit disorder and ways of coping
with them
INTRODUCTION
Unconsciously, students who gain admission into high school may be unaware of
the dangers and stresses involved in their personal transition during the age of
adolescence. Indeed, it can be a rough time for them both at home and school, although
the kind of disturbing events adolescent students may likely meet head-on will depend
on the physical-social environment surrounding each individual learner.
DEFINITION
66
ADOLESCENCE- begins with biological changes of puberty and ends with role and
work of adult life. The specific ages for this period vary from person to person but
distinct phases have been identified.
PUBERTAL CHANGES- In all cultures, biological change comprises the major

transition from childhood to early adolescence.
THE GROWTH SPURTS- Throughout life, the growth hormone conditions gradual
increases in body size, and weight, but hormone flooding occurs during adolescence
causing an acceleration known as the growth spurt.
SEXUAL MATURITY- The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is

complex.
⮚ Hormones- are recognized to be powerful and highly specialized chemical

substances that interact with bodily cells.
⮚ Gonadotropic Hormones- are secreted by the anterior pituitary, which lies
beneath the base of the brain and are situated approximately at the geometric
center of the human head.
⮚ Gonads- which are the ovaries in the female and the testis in the male, are then
stimulated by the gonatrotopic hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones.
When the male testis is stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones.
⮚ Testosterone- is secreted, while
⮚ Estrogen- is secreted when the female ovary is stimulated.
⮚ Menarche- first menstruation.
⮚ Spermache- signals the first sign of puberty and sexual maturity in boys.
THE SECULAR TREND
- The striking tendency for children to become larger at all ages has
been perceived during the past one hundred years.
- The phenomenon reflects a more rapid maturation compared with
that occurring in previous millennia.
ADOLESCENT SLEEPING HABIT
- Studies show that teenagers are not getting enough sleep, and
would want more sleep. Actually, lack of sleep is likely caused by
changes in adolescent behavioural patterns.
EXPLORATION
- Instinctively, adolescents become aware of changes in sexuality,

thus undergoing a period of exploration and adjustments.
PLUSES AND MINUSES IN EARLY OR LATE MATURATION
- Early or late maturation deserves due consideration, as this can be

a factor for adolescent acceptance and comfort or satisfaction with
his/her body image.
THE IDEAL MASCULINE AND FEMININE PHYSIQUES
- Most adolescents desire an “ideal body”, which is the same as

being physically attractive or handsome in face (features of the
eyes, nose, lips, hair, etc.) and in body (tall and muscular for boys
and tall and slender for girls).
67
ADOLESCENTS AND NUTRITION
- Necessary for adolescents years are sufficient amounts of vitamin

B12 (found in animal protein), calcium, zinc, iron, riboflavin and
vitamin D. Magic diet schemes suggested by advertising and
magazines to lose weight, give a radiant hair, whiten the skin, etc.
THE IDEAL BODY
- It’s important that adolescents feel confident about their body

image. The physical features of the human body (facial looks, body
size, color of skin, etc.) depend on genetic heritage which must
generally be respected.
APPLICATION
1. Cite at least 5 big ideas from this Module. Give a concrete application of each in
your personal life.
BIG IDEAS FROM THIS CONCRETE APPLICATION

MODULE IN YOUR LIFE
1.
2.
3.
68
4.
5.
REFLECTION
JOURNAL ENTRY
Reflect on how as a future teacher can you foster the development of Adolescent
high school learners, such that the learners:
1. Become aware of the personal transition-problems and stresses springing from

physical changes affecting him/her as an adolescent.#
2. Can overcome possible problems and stresses as adolescents;
3. Are capable identifying the problems and stresses peculiar to Filipino high school
students, different from students of other cultures (e.g. Americans, Europeans,
etc.).
Module 25 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HIGH SCHOOL LEARNER

“Adolescence is that time when I think it can be...”

-Anonymous
Learning Outcomes :

⮚ Describe the theories of cognitive thinking and relate these to the phases
of teaching-and-learning
⮚ Identify the avenues for the adolescent learner’s acquiring metacognition,
elevating his thinking ability base
⮚ Define overachievement and underachievement and propose possible
solutions to underachievement.
⮚ Explain the outcomes of the adolescent’s new thinking skills, inclusive of
egocentrism, idealism and increased argumentativeness
INTRODUCTION
Unconsciously, students who gain admission into high school may be unaware of
the dangers and stresses involved in their personal transition during the age of
69
adolescence. Indeed, it can be a rough time for them both at home and school, although
the kind of disturbing events adolescent students may likely meet head-on will depend
on the physical-social environment surrounding each individual learner.
DEFINITION
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional period of

adolescence, are changes in thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the
acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain’s increasing in weight and refining
synaptic connections (technically known as the CORPUS COLLOSUM) which join and
coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another brain development is the process
of continuous concentration of the brain cells in the PREFRONTAL CORTEX and
related temporal and parietal areas (technically known as MYELINATION).
PIAGET’S FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKER
This demonstrates how the cognitive capacity of the adolescents allows him/her
to go beyond the sensible and concrete to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical,
multidimensional and possible. In this realm of thought, the adolescent begins to attain
subtlety in thinking, entering the sphere of possible and futuribles. More specifically,
formal operational thinking consists in:
a) Propositional Thinking- making assertions outside visual evidence, and

stating what may be possible in things not seen by the eyes (for example,
whether an unseen object is red or green, big or small, flat or round);
b) Relativistic Thinking- subjectively making an opinion on facts involving one’s
own bias, prejudice of distortion of facts which may be either right or wrong
(for example, arguing for or against the superiority of the races, whether
white, brown, yellow or black);
c) Real versus possible- examining a situation and exploring the possible in
terms of situations or solutions (e.g. possible success in implementing a
student project or a school policy).
d) Combinational analysis- which is his taking stock of the effects of several
variables in a situation, testing one variable at a time, and not randomly.
e) Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning- emerges in the adolescent reasoning
from general facts/situations to a particular conclusion.
f) Problem-Solving Thinker- this involves identifying problems and seeking
new and creative solutions for them.
SIEGLER’S INFORMATION-PROCESSING SKILLS
As in information-processing theorist, Robert Siegler views the influence of the

environment on thinking.
a. SPEED- in information processing, coupled with greater awareness and

control and acquired knowledge base a more efficient kind of thinking
compared with that of the child.
b. COMPLEXITY- by way of considering longer term implications and
possibilities beyond the here-and-now, and
c. INCREASED VOLUME- of information processing, coupled with LONGER
MEMORY SPAN.
d. METACOGNITION- this involves the ability to think above thinking, evidenced
by awareness of and capacity of identify one’s own thinking processes or
strategies- perception, comprehension, memory and problem solving.
e. DECLARATIVE- “I KNOW WHAT”
f. PROCEDURAL- “I KNOW HOW”
OVERACHIEVERS
Achievement and IQ tests are standard measurements of the learner’s ability, as

well as potentials for success in given areas.
70
UNDERACHIEVERS
Individuals whose performances are below the measured IQ levels are labelled
underachievers. WITHDRAWN ACHIEVERS are described as having a more
pronounced tendency to be passive (their overt behavior being submissive and docile).
AGGRESSIVE UNDERACHIEVERS tend to be talkative, if not disruptive and
rebellious.
POSSIBLE ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR DURING COGNITIVE GROWTH
Accompanying cognitive growth are possible behaviors which need to be

understood for proper guidance of the adolescent.
1. EGOCENTRISM- this is the tendency among adolescents to think too much of

themselves, such as to be too sensitive to social acceptance of their apperance,
actions, feelings, ideas, etc.
2. IDEALISM- the adolescent opens thought on the possible, an avenue to possibly
imagining what is far-fetched and less ideal to situations at home, in school, and
in society.
DEVELOPING OCCUPATIONAL SKILLS
Generally, the high school curriculum tends to focus on academic cognitive

learning, neglecting attention to occupational skills.
1. REALISTIC- this personality type prefers practical tasks, often requiring physical
labor and motor coordination, and less of interpersonal skills, e.g. in construction
(carpenters, drivers, etc.)
2. INVESTIGATIVE- they prefer to think rather than act, being interested in tasks
that use conceptual skills, e.g. in the field of the sciences and technology
(chemists, scientists, technologists, etc.)
3. SOCIAL- they are social and tend to engage in interpersonal situations and
social interaction, e.g. in the social sciences (social workers, physicians,
broadcasters, etc.)
4. CONVENTIONAL- they prefer structured tasks, and can subject their needs to
those of others, e.g. in office jobs (clerks, manual, etc.)
5. ENTERPRISING- they are skilled and constructive in thoughts and actions, and
are capable of leading others, e.g. in business, industries (sales, enterprises,
etc.)
6. ARTISTIC- they prefer unstructured tasks and may show ability for
self-expression, e.g. in the arts (artists, musicians, performers, etc.)
Adolescents can show abilities for gainful work, such as those who work part time or full
time in fast food restaurants as kitchen help, in retail stores as sales clerks and in
offices as messengers and utility personnel.
1. SELF-RELIANCE
2. ABILITY TO MANAGE MONEY
3. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
4. MATURE WORK ORIENTATION
5. PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY
6. POSITIVE ATTTUDES ABOUT WORK
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
School activities outside the subjects for classroom study are mechanisms for
further development of the adolescent student, allowing the acquisition of new attitudes
(such as discipline and motivation), knowledge (such as of organization, sports, etc.),
and skills (organizing, planning, time-managing, athletics, etc.)
71
APPLICATION
Give one important concept that you learned under each then give its application
in the teaching- learning process.
ONE CONCEPT LEARNED AN APPLICATION IN THE TEACHING-

LEARNING PROCESS
1. Piaget’s formal operation stage
2. Siegler’s Information Processing

Skills
3. Metacognition
4. Overachievement
5. Underachievement
REFLECTION
Reflect on the practices of your pasts teachers. Which ones encouraged your
cognitive development as an adolescent and which ones did not? As a future teacher,
what lessons have you learned from your past teachers regarding ways of enhancing
adolescents’ cognitive development?
Module 26 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

“Adolescence isn’t just about prom or wearing sparkly.”

-Jena Malone
Learning Outcomes :

⮚ Identify the socio-emotional changes in the adolescent
⮚ Describe how self-image develops among teens
⮚ Determine the wholesome attitudes and values in teenage friendship
⮚ Discern the causes of moral reasoning and feeling, while understanding
religiously-imposed morality
72
⮚ Recognize the need of the adolescent for freedom and privacy, also
known as adolescent emancipation
INTRODUCTION
During adolescence, the teen shows manifestations of growth as he/she begins

to have friends in school, attend parties, goes to discos and keeps intimate friends with
the same or with the opposite sex. These external manifestations are signs of
socio-emotional growth which usher in self-knowledge, self-identity, social relationships,
and what tend to be different from females).
DEFINITION
SELF-UNDERSTANDING- physical and cognitive developments do not come in

isolation, but are accompanied by growth in self-image and maturation of feelings
among adolescents.
STEREOTYPES IN GENDER DIFFERENCES- Scholars make difference to

gender differences, self-esteem in achievement and leadership, while girls see
themselves better in terms of congeniality and sociability (Hattie & Marsh, 1996).
DEVELOPING SELF-ESTEEM- Some scholars see the roots of self-esteem in

the mother-child relationship.
FRIENDSHIP AND INTIMACY- Teenage friendship is a social system which can

be wholesome in terms of sharing of thoughts and feelings, caring for one another, and
responding to one another’s deeper psychological needs.
SEVERAL TYPES OF FRIENDSHIP
⮚ Acquaintances who meet periodically;

⮚ Companions who share common interest through regular contacts, and
⮚ Intimates or best friends with depth of self-disclosure/ feelings/ caring, romantic
partners in intimate heterosexual relationship.
IDENTITY ISSUES- The active search which adolescents engage into try to gain
a new understanding of self along sexual, occupational, religious, political self-image is
referred to as identity issues.
PHASES OF IDENTITY STATUS
1. IDENTITY FORECLOSURE- This is the case of an adolescent who is the

follower, finding security in others not in his/her self.
2. MORATORIUM- This is the case of an adolescent searcher.
3. IDENTITY ACHIEVER- This is the point where the adolescent fully finds
himself/herself.
4. IDENTITY DIFFUSION- This is the case of the adolescent failing to find him/her.
73
PROMOTING A SENSE OF IDENTITY- It is clear that successful identity achievement
is crucial to developing an integrated personality.
STEREOTYPICAL GENDER ROLES- Several studies on gender stereotype show: On

emotional response, girls in early adolescence more time in forming intimate friendship.
ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIORS AMONG ADOLESCENTS- Gerald Patterson formulated a

developmental progression for anti-social behavior which takes into account
a) The importance of parental monitoring and decipline on the child in early
childhood
b) Involvement with peer and school work in middle childhood, and
c) Commentment with peer group in late childhood and adolescence
MORAL DEVELOPMENT- In his study ethics and topics that have interested moral
scientists through the ages, Lawrence Kholberg laid down three stages of moral
reasoning among adolescents:
1. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL- At this stage, the adolescent is able to understand

and conform to social conventions, consider the motives of peers and adults,
engage in proper behavior to please others, and follow the rules of society.
2. POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL- At this stage, the adolescent wishes to

conform to:
a) Law and order

b) The social contract
c) Universal ethical principle
DEVELOPMENT OF GUILT- guilt is a sense of feeling responsible for one’s actions,

particularly when harm has been done to oneself or others.
INFLUENCES IN MORAL BEHAVIOR- peers can encourage positive behaviors (e.g.

example of good study habits), although they can also encourage misconduct or
inappropriate behaviors (e.g. use of illegal drugs). Peer influence should not be
underestimated.
APPLICATION
Research on any teenage issues and pass a summary of the research by stating
the following:
a) Objectives of the research

b) Findings
c) Conclusions and
d) Recommendations
REFLECTION
74
Reflect on the practices of your pasts teachers. Which ones encouraged your
socio-emotional development as an adolescent and which ones did not? As a future
teacher, what lessons have you learned from your past teachers regarding ways of
enhancing adolescents’ socio-emotional development?
75

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What are some approaches to studying human development mentioned?

PART I- Introduction

Unit 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

A number of researches on human development have been conducted. A lot of

“All the worlds a stage,

MEANING OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at

Some major principles of human development

Here are some major principles of human development:

1. Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)

CEPHALOCAUDAL- During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the

2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of

3. Development takes place gradually. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm

4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological,

BIOLOGICAL - processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature.

COGNITIVE – processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence,

SOCIOEMOTIONAL – processes include changes in the individual’s

Two approaches to human development

1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage

2. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological,

4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing

5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth,

1. “Growth is an evidence of life.” What does this mean?

1. Meaning of human development __________________________________

PRINCIPLE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION

4. Two approaches to human development

TRADITIONAL vs. LIFE-SPAN APPROACH

5. Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective.

In this Module, you are challenged to:

For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task. What

1. Pre-natal Stage- from conception (when the ovum is fertilized by the

2. Babyhood/Infancy (0-2 years old) - foundation age when basic behavior

3. Early Childhood (2-6 years old) - characterized as pre-gang, exploratory and

5. Adolescence (13-19 years old) – transition age from childhood to adulthood

8. Old Age (retirement-death) – increasing rapid physical and mental decline.

The placenta has two important functions:

3. The Fetal Stage

ADVERSE FACTORS AFFECTING FETAL DEVELOPMENT

A. EARLY CHILDHOOD- What are the preschool teachers supposed

Module 3 ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

“The interaction of heredity and environment is so extensive that to ask which is

In this Module, you are challenged to:

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

_____1.Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than environment.

_____3.From the perspective of life-span developmentalist, later experiences is the key

Module 4 RESEARCHES IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

In this Module, you are challenging yourself to:

Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research

The scientific Method

1. identify and define the problem

Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers

-Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift

A Research Abstract- A research abstract is a brief summary that appears at the

Module 5 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

“The ego is not master in its own house.”

In this Module, the students are expected to:

Believe that a person’s behavior can be motivated by strong unconscious drive or