e-Notes by punith kumar M B,BGSIT, BG Nagara Mandya

Course: Digital Communication (EC61)

Course instructors:

1. Mr. H. V.KumaraSwamy, RVCE, Bangalore

2. Mr. P.Nagaraju, RVCE, Bangalore
3. Ms. M.N.Suma, BMSCE, Bangalore

TEXT BOOK:
“Digital Communications”
Author: Simon Haykin Pub: John Wiley Student Edition, 2003

Reference Books:

1. “Digital and Analog Communication Systems” –

K. Sam Shanmugam, John Wiley, 1996.
2. “An introduction to Analog and Digital Communication”-
Simon Haykin, John Wiley, 2003
3. “Digital Communication- Fundamentals & Applications” –
Bernard Sklar, Pearson Education, 2002.
4. “Analog & Digital Communications”-
HSU, Tata Mcgraw Hill, II edition

1
 Chapter-1: Introduction

The purpose of a Communication System is to transport an information bearing signal

from a source to a user destination via a communication channel.

MODEL OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

I/P Signal Information

Source and TRANSMITTER
Input
Transducer CHANNEL

O/P Signal
Destination
and Output RECEIVER
Transducer

Fig. 1.1: Block diagram of Communication System.

The three basic elements of every communication systems are Transmitter,

Receiver and Channel.
The Overall purpose of this system is to transfer information from one point
(called Source) to another point, the user destination.
The message produced by a source, normally, is not electrical. Hence an input
transducer is used for converting the message to a time – varying electrical quantity
called message signal. Similarly, at the destination point, another transducer converts the
electrical waveform to the appropriate message.
The transmitter is located at one point in space, the receiver is located at some
other point separate from the transmitter, and the channel is the medium that provides the
electrical connection between them.
The purpose of the transmitter is to transform the message signal produced by the
source of information into a form suitable for transmission over the channel.
The received signal is normally corrupted version of the transmitted signal, which
is due to channel imperfections, noise and interference from other sources.
The receiver has the task of operating on the received signal so as to reconstruct a
recognizable form of the original message signal and to deliver it to the user destination.

Communication Systems are divided into 3 categories:

1. Analog Communication Systems are designed to transmit analog information
using analog modulation methods.
2. Digital Communication Systems are designed for transmitting digital information
using digital modulation schemes, and
3. Hybrid Systems that use digital modulation schemes for transmitting sampled and
quantized values of an analog message signal.

2
ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:

The figure 1.2 shows the functional elements of a digital communication system.
Source of Information: 1. Analog Information Sources.
2. Digital Information Sources.

Analog Information Sources → Microphone actuated by a speech, TV Camera scanning a

scene, continuous amplitude signals.

Digital Information Sources → These are teletype or the numerical output of computer
which consists of a sequence of discrete symbols or letters.

An Analog information is transformed into a discrete information through the

process of sampling and quantizing.

Digital Communication System

Source of Source Channel

Information Encoder Encoder Modulator
Wave fo

Binary Stream Channel

Received Signal

User of Source Channel

Demodulator
Information Decoder Decoder

Fig 1.2: Block Diagram of a Digital Communication System

SOURCE ENCODER / DECODER:

The Source encoder ( or Source coder) converts the input i.e. symbol sequence
into a binary sequence of 0’s and 1’s by assigning code words to the symbols in the input
sequence. For eg. :-If a source set is having hundred symbols, then the number of bits
used to represent each symbol will be 7 because 27=128 unique combinations are
available. The important parameters of a source encoder are block size, code word
lengths, average data rate and the efficiency of the coder (i.e. actual output data rate
compared to the minimum achievable rate)

3
 At the receiver, the source decoder converts the binary output of the channel
decoder into a symbol sequence. The decoder for a system using fixed – length code
words is quite simple, but the decoder for a system using variable – length code words
will be very complex.

Aim of the source coding is to remove the redundancy in the transmitting

information, so that bandwidth required for transmission is minimized. Based on the
probability of the symbol code word is assigned. Higher the probability, shorter is the
codeword.
Ex: Huffman coding.

CHANNEL ENCODER / DECODER:

Error control is accomplished by the channel coding operation that consists of

systematically adding extra bits to the output of the source coder. These extra bits do not
convey any information but helps the receiver to detect and / or correct some of the errors
in the information bearing bits.

There are two methods of channel coding:

1. Block Coding: The encoder takes a block of ‘k’ information bits from the source
encoder and adds ‘r’ error control bits, where ‘r’ is dependent on ‘k’ and error
control capabilities desired.
2. Convolution Coding: The information bearing message stream is encoded in a
continuous fashion by continuously interleaving information bits and error control
bits.

The Channel decoder recovers the information bearing bits from the coded binary stream.
Error detection and possible correction is also performed by the channel decoder.
The important parameters of coder / decoder are: Method of coding, efficiency, error
control capabilities and complexity of the circuit.

MODULATOR:
The Modulator converts the input bit stream into an electrical waveform suitable
for transmission over the communication channel. Modulator can be effectively used to
minimize the effects of channel noise, to match the frequency spectrum of transmitted
signal with channel characteristics, to provide the capability to multiplex many signals.

DEMODULATOR:
The extraction of the message from the information bearing waveform produced
by the modulation is accomplished by the demodulator. The output of the demodulator is
bit stream. The important parameter is the method of demodulation.

4
CHANNEL:
The Channel provides the electrical connection between the source and
destination. The different channels are: Pair of wires, Coaxial cable, Optical fibre, Radio
channel, Satellite channel or combination of any of these.
The communication channels have only finite Bandwidth, non-ideal frequency
response, the signal often suffers amplitude and phase distortion as it travels over the
channel. Also, the signal power decreases due to the attenuation of the channel. The
signal is corrupted by unwanted, unpredictable electrical signals referred to as noise.
The important parameters of the channel are Signal to Noise power Ratio (SNR),
usable bandwidth, amplitude and phase response and the statistical properties of noise.

Modified Block Diagram: (With additional blocks)

From Other Sources

Source Encrypt Channel Modula

Source Encoder er Encoder Mux tor

Channel

Destina De Demod
Source
tion Decoder cryptor Channel Demux ulator
decoder

To other Destinations

Fig 1.3 : Block diagram with additional blocks

Some additional blocks as shown in the block diagram are used in most of digital
communication system:

• Encryptor: Encryptor prevents unauthorized users from understanding the

messages and from injecting false messages into the system.

• MUX : Multiplexer is used for combining signals from different sources so that
they share a portion of the communication system.

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 • DeMUX: DeMultiplexer is used for separating the different signals so that they
reach their respective destinations.

• Decryptor: It does the reverse operation of that of the Encryptor.

Synchronization: Synchronization involves the estimation of both time and frequency

coherent systems need to synchronize their frequency reference with carrier in both
frequency and phase.

Advantages of Digital Communication

1. The effect of distortion, noise and interference is less in a digital communication

system. This is because the disturbance must be large enough to change the pulse
from one state to the other.

2. Regenerative repeaters can be used at fixed distance along the link, to identify and
regenerate a pulse before it is degraded to an ambiguous state.

3. Digital circuits are more reliable and cheaper compared to analog circuits.

4. The Hardware implementation is more flexible than analog hardware because of

the use of microprocessors, VLSI chips etc.

5. Signal processing functions like encryption, compression can be employed to

maintain the secrecy of the information.

6. Error detecting and Error correcting codes improve the system performance by
reducing the probability of error.

7. Combining digital signals using TDM is simpler than combining analog signals
using FDM. The different types of signals such as data, telephone, TV can be
treated as identical signals in transmission and switching in a digital
communication system.

8. We can avoid signal jamming using spread spectrum technique.

Disadvantages of Digital Communication:

1. Large System Bandwidth:- Digital transmission requires a large system

bandwidth to communicate the same information in a digital format as compared
to analog format.

2. System Synchronization:- Digital detection requires system synchronization

whereas the analog signals generally have no such requirement.

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Channels for Digital Communications
The modulation and coding used in a digital communication system depend on the
characteristics of the channel. The two main characteristics of the channel are
BANDWIDTH and POWER. In addition the other characteristics are whether the channel
is linear or nonlinear, and how free the channel is free from the external interference.

Five channels are considered in the digital communication, namely: telephone

channels, coaxial cables, optical fibers, microwave radio, and satellite channels.

Telephone channel: It is designed to provide voice grade communication. Also good for
data communication over long distances. The channel has a band-pass characteristic
occupying the frequency range 300Hz to 3400hz, a high SNR of about 30db, and
approximately linear response.
For the transmission of voice signals the channel provides flat amplitude
response. But for the transmission of data and image transmissions, since the phase delay
variations are important an equalizer is used to maintain the flat amplitude response and a
linear phase response over the required frequency band. Transmission rates upto16.8
kilobits per second have been achieved over the telephone lines.

Coaxial Cable: The coaxial cable consists of a single wire conductor centered inside an
outer conductor, which is insulated from each other by a dielectric. The main advantages
of the coaxial cable are wide bandwidth and low external interference. But closely
spaced repeaters are required. With repeaters spaced at 1km intervals the data rates of
274 megabits per second have been achieved.

Optical Fibers: An optical fiber consists of a very fine inner core made of silica glass,
surrounded by a concentric layer called cladding that is also made of glass. The refractive
index of the glass in the core is slightly higher than refractive index of the glass in the
cladding. Hence if a ray of light is launched into an optical fiber at the right oblique
acceptance angle, it is continually refracted into the core by the cladding. That means the
difference between the refractive indices of the core and cladding helps guide the
propagation of the ray of light inside the core of the fiber from one end to the other.
Compared to coaxial cables, optical fibers are smaller in size and they offer higher
transmission bandwidths and longer repeater separations.

Microwave radio: A microwave radio, operating on the line-of-sight link, consists

basically of a transmitter and a receiver that are equipped with antennas. The antennas
are placed on towers at sufficient height to have the transmitter and receiver in line-of-
sight of each other. The operating frequencies range from 1 to 30 GHz.
Under normal atmospheric conditions, a microwave radio channel is very reliable
and provides path for high-speed digital transmission. But during meteorological
variations, a severe degradation occurs in the system performance.

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Satellite Channel: A Satellite channel consists of a satellite in geostationary orbit, an
uplink from ground station, and a down link to another ground station. Both link operate
at microwave frequencies, with uplink the uplink frequency higher than the down link
frequency. In general, Satellite can be viewed as repeater in the sky. It permits
communication over long distances at higher bandwidths and relatively low cost.

Chapter-2
SAMPLING PROCESS

SAMPLING: A message signal may originate from a digital or analog source. If

the message signal is analog in nature, then it has to be converted into digital form before
it can transmitted by digital means. The process by which the continuous-time signal is
converted into a discrete–time signal is called Sampling.
Sampling operation is performed in accordance with the sampling theorem.

SAMPLING THEOREM FOR LOW-PASS SIGNALS:-

Statement:- “If a band –limited signal g(t) contains no frequency components for ‫׀‬f‫ > ׀‬W,
then it is completely described by instantaneous values g(kTs) uniformly spaced in time
with period Ts ≤ 1/2W. If the sampling rate, fs is equal to the Nyquist rate or greater (fs ≥
2W), the signal g(t) can be exactly reconstructed.
g(t)

sδ (t)

-2Ts -Ts 0 1Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts

gδ(t)

-2Ts -Ts 0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts

8
Fig 2.1: Sampling process

9
Proof:- Consider the signal g(t) is sampled by using a train of impulses sδ (t).
Let gδ(t) denote the ideally sampled signal, can be represented as
gδ(t) = g(t).sδ(t) ------------------- 2.1
where sδ(t) – impulse train defined by
+∞
sδ(t) = ∑δ (t − kT
k =−∞
s ) -------------------- 2.2

+∞
Therefore gδ(t) = g(t) . ∑δ (t − kT
k =−∞
s )

+∞
= ∑g (kT
k =−
∞
s ).δ (t − kT s ) ----------- 2.3

The Fourier transform of an impulse train is given by

+∞
Sδ(f )= F[sδ(t)] = fs ∑δ ( f
n =−∞
− nf s ) ------------------ 2.4

Applying F.T to equation 2.1 and using convolution in frequency domain property,
Gδ(f) = G(f) * Sδ (f)
+∞
Using equation 2.4, Gδ (f) = G(f) * fs ∑δ ( f
n =−∞
− nf s )

+∞
Gδ (f) = fs ∑G ( f
n =−
∞
− nf s ) ----------------- 2.5

Fig. 2.2 Over Sampling (fs > 2W)

10
Fig. 2.3 Nyquist Rate Sampling (fs = 2W)

Fig. 2.4 Under Sampling (fs < 2W)

11
Reconstruction of g(t) from g δ (t):
By passing the ideally sampled signal gδ(t) through an low pass filter ( called
Reconstruction filter ) having the transfer function H R(f) with bandwidth, B satisfying
the condition W ≤ B ≤ (fs – W) , we can reconstruct the signal g(t). For an ideal
reconstruction filter the bandwidth B is equal to W.

Reconstruction
gδ (t) Filter gR(t)
HR(f) / hR(t)

The output of LPF is, gR(t) = gδ (t) * hR(t)

where hR(t) is the impulse response of the filter.
In frequency domain, GR(f) = Gδ(f) .HR(f).
For the ideal LPF HR(f) = K -W ≤ f ≤ +W
0 otherwise
then impulse response is hR(t) = 2WTs. Sinc(2Wt)
Correspondingly the reconstructed signal is
gR(t) = [ 2WTs Sinc (2Wt)] * [g δ (t)]
+∞
gR(t) = 2WTs ∑g (kTs ).Sinc (2Wt ) * δ (t − kTs )
K =−∞

+∞
gR(t) = 2WTs ∑g (kTs ).Sinc [2W (t − kTs )]
K =−∞

Gδ(f)

-fs -W 0 W fs f
HR( f) K
-W 0 +W f
GR(f)
f
-W 0 +W
Fig: 2.5 Spectrum of sampled signal and reconstructed signal

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Sampling of Band Pass Signals:
Consider a band-pass signal g(t) with the spectrum shown in figure 2.6:
G(f)
B B
Band width = B
Upper Limit = fu
Lower Limit = fl -fu -fl 0 fl fu f
Fig 2.6: Spectrum of a Band-pass Signal

The signal g(t) can be represented by instantaneous values, g(kTs) if the sampling
rate fs is (2fu/m) where m is an integer defined as
((fu / B) -1 ) < m ≤ (fu / B)
If the sample values are represented by impulses, then g(t) can be exactly
reproduced from it’s samples by an ideal Band-Pass filter with the response, H(f) defined
as
H(f) = 1 fl < | f | <fu
0 elsewhere
If the sampling rate, fs ≥ 2fu, exact reconstruction is possible in which case the signal
g(t) may be considered as a low pass signal itself.

fs

4B
3B
2B

0 B 2B 3B 4B 5B fu

Fig 2.7: Relation between Sampling rate, Upper cutoff frequency and Bandwidth.

13
Example-1 :
Consider a signal g(t) having the Upper Cutoff frequency, f u = 100KHz and the
Lower Cutoff frequency fl = 80KHz.
The ratio of upper cutoff frequency to bandwidth of the signal g(t) is
fu / B = 100K / 20K = 5.
Therefore we can choose m = 5.
Then the sampling rate is fs = 2fu / m = 200K / 5 = 40KHz

Example-2 :
Consider a signal g(t) having the Upper Cutoff frequency, f u = 120KHz and the
Lower Cutoff frequency fl = 70KHz.
The ratio of upper cutoff frequency to bandwidth of the signal g(t) is
fu / B = 120K / 50K = 2.4
Therefore we can choose m = 2. ie.. m is an integer less than (fu /B).
Then the sampling rate is fs = 2fu / m = 240K / 2 = 120KHz

14
Quadrature Sampling of Band – Pass Signals:
This scheme represents a natural extension of the sampling of low – pass signals.
In this scheme, the band pass signal is split into two components, one is in-phase
component and other is quadrature component. These two components will be low–pass
signals and are sampled separately. This form of sampling is called quadrature sampling.
Let g(t) be a band pass signal, of bandwidth ‘2W’ centered around the frequency,
fc, (fc>W). The in-phase component, gI(t) is obtained by multiplying g(t) with
cos(2πfct) and then filtering out the high frequency components. Parallelly a quadrature
phase component is obtained by multiplying g(t) with sin(2πfct) and then filtering out the
high frequency components..
The band pass signal g(t) can be expressed as,
g(t) = gI(t). cos(2πfct) – gQ(t) sin(2πfct)
The in-phase, gI(t) and quadrature phase gQ(t) signals are low–pass signals, having band
limited to (-W < f < W). Accordingly each component may be sampled at the rate of
2W samples per second.

g(t)cos(2πfct) ½ gI (t) ½ gI (nTs)

LPF sampler
g(t)
cos (2πfct)
g(t) sin(2πfct) ½gQ(t) -½ gQ(nTs)
LPF

sampler

sin (2πfct)

Fig 2.8: Generation of in-phase and quadrature phase samples

15
 G(f)

-fc 0 fc f
 2W->
a) Spectrum of a Band pass signal.

GI(f) / GQ(f)

-W 0 W f
b) Spectrum of gI(t) and gQ(t)
Fig 2.9 a) Spectrum of Band-pass signal g(t)
b) Spectrum of in-phase and quadrature phase signals

RECONSTRUCTION:
From the sampled signals gI(nTs) and gQ(nTs), the signals gI(t) and gQ(t) are
obtained. To reconstruct the original band pass signal, multiply the signals g I(t) by
cos(2πfct) and sin(2πfct) respectively and then add the results.
gI(nTs)
Reconstruction
Filter

+
Cos (2πfct) Σ g(t)
-

gQ(nTs) Reconstruction
Filter

Sin (2πfct)

16
Fig 2.10: Reconstruction of Band-pass signal g(t)

17
Sample and Hold Circuit for Signal Recovery.

In both the natural sampling and flat-top sampling methods, the spectrum of the signals
are scaled by the ratio τ/Ts, where τ is the pulse duration and Ts is the sampling period.
Since this ratio is very small, the signal power at the output of the reconstruction filter is
correspondingly small. To overcome this problem a sample-and-hold circuit is used .

SW
AMPLIFIER
Input Output
g(t) u(t)

a) Sample and Hold Circuit

b) Idealized output waveform of the circuit

Fig: 2.17 Sample Hold Circuit with Waveforms.

The Sample-and-Hold circuit consists of an amplifier of unity gain and low output
impedance, a switch and a capacitor; it is assumed that the load impedance is large. The
switch is timed to close only for the small duration of each sampling pulse, during which
time the capacitor charges up to a voltage level equal to that of the input sample. When
the switch is open , the capacitor retains the voltage level until the next closure of the
switch. Thus the sample-and-hold circuit produces an output waveform that represents a
staircase interpolation of the original analog signal.

18
The output of a Sample-and-Hold circuit is defined as

+∞
u (t ) = ∑g (nTs ) h(t − nTs )
n =−∞
where h(t) is the impulse response representing the action of the Sample-and-Hold
circuit; that is

h(t) = 1 for 0 < t < Ts

0 for t < 0 and t > Ts

Correspondingly, the spectrum for the output of the Sample-and-Hold circuit is given
by,
+∞
U ( f ) = fs ∑H ( f )G ( f
n =−
∞
− nf s ) )

where G(f) is the FT of g(t) and

H(f) = Ts Sinc( fTs) exp( -jπ fTs)

To recover the original signal g(t) without distortion, the output of the Sample-and-
Hold circuit is passed through a low-pass filter and an equalizer.

Sampled Sample and Low Pass Analog

Waveform Hold Circuit Filter Equalizer Waveform

Fig. 2.18: Components of a scheme for signal reconstruction

19
Signal Distortion in Sampling.
In deriving the sampling theorem for a signal g(t) it is assumed that the signal g(t) is
strictly band-limited with no frequency components above ‘W’ Hz. However, a signal
cannot be finite in both time and frequency. Therefore the signal g(t) must have infinite
duration for its spectrum to be strictly band-limited.

In practice, we have to work with a finite segment of the signal in which case the
spectrum cannot be strictly band-limited. Consequently when a signal of finite duration
is sampled an error in the reconstruction occurs as a result of the sampling process.

Consider a signal g(t) whose spectrum G(f) decreases with the increasing frequency
without limit as shown in the figure 2.19. The spectrum, Gδ (f) of the ideally sampled
signal , gδ (t) is the sum of G(f) and infinite number of frequency shifted replicas of
G(f). The replicas of G(f) are shifted in frequency by multiples of sampling frequency,
fs. Two replicas of G(f) are shown in the figure 2.19.

The use of a low-pass reconstruction filter with it’s pass band extending from (-fs/2 to
+fs/2) no longer yields an undistorted version of the original signal g(t). The portions of
the frequency shifted replicas are folded over inside the desired spectrum. Specifically,
high frequencies in G(f) are reflected into low frequencies in Gδ (f). The phenomenon
of overlapping in the spectrum is called as Aliasing or Foldover Effect. Due to this
phenomenon the information is invariably lost.

Fig. 2.19 : a) Spectrum of finite energy signal g(t)

b) Spectrum of the ideally sampled signal.

20
Bound On Aliasing Error:

Let g(t) be the message signal, g(n/fs) denote the sequence obtained by sampling the
signal g(t) and gi(t) denote the signal reconstructed from this sequence by interpolation;
that is
 n 
g i (t ) = ∑g 
f  Sinc ( f s t − n)
n  s 

Aliasing Error is given by, ε = | g(t) - gi(t) |

Signal g(t) is given by

∞
g (t ) = ∫G ( f ) exp( j 2πft ) df
−∞
Or equivalently

+
∞ ( m +1 / 2 ) fs

g (t ) =
m =−
∞
∑ ∫G ( f ) exp( j 2πft ) df
( m −1 / 2 ) fs

Using Poisson’s formula and Fourier Series expansions we can obtain the aliasing error
as

+∞ ( m +1 / 2 ) fs

ε = | ∑[1 −exp( − j 2πmf s t )]

m =−
∞
∫G ( f ) exp( j 2πft )df |
( m −1 / 2 ) fs

Correspondingly the following observations can be done :

1. The term corresponding to m=0 vanishes.

2. The absolute value of the sum of a set of terms is less than or equal to the sum of
the absolute values of the individual terms.
3. The absolute value of the term 1- exp(-j2πmfst) is less than or equal to 2.
4. The absolute value of the integral in the above equation is bounded as
( m +1 / 2 ) fs ( m +1 / 2 ) fs

| ∫G ( f ) exp(
( m −1 / 2 ) fs
j 2πft ) df |< ∫ | G ( f ) | df
( m −1 / 2 ) fs

Hence the aliasing error is bounded as

ε≤ 2 ∫| f | >fs / 2
| G ( f ) | df

Example: Consider a time shifted sinc pulse, g(t) = 2 sinc(2t – 1). If g(t) is sampled at
rate of 1sample per second that is at t = 0, ± 1, ±2, ±3 and so on , evaluate

21
 the aliasing error.

Solution: The given signal g(t) and it’s spectrum are shown in fig. 2.20.

2.0

1.0

t
-1 0 0.5 1 2

-1.0

a) Sinc Pulse

‫׀‬G(f)‫׀‬

-1.0 -1/2 0 1/2 1.0 f

(b) Amplitude Spectrum, ‫׀‬G(f)‫׀‬

Fig. 2.20

The sampled signal g(nTs) = 0 for n = 0, ± 1, ±2, ±3 . . . . .and reconstructed signal

gi(t) = 0 for all t.

From the figure, the sinc pulse attains it’s maximum value of 2 at time t equal to ½. The
aliasing error cannot exceed max|g(t)| = 2.

From the spectrum, the aliasing error is equal to unity.

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Natural Sampling:
In this method of sampling, an electronic switch is used to periodically shift
between the two contacts at a rate of fs = (1/Ts ) Hz, staying on the input contact for C
seconds and on the grounded contact for the remainder of each sampling period.
The output xs(t) of the sampler consists of segments of x(t) and hence xs(t) can be
considered as the product of x(t) and sampling function s(t).
xs(t) = x(t) . s(t)
The sampling function s(t) is periodic with period Ts, can be defined as,
S(t) = 1 −τ / 2 < t < τ / 2 ------- (1)
0 τ / 2 < ‫׀‬t‫ < ׀‬Ts/2

Fig: 2.11 Natural Sampling – Simple Circuit.

Fig: 2.12 Natural Sampling – Waveforms.

23
 Using Fourier series, we can rewrite the signal S(t) as
∞
S(t) = Co + ∑2Cn cos( nw t )
n =1
s

where the Fourier coefficients, Co = τ / Ts & Cn = fs τ Sinc(n fs τ )

∞
Therefore: xs(t) = x(t) [ Co + ∑2Cn cos( nw
n =1
s t) ]

xs (t) = Co.x(t) +2C1.x(t)cos(wst) + 2C2.x(t)cos (2wst) + . . . . . . . .

Applying Fourier transform for the above equation
FT
Using x(t) X(f)
x(t) cos(2πf0t) ½ [X(f-f0) + X(f+f0)]

Xs(f) = Co.X(f) + C1 [X(f-f0) + X(f+f0)] + C2 [X(f-f0) + X(f+f0)] + ... …

∑
∞
Xs(f) = Co.X(f) + n =−∞
Cn . X ( f − nfs )

n≠0

1 X(f)

f
-W 0 +W
Message Signal Spectrum
Xs(f)
C0
C2 C1 C1 C2

f
-2fs -fs -W 0 +W fs 2fs
Sampled Signal Spectrum (fs > 2W)

Fig:2.13 Natural Sampling Spectrum

24
The signal xs(t) has the spectrum which consists of message spectrum and repetition of
message spectrum periodically in the frequency domain with a period of fs. But the
message term is scaled by ‘Co”. Since the spectrum is not distorted it is possible to
reconstruct x(t) from the sampled waveform xs(t).

Flat Top Sampling:

In this method, the sampled waveform produced by practical sampling devices,
the pulse p(t) is a flat – topped pulse of duration, τ .

Fig. 2.14: Flat Top Sampling Circuit

Fig. 2.15: Waveforms

25
 Mathematically we can consider the flat – top sampled signal as equivalent to the
convolved sequence of the pulse signal p(t) and the ideally sampled signal, x δ (t).
xs(t) = p(t) *x δ (t)
+∞
xs(t) = p(t) * [ ∑x(kTs ).δ (t - kTs)
k =−∞
]

Applying F.T,
Xs(f) = P(f).X δ (f)
+∞
= P(f). fs ∑X ( f
n =−∞
− nfs )

where P(f) = FT[p(t)] and X δ (f) = FT[x δ (t)]

Aperature Effect:
The sampled signal in the flat top sampling has the attenuated high frequency
components. This effect is called the Aperture Effect.

The aperture effect can be compensated by:

1. Selecting the pulse width τ as very small.
2. by using an equalizer circuit.

Sampled Signal
Low – Equalizer
Pass Filter Heq(f)

Equalizer decreases the effect of the in-band loss of the interpolation filter (lpf).
As the frequency increases, the gain of the equalizer increases. Ideally the amplitude
response of the equalizer is
1 πf
| Heq(f)| = 1 / | P(f) | = τ.SinC ( fτ) = Sin (π f τ)

26
 Chapter-3
Waveform Coding Techniques

PCM [Pulse Code Modulation]

PCM is an important method of analog –to-digital conversion. In this modulation

the analog signal is converted into an electrical waveform of two or more levels. A
simple two level waveform is shown in fig 3.1.

Fig:3.1 A simple binary PCM waveform

The PCM system block diagram is shown in fig 3.2. The essential operations in the
transmitter of a PCM system are Sampling, Quantizing and Coding. The Quantizing and
encoding operations are usually performed by the same circuit, normally referred to as
analog to digital converter.
The essential operations in the receiver are regeneration, decoding and
demodulation of the quantized samples. Regenerative repeaters are used to reconstruct
the transmitted sequence of coded pulses in order to combat the accumulated effects of
signal distortion and noise.

PCM Transmitter:

Basic Blocks:
1. Anti aliasing Filter
2. Sampler
3. Quantizer
4. Encoder

An anti-aliasing filter is basically a filter used to ensure that the input signal to sampler is
free from the unwanted frequency components.
For most of the applications these are low-pass filters. It removes the frequency
components of the signal which are above the cutoff frequency of the filter. The cutoff
frequency of the filter is chosen such it is very close to the highest frequency component
of the signal.

27
Sampler unit samples the input signal and these samples are then fed to the Quantizer
which outputs the quantized values for each of the samples. The quantizer output is fed
to an encoder which generates the binary code for every sample. The quantizer and
encoder together is called as analog to digital converter.

Continuous time
message signal PCM Wave

LPF Sampler Quantizer Encoder

(a) TRANSMITTER

Distorted
PCM wave Regenerative Regenerative
Repeater Repeater

(b) Transmission Path

Input
Regeneration Reconstruction Destination
Circuit
Decoder
Filter User

(c) RECEIVER

Fig: 3.2 - PCM System : Basic Block Diagram

28
 REGENERATIVE REPEATER

REGENERATION: The feature of the PCM systems lies in the ability to control the
effects of distortion and noise produced by transmitting a PCM wave through a channel.
This is accomplished by reconstructing the PCM wave by means of regenerative
repeaters.
Three basic functions: Equalization
Timing and
Decision Making

Decision
Distorted Amplifier - Making Regenerated
PCM Equalizer Device PCM wave
Wave

Timing
Circuit

Fig: 3.3 - Block diagram of a regenerative repeater.

The equalizer shapes the received pulses so as to compensate for the effects of
amplitude and phase distortions produced by the transmission characteristics of the
channel.
The timing circuit provides a periodic pulse train, derived from the received
pulses, for sampling the equalized pulses at the instants of time where the signal to noise
ratio is maximum.
The decision device is enabled at the sampling times determined by the timing
circuit. It makes it’s decision based on whether the amplitude of the quantized pulse plus
noise exceeds a predetermined voltage level.

29
Quantization Process:
The process of transforming Sampled amplitude values of a message signal into a
discrete amplitude value is referred to as Quantization.

The quantization Process has a two-fold effect:

1. the peak-to-peak range of the input sample values is subdivided into a finite set
of decision levels or decision thresholds that are aligned with the risers of the
staircase, and
2. the output is assigned a discrete value selected from a finite set of representation
levels that are aligned with the treads of the staircase..

A quantizer is memory less in that the quantizer output is determined only by the value of
a corresponding input sample, independently of earlier analog samples applied to the
input.

Analog Signal

Discrete Samples
( Quantized )

0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts Time

Fig:3.4 Typical Quantization process.

Types of Quantizers:

1. Uniform Quantizer
2. Non- Uniform Quantizer

30
 In Uniform type, the quantization levels are uniformly spaced, whereas in non-
uniform type the spacing between the levels will be unequal and mostly the relation is
logarithmic.

Types of Uniform Quantizers: ( based on I/P - O/P Characteristics)

1. Mid-Rise type Quantizer
2. Mid-Tread type Quantizer

In the stair case like graph, the origin lies the middle of the tread portion in Mid –Tread
type where as the origin lies in the middle of the rise portion in the Mid-Rise type.

Mid – tread type: Quantization levels – odd number.

Mid – Rise type: Quantization levels – even number.

Output
7Δ/2

5Δ/2
3Δ/2

Δ/2

Δ 2Δ 3Δ 4Δ Input

Fig:3.5 Input-Output Characteristics of a Mid-Rise type Quantizer

31
 Output

2Δ

Δ/2
3Δ/2 Input

Fig:3.6 Input-Output Characteristics of a Mid-Tread type Quantizer

Quantization Noise and Signal-to-Noise:

“The Quantization process introduces an error defined as the difference between the input
signal, x(t) and the output signal, yt). This error is called the Quantization Noise.”

q(t) = x(t) – y(t)

Quantization noise is produced in the transmitter end of a PCM system by

rounding off sample values of an analog base-band signal to the nearest permissible
representation levels of the quantizer. As such quantization noise differs from channel
noise in that it is signal dependent.

Let ‘Δ’ be the step size of a quantizer and L be the total number of quantization levels.
Quantization levels are 0, ± Δ., ± 2 Δ., ±3 Δ . . . . . . .
The Quantization error, Q is a random variable and will have its sample values bounded
by [-(Δ/2) < q < (Δ/2)]. If Δ is small, the quantization error can be assumed to a
uniformly distributed random variable.

Consider a memory less quantizer that is both uniform and symmetric.

L = Number of quantization levels
X = Quantizer input
Y = Quantizer output

32
The output y is given by
Y=Q(x) ------------- (3.1)

which is a staircase function that befits the type of mid tread or mid riser quantizer of
interest.

Suppose that the input ‘x’ lies inside the interval

Ik = {xk < x ≤ xk+1} k = 1,2,---------L ------- ( 3.2)

where xk and xk+1 are decision thresholds of the interval Ik as shown in figure 3.7.

Ik-1 Ik

yk-1 yk
Xk-1 Xk Xk+1
Fig:3.7 Decision thresholds of the equalizer

Correspondingly, the quantizer output y takes on a discrete value

Y = yk if x lies in the interval Ik

Let q = quantization error with values in the range − ∆ ≤q≤∆
2 2 then
Yk = x+q if ‘n’ lies in the interval Ik
Assuming that the quantizer input ‘n’ is the sample value of a random variable ‘X’ of
zero mean with variance σx 2 .

The quantization noise uniformly distributed through out the signal band, its interfering
effect on a signal is similar to that of thermal noise.

Expression for Quantization Noise and SNR in PCM:-

Let Q = Random Variable denotes the Quantization error

q = Sampled value of Q
Assuming that the random variable Q is uniformly distributed over the possible range
(-Δ/2 to Δ/2) , as

fQ(q) = 1/Δ - Δ/2 ≤ q ≤ Δ/2 ------- (3.3)

0 otherwise

33
 where fQ(q) = probability density function of the Quantization error. If the signal
does not overload the Quantizer, then the mean of Quantization error is zero and
its variance σQ2 .
fQ(q)
1/Δ

- Δ/2 0 Δ/2 q

Fig:3.8 PDF for Quantization error.

Therefore
σ Q = E{Q 2 }
2

∞
σ Q = ∫ q 2 f q (q)dq
2
---- ( 3.4)
−∞

1 2
∆2
∫ q 2 dq =
2
σQ = --- (3.5)
∆ ∆ 12
−
2

Thus the variance of the Quantization noise produced by a Uniform Quantizer,

grows as the square of the step size. Equation (3.5) gives an expression for Quantization
noise in PCM system.
Let σ X = Variance of the base band signal x(t) at the input of Quantizer.
2

When the base band signal is reconstructed at the receiver output, we obtain
original signal plus Quantization noise. Therefore output signal to Quantization noise
ration (SNR) is given by

Signal Power σ X σX
2 2

( SNR) O = = = ---------- (3.6)

Noise Power σ Q 2 ∆2 / 12

Smaller the step size Δ, larger will be the SNR.

Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio:- [ Mid Tread Type ]

Let x = Quantizer input, sampled value of random variable X with mean X, variance
σ X 2 . The Quantizer is assumed to be uniform, symmetric and mid tread type.
xmax = absolute value of the overload level of the Quantizer.
Δ = Step size
L = No. of Quantization level given by

34
 2 x max
L= +1 ----- (3.7)
∆

Let n = No. of bits used to represent each level.

In general 2n = L, but in the mid tread Quantizer, since the number of representation
levels is odd,

L = 2n – 1 --------- (Mid tread only) ---- (3.8)

From the equations 3.7 and 3.8,

2 x max
2n −1 = +1
∆
Or

x
∆= max
n −1 ---- (3.9)
2 −1
x max
The ratio is called the loading factor. To avoid significant overload distortion, the
σx
amplitude of the Quantizer input x extend from − 4σ x to 4σx , which corresponds to
loading factor of 4. Thus with x max = 4σx we can write equation (3.9) as

4σ x
∆= n −1 ----------(3.10)
2 −1
2
σ 3
( SNR) O = 2 X = [2 n −1 − 1] 2 -------------(3.11)
∆ / 12 4

For larger value of n (typically n>6), we may approximate the result as

3 3
( SNR ) O = [ 2 n −1 −1] 2 ≈ (2 2 n ) --------------- (3.12)
4 16
Hence expressing SNR in db

10 log10 (SNR)O = 6n - 7.2 --------------- (3.13)

This formula states that each bit in codeword of a PCM system contributes 6db to the
signal to noise ratio.

For loading factor of 4, the problem of overload i.e. the problem that the sampled
value of signal falls outside the total amplitude range of Quantizer, 8σx is less than 10-4.

The equation 3.11 gives a good description of the noise performance of a PCM
system provided that the following conditions are satisfied.
1. The Quantization error is uniformly distributed

35
 2. The system operates with an average signal power above the error threshold so
that the effect of channel noise is made negligible and performance is there by
limited essentially by Quantization noise alone.
3. The Quantization is fine enough (say n>6) to prevent signal correlated patterns in
the Quantization error waveform
4. The Quantizer is aligned with input for a loading factor of 4

Note: 1. Error uniformly distributed

2. Average signal power
3. n > 6
4. Loading factor = 4

From (3.13): 10 log10 (SNR)O = 6n – 7.2

In a PCM system, Bandwidth B = nW or [n=B/W]

substituting the value of ‘n’ we get
10 log10 (SNR)O = 6(B/W) – 7.2 --------(3.14)

Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio:- [ Mid Rise Type ]

Let x = Quantizer input, sampled value of random variable X with mean X variance σ X
2

.
The Quantizer is assumed to be uniform, symmetric and mid rise type.
Let xmax = absolute value of the overload level of the Quantizer.

2x max
L= ------------------(3.15)
∆

Since the number of representation levels is even,

L = 2n ------- (Mid rise only) ---- (3.16)

From (3.15) and (3.16)

xmax
∆= -------------- (3.17)
2n

2
σ
( SNR) O = 2 X -------------(3.18)
∆ / 12

where σ X
2
represents the variance or the signal power.

36
Consider a special case of Sinusoidal signals:

Let the signal power be Ps, then Ps = 0.5 x2max.

Ps 12 Ps
( SNR ) O = = = 1.5 L2 = 1.5 2 2 n -----(3.19)
∆ / 12
2
∆2

In decibels, ( SNR )0 = 1.76 + 6.02 n -----------(3.20)

Improvement of SNR can be achieved by increasing the number of bits, n. Thus

for ‘n’ number of bits / sample the SNR is given by the above equation 3.19. For every
increase of one bit / sample the step size reduces by half. Thus for (n+1) bits the SNR is
given by
(SNR) (n+1) bit = (SNR) (n) bit + 6dB

Therefore addition of each bit increases the SNR by 6dB

Problem-1: An analog signal is sampled at the Nyquist rate fs = 20K and quantized
into L=1024 levels. Find Bit-rate and the time duration Tb of one bit of the binary
encoded signal.

Solution: Assume Mid-rise type, n = log2L = 10

Bit-rate = Rb = nfs = 200K bits/sec
Bit duration Tb = 1/ Rb = 5µsec.

Problem-2: A PCM system uses a uniform quantizer followed by a 7-bit binary encoder.
The bit rate of the system is 56Mega bits/sec. Find the output signal-to-quantization
noise ratio when a sinusoidal wave of 1MHz frequency is applied to the input.

Solution:
Given n = 7 and bit rate Rb = 56 Mega bits per second.
Sampling frequency = Rb/n = 8MHz
Message bandwidth = 4MHz.
For Mid-rise type
(SNR)0 = 43.9 dB

37
CLASSIFICATION OF QUANTIZATION NOISE:
The Quantizing noise at the output of the PCM decoder can be categorized into
four types depending on the operating conditions:
Overload noise, Random noise, Granular Noise and Hunting noise

OVER LOAD NOISE:- The level of the analog waveform at the input of the PCM
encoder needs to be set so that its peak value does not exceed the design peak of Vmax
volts. If the peak input does exceed Vmax, then the recovered analog waveform at the
output of the PCM system will have flat – top near the peak values. This produces
overload noise.

GRANULAR NOISE:- If the input level is reduced to a relatively small value w.r.t to the
design level (quantization level), the error values are not same from sample to sample and
the noise has a harsh sound resembling gravel being poured into a barrel. This is granular
noise.
This noise can be randomized (noise power decreased) by increasing the number
of quantization levels i.e.. increasing the PCM bit rate.

HUNTING NOISE:- This occurs when the input analog waveform is nearly constant.
For these conditions, the sample values at the Quantizer output can oscillate between two
adjacent quantization levels, causing an undesired sinusoidal type tone of frequency
(0.5fs) at the output of the PCM system
This noise can be reduced by designing the quantizer so that there is no vertical
step at constant value of the inputs.

38
ROBUST QUANTIZATION

Features of an uniform Quantizer

– Variance is valid only if the input signal does not overload Quantizer
– SNR Decreases with a decrease in the input power level.

A Quantizer whose SNR remains essentially constant for a wide range of input power
levels. A quantizer that satisfies this requirement is said to be robust. The provision for
such robust performance necessitates the use of a non-uniform quantizer. In a non-
uniform quantizer the step size varies. For smaller amplitude ranges the step size is small
and larger amplitude ranges the step size is large.

In Non – Uniform Quantizer the step size varies. The use of a non – uniform
quantizer is equivalent to passing the baseband signal through a compressor and then
applying the compressed signal to a uniform quantizer. The resultant signal is then
transmitted.

UNIFORM
COMPRESSOR QUANTIZER EXPANDER

Fig: 3.9 MODEL OF NON UNIFORM QUANTIZER

At the receiver, a device with a characteristic complementary to the compressor

called Expander is used to restore the signal samples to their correct relative level.

The Compressor and expander take together constitute a Compander.

Compander = Compressor + Expander

Advantages of Non – Uniform Quantization :

1. Higher average signal to quantization noise power ratio than the uniform quantizer
when the signal pdf is non uniform which is the case in many practical situation.
2. RMS value of the quantizer noise power of a non – uniform quantizer is
substantially proportional to the sampled value and hence the effect of the
quantizer noise is reduced.

39
Expression for quantization error in non-uniform quantizer:

The Transfer Characteristics of the compressor and expander are denoted by C(x)
and C-1(x) respectively, which are related by,

C(x). C-1(x) = 1 ------ ( 3.21 )

The Compressor Characteristics for large L and x inside the interval Ik:
dc ( x) 2 xmax
= for k =0,1,..... L −1 ---------- ( 3.22 )
dx L∆k
where Δk = Width in the interval Ik.

Let fX(x) be the PDF of ‘X’ .

Consider the two assumptions:

– fX(x) is Symmetric
– fX(x) is approximately constant in each interval. ie.. fX(x) = fX(yk)

Δk = xk+1 - xk for k = 0, 1, … L-1. ------(3.23)

Let pk = Probability of variable X lies in the interval Ik, then

pk = P (xk < X < xk+1) = fX(x) Δk = fX(yk) Δk ------ (3.24)

L −1
with the constraint ∑p
k =0
k =1

Let the random variable Q denote the quantization error, then

Q = yk – X for xk < X < xk+1

Variance of Q is
σQ2 = E ( Q2) = E [( X – yk )2 ] ---- (3.25)

+ xmax

σQ = ∫( x − y
2
k ) 2 f X ( x ) dx ---- ( 3.26)
−xmax

Dividing the region of integration into L intervals and using (3.24)

L −1 x
pk k +1
σQ = ∑
2
∫ ( x − yk ) 2 dx ----- (3.27)
k =0 ∆k xk

Using yk = 0.5 ( xk + xk+1 ) in 3.27 and carrying out the integration w.r.t x, we obtain
that

40
 L −1
1
σQ 2
=
12
∑p
k =0
k ∆2k ------- (3.28)

Compression Laws.

Two Commonly used logarithmic compression laws are called µ - law and A – law.

μ-law:
In this companding, the compressor characteristics is defined by equation 3.29.
The normalized form of compressor characteristics is shown in the figure 3.10. The μ-
law is used for PCM telephone systems in the USA, Canada and Japan. A practical
value for μ is 255.

c( x ) ln( 1 + µ x / x max ) x
= 0≤ ≤1
xmax ln( 1 + µ) xmax
----( 3.29)

Fig: 3.10 Compression characteristics of μ-law

A-law:

41
In A-law companding the compressor characteristics is defined by equation 3.30. The
normalized form of A-law compressor characteristics is shown in the figure 3.11. The
A-law is used for PCM telephone systems in Europe. A practical value for A is 100.

A x / xmax x 1
0≤ ≤
c( x ) 1 +ln A xmax A
=
xmax ln
1+ A x / x ma ) 1 ≤ x ≤
( l x 1
1+ A A x ma
n x

------------- ( 3.30)

Fig. 3.11: A-law compression Characteristics.

Advantages of Non Uniform Quantizer

• Reduced Quantization noise

• High average SNR

Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)

42
For the signals which does not change rapidly from one sample to next sample, the PCM
scheme is not preferred. When such highly correlated samples are encoded the resulting
encoded signal contains redundant information. By removing this redundancy before
encoding an efficient coded signal can be obtained. One of such scheme is the DPCM
technique. By knowing the past behavior of a signal up to a certain point in time, it is
possible to make some inference about the future values.

The transmitter and receiver of the DPCM scheme is shown in the fig3.12 and fig 3.13
respectively.

Transmitter: Let x(t) be the signal to be sampled and x(nTs) be it’s samples. In this
scheme the input to the quantizer is a signal

e(nTs) = x(nTs) - x^(nTs) ----- (3.31)

where x^(nTs) is the prediction for unquantized sample x(nTs). This predicted value is
produced by using a predictor whose input, consists of a quantized versions of the input
signal x(nTs). The signal e(nTs) is called the prediction error.

By encoding the quantizer output, in this method, we obtain a modified version of the
PCM called differential pulse code modulation (DPCM).

Quantizer output, v(nTs) = Q[e(nTs)]

= e(nTs) + q(nTs) ---- (3.32)
where q(nTs) is the quantization error.

Predictor input is the sum of quantizer output and predictor output,

u(nTs) = x^(nTs) + v(nTs) ---- (3.33)

Using 3.32 in 3.33, u(nTs) = x^(nTs) + e(nTs) + q(nTs) ----(3.34)

u(nTs) = x(nTs) + q(nTs) ----(3.35)

The receiver consists of a decoder to reconstruct the quantized error signal. The quantized
version of the original input is reconstructed from the decoder output using the same
predictor as used in the transmitter. In the absence of noise the encoded signal at the
receiver input is identical to the encoded signal at the transmitter output. Correspondingly
the receive output is equal to u(nTs), which differs from the input x(nts) only by the
quantizing error q(nTs).

43
 Sampled Input
x(nTs) e(nTs) v(nTs) Output
Σ Quantizer
+

^
x(nTs) Σ

Predictor
u(nTs)

Fig:3.12 - Block diagram of DPCM Transmitter

Input v(nTs) u(nTs)

Decoder Σ
b(nTs)
Output
x^(nTs
) Predictor

Fig:3.13 - Block diagram of DPCM Receiver.

44
Prediction Gain ( Gp):

The output signal-to-quantization noise ratio of a signal coder is defined as

σ X2
(SNR )0 = --------------------( 3.36)
σ Q2
where σx2 is the variance of the signal x(nTs) and σQ2 is the variance of the
quantization error q(nTs). Then
σ 2  σ 2 
(SNR ) 0 =  X2   E2  = GP ( SNR ) P ------(3.37)
 
 σ E  σQ 
where σE2 is the variance of the prediction error e(nTs) and (SNR)P is the prediction
error-to-quantization noise ratio, defined by
σ E2
(SNR ) P = --------------(3.38)
σ Q2
The Prediction gain Gp is defined as
σ X2
GP = --------(3.39)
σ E2
The prediction gain is maximized by minimizing the variance of the prediction error.
Hence the main objective of the predictor design is to minimize the variance of the
prediction error.
1
The prediction gain is defined by GP = ---- (3.40)
(1 − ρ12 )
and σ E2 = σ X2 ( 1 − ρ12 ) ----(3.41)
where ρ1 – Autocorrelation function of the message signal

PROBLEM:
Consider a DPCM system whose transmitter uses a first-order predictor optimized
in the minimum mean-square sense. Calculate the prediction gain of the system
for the following values of correlation coefficient for the message signal:
R (1) R (1)
(i ) ρ1 = x = 0.825 (ii ) ρ1 = x = 0.950
Rx (0) R x ( 0)
Solution:
Using (3.40)
(i) For ρ1= 0.825, Gp = 3.13 In dB , Gp = 5dB

(ii) For ρ2 = 0.95, Gp = 10.26 In dB, Gp = 10.1dB

Delta Modulation (DM)

Delta Modulation is a special case of DPCM. In DPCM scheme if the base band signal
is sampled at a rate much higher than the Nyquist rate purposely to increase the

45
correlation between adjacent samples of the signal, so as to permit the use of a simple
quantizing strategy for constructing the encoded signal, Delta modulation (DM) is
precisely such as scheme. Delta Modulation is the one-bit (or two-level) versions of
DPCM.

DM provides a staircase approximation to the over sampled version of an input base band
signal. The difference between the input and the approximation is quantized into only two
levels, namely, ±δ corresponding to positive and negative differences, respectively, Thus,
if the approximation falls below the signal at any sampling epoch, it is increased by δ.
Provided that the signal does not change too rapidly from sample to sample, we find that
the stair case approximation remains within ±δ of the input signal. The symbol δ denotes
the absolute value of the two representation levels of the one-bit quantizer used in the
DM. These two levels are indicated in the transfer characteristic of Fig 3.14. The step
size ∆of the quantizer is related to δ by
∆ = 2δ ----- (3.42)

Output

+δ

0 Input

-δ

Fig-3.14: Input-Output characteristics of the delta modulator.

Let the input signal be x(t) and the staircase approximation to it is u(t). Then, the basic
principle of delta modulation may be formalized in the following set of relations:

e( nT s ) = x ( nT s ) − x ^ ( nT s )
e( nTs ) =x ( nTs ) − u ( nTs −Ts )
----- (3.43)
b( nT s ) = δ sgn[ e( nT s )] and
u ( nT s ) = u ( nT s −Ts ) + b( nT s )

where Ts is the sampling period; e(nTs) is a prediction error representing the difference
between the present sample value x(nTs) of the input signal and the latest approximation

46
 ^
to it, namely
x(n sT) = u(n sT− Ts ) .The binary quantity, b( nT s ) is the one-bit word

transmitted by the DM system.

The transmitter of DM system is shown in the figure3.15. It consists of a summer, a two-

level quantizer, and an accumulator. Then, from the equations of (3.43) we obtain the
output as,
n n
u ( nTs ) = δ ∑sgn[ e(iTs )] = ∑b(iTs )
i =1 i =1
----- (3.44)
At each sampling instant, the accumulator increments the approximation to the input
signal by ±δ, depending on the binary output of the modulator.

Sampled Input
x(nTs) e(nTs) b(nTs) Output
Σ One - Bit
+ Quantizer

^
x(nTs) Σ

Delay
Ts u(nTs)

Fig 3.15 - Block diagram for Transmitter of a DM system

In the receiver, shown in fig.3.16, the stair case approximation u(t) is reconstructed by
passing the incoming sequence of positive and negative pulses through an accumulator in
a manner similar to that used in the transmitter. The out-of –band quantization noise in
the high frequency staircase waveform u(t) is rejected by passing it through a low-pass
filter with a band-width equal to the original signal bandwidth.

Delta modulation offers two unique features:

1. No need for Word Framing because of one-bit code word.

2. Simple design for both Transmitter and Receiver

47
 u(nTs) Low pass
Input Σ
Filter
b(nTs)

Delay
Ts
u(nTs-Ts)

Fig 3.16 - Block diagram for Receiver of a DM system

QUANTIZATION NOISE

Delta modulation systems are subject to two types of quantization error:

(1) slope –overload distortion, and (2) granular noise.

If we consider the maximum slope of the original input waveform x(t), it is clear that in
order for the sequence of samples{u(nTs)} to increase as fast as the input sequence of
samples {x(nTs)} in a region of maximum slope of x(t), we require that the condition in
equation 3.45 be satisfied.
δ dx (t )
≥ max ------- ( 3.45 )
Ts dt
Otherwise, we find that the step size ∆ = 2δ is too small for the stair case
approximation u(t) to follow a steep segment of the input waveform x(t), with the result
that u(t) falls behind x(t). This condition is called slope-overload, and the resulting
quantization error is called slope-overload distortion(noise). Since the maximum slope of
the staircase approximation u(t) is fixed by the step size ∆, increases and decreases in
u(t) tend to occur along straight lines. For this reason, a delta modulator using a fixed step
size is often referred ton as linear delta modulation (LDM).

The granular noise occurs when the step size ∆ is too large relative to the local
slope characteristics of the input wave form x(t), thereby causing the staircase
approximation u(t) to hunt around a relatively flat segment of the input waveform; The
granular noise is analogous to quantization noise in a PCM system.

The e choice of the optimum step size that minimizes the mean-square value of
the quantizing error in a linear delta modulator will be the result of a compromise
between slope overload distortion and granular noise.

Output SNR for Sinusoidal Modulation.

Consider the sinusoidal signal, x(t) = A cos(2µfot)

48
The maximum slope of the signal x(t) is given by

dx (t )
max = 2π f 0 A ----- (3.46)
dt
The use of Eq.5.81 constrains the choice of step size ∆ = 2δ, so as to avoid slope-
overload. In particular, it imposes the following condition on the value of δ:

δ dx (t )
≥ max = 2π f 0 A ----- (3. 47)
Ts dt
Hence for no slope overload error the condition is given by equations 3.48 and 3.49.

δ
A≤ ------ (3.48)
2π f 0Ts

δ ≥ 2π f 0 AT s ------ (3.49)

Hence, the maximum permissible value of the output signal power equals

A2 δ2
Pmax = = 2 2 2 ---- (3.50)
2 8π f 0 Ts
When there is no slope-overload, the maximum quantization error ±δ. Assuming that the
quantizing error is uniformly distributed (which is a reasonable approximation for small
δ). Considering the probability density function of the quantization error,( defined in
equation 3.51 ),

1
f Q (q) = for −δ ≤ q ≤+δ
2δ ----- (3.51)
0 otherwise
The variance of the quantization error is σ 2 Q .
+δ
1 δ2
σQ ∫q
2
= 2
dq = ----- (3.52)
2δ −δ
3

The receiver contains (at its output end) a low-pass filter whose bandwidth is set equal to
the message bandwidth (i.e., highest possible frequency component of the message
signal), denoted as W such that f0 ≤ W. Assuming that the average power of the
quantization error is uniformly distributed over a frequency interval extending from -1/T s
to 1/Ts, we get the result:
 f δ 2 δ 2 
Average output noise power N o =  c  = WT s   ----- ( 3.53)
 fs  3  3 
Correspondingly, the maximum value of the output signal-to-noise ratio equals

49
 Pmax 3
(SNR )O = = ----- (3.54)
No 8π Wf 02 Ts3
2

Equation 3.54 shows that, under the assumption of no slope-overload distortion, the
maximum output signal-to-noise ratio of a delta modulator is proportional to the sampling
rate cubed. This indicates a 9db improvement with doubling of the sampling rate.

Problems

1. Determine the output SNR in a DM system for a 1KHz sinusoid sampled

at 32KHz without slope overload and followed by a 4KHz post
reconstruction filter.

Solution:

Given W=4KHz, f0 = 1KHz , fs = 32KHz

Using equation (3.54) we get

(SNR)0 = 311.3 or 24.9dB

Delta Modulation:

Problems

2. Consider a Speech Signal with maximum frequency of 3.4KHz and

maximum amplitude of 1volt. This speech signal is applied to a delta modulator
whose bit rate is set at 60kbit/sec. Explain the choice of an appropriate step size for
the modulator.

Solution: Bandwidth of the signal = 3.4 KHz.

Maximum amplitude = 1 volt
Bit Rate = 60Kbits/sec
Sampling rate = 60K Samples/sec.
STEP SIZE = 0.356 Volts

3. Consider a Speech Signal with maximum frequency of 3.4KHz and

maximum amplitude of 1volt. This speech signal is applied to a delta modulator
whose bit rate is set at 20kbit/sec. Explain the choice of an appropriate step size for
the modulator.

Solution: Bandwidth of the signal = 3.4 KHz.

50
 Maximum amplitude = 1 volt
Bit Rate = 20Kbits/sec
Sampling rate = 20K Samples/sec.
STEP SIZE = 1.068 Volts

4. Consider a Delta modulator system designed to operate at 4 times the Nyquist

rate for a signal with a 4KHz bandwidth. The step size of the quantizer is 400mV.
a) Find the maximum amplitude of a 1KHz input sinusoid for which the delta
modulator does not show slope overload.
b) Find post-filtered output SNR

Solution: Bandwidth of the signal = f0 =1 KHz.

Nyquist Rate = 8K samples/sec
Sampling Rate = 32K samples/sec.
Step Size = 400 mV
a) For 1KHz sinusoid, Amax = 2.037 volts.
b) Assuming LPF bandwidth = W= 4KHz
SNR = 311.2586 = 24.93 dB

Adaptive Delta Modulation:

The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the step
size of the modulator assume a time-varying form. In particular, during a steep segment
of the input signal the step size is increased. Conversely, when the input signal is varying
slowly, the step size is reduced. In this way, the size is adapted to the level of the input
signal. The resulting method is called adaptive delta modulation (ADM).

There are several types of ADM, depending on the type of scheme used for adjusting the
step size. In this ADM, a discrete set of values is provided for the step size. Fig.3.17
shows the block diagram of the transmitter and receiver of an ADM System.

In practical implementations of the system, the step size

∆( nT s ) or 2δ (nT s )
is constrained to lie between minimum and maximum values.

The upper limit, δmax , controls the amount of slope-overload distortion. The lower limit,
δmin , controls the amount of idle channel noise. Inside these limits, the adaptation rule
for δ( nT s ) is expressed in the general form

δ(nTs) = g(nTs). δ(nTs – Ts) ------ (3.55)

51
where the time-varying multiplier g ( nT s ) depends on the present binary output
b( nT s ) of the delta modulator and the M previous values
b( nT s −Ts ), ....... b( nT s −MT s ) .

This adaptation algorithm is called a constant factor ADM with one-bit memory,
where the term “one bit memory” refers to the explicit utilization of the single pervious
bit b( nT s −Ts ) because equation (3.55) can be written as,

g(nTs) = K if b(nTs) = b(nTs – Ts)

g(nTs) = K-1 if b(nTs) = b(nTs – Ts) ------ (3.56)

This algorithm of equation (3.56), with K=1.5 has been found to be well matched to
typically speech and image inputs alike, for a wide range of bit rates.

Figure: 3.17a) Block Diagram of ADM Transmitter.

52
Figure: 3.17 b): Block Diagram of ADM Receiver.

53
Coding Speech at Low Bit Rates:
The use of PCM at the standard rate of 64 kb/s demands a high channel
bandwidth for its transmission. But channel bandwidth is at a premium, in which case
there is a definite need for speech coding at low bit rates, while maintaining acceptable
fidelity or quality of reproduction. The fundamental limits on bit rate suggested by speech
perception and information theory show that high quality speech coding is possible at
rates considerably less that 64 kb/s (the rate may actually be as low as 2 kb/s).

For coding speech at low bit rates, a waveform coder of prescribed configuration
is optimized by exploiting both statistical characterization of speech waveforms and
properties of hearing. The design philosophy has two aims in mind:
1. To remove redundancies from the speech signal as far as possible.
2. To assign the available bits to code the non-redundant parts of the speech signal in
a perceptually efficient manner.

To reduce the bit rate from 64 kb/s (used in standard PCM) to 32, 16, 8 and 4
kb/s, the algorithms for redundancy removal and bit assignment become increasingly
more sophisticated.

There are two schemes for coding speech:

1. Adaptive Differential Pulse code Modulation (ADPCM) --- 32 kb/s
2. Adaptive Sub-band Coding.--- 16 kb/s

1. Adaptive Differential Pulse – Code Modulation

A digital coding scheme that uses both adaptive quantization and adaptive
prediction is called adaptive differential pulse code modulation (ADPCM).

The term “adaptive” means being responsive to changing level and spectrum of the input
speech signal. The variation of performance with speakers and speech material, together
with variations in signal level inherent in the speech communication process, make the
combined use of adaptive quantization and adaptive prediction necessary to achieve best
performance.

The term “adaptive quantization” refers to a quantizer that operates with a time-varying
step size ∆(nT s ) , where Ts is the sampling period. The step size ∆(nT s ) is varied so
as to match the variance σ 2 x of the input signal x ( nT s ) . In particular, we write

Δ(nTs) = Φ. σ^x(nTs) ----- (3.57)

where Φ – Constant
σ^x(nTs) – estimate of the σx(nTs)

Thus the problem of adaptive quantization, according to (3.57) is one of estimating

σ x ( nT s ) continuously.

54
 ^
The computation of the estimate
σ x (n sT) in done by one of two ways:
1. Unquantized samples of the input signal are used to derive forward estimates of
σ x ( nT s ) - adaptive quantization with forward estimation (AQF)
2. Samples of the quantizer output are used to derive backward estimates of
σ x ( nT s ) - adaptive quantization with backward estimation (AQB)

The use of adaptive prediction in ADPCM is required because speech signals are
inherently nonstationary, a phenomenon that manifests itself in the fact that
autocorrection function and power spectral density of speech signals are time-varying
functions of their respective variables. This implies that the design of predictors for such
inputs should likewise be time-varying, that is, adaptive. As with adaptive quantization,
there are two schemes for performing adaptive prediction:
1. Adaptive prediction with forward estimation (APF), in which unquantized
samples of the input signal are used to derive estimates of the predictor
coefficients.
2. Adaptive prediction with backward estimation (APB), in which samples of the
quantizer output and the prediction error are used to derive estimates of the
prediction error are used to derive estimates of the predictor coefficients.

(2) Adaptive Sub-band Coding:

PCM and ADPCM are both time-domain coders in that the speech signal is
processed in the time-domain as a single full band signal. Adaptive sub-band coding
is a frequency domain coder, in which the speech signal is divided into a number of
sub-bands and each one is encoded separately. The coder is capable of digitizing
speech at a rate of 16 kb/s with a quality comparable to that of 64 kb/s PCM. To
accomplish this performance, it exploits the quasi-periodic nature of voiced speech
and a characteristic of the hearing mechanism known as noise masking.

Periodicity of voiced speech manifests itself in the fact that people speak with a
characteristic pitch frequency. This periodicity permits pitch prediction, and
therefore a further reduction in the level of the prediction error that requires
quantization, compared to differential pulse code modulation without pitch
prediction. The number of bits per sample that needs to be transmitted is thereby
greatly reduced, without a serious degradation in speech quality.

In adaptive sub band coding (ASBC), noise shaping is accomplished by adaptive

bit assignment. In particular, the number of bits used to encode each sub-band is
varied dynamically and shared with other sub-bands, such that the encoding accuracy
is always placed where it is needed in the frequency – domain characterization of the
signal. Indeed, sub-bands with little or no energy may not be encoded at all.

55
Applications

1. Hierarchy of Digital Multiplexers

2. Light wave Transmission Link

(1) Digital Multiplexers:

Digital Multiplexers are used to combine digitized voice and video signals as
well as digital data into one data stream.

The digitized voice signals, digitized facsimile and television signals and
computer outputs are of different rates but using multiplexers it combined into a single
data stream.

1 1
2 2
High-Speed
: Multiplex Transmissio :
DeMux
: er n
:
line
N N

Fig. 3.18: Conceptual diagram of Multiplexing and Demultiplexing.

Two Major groups of Digital Multiplexers:

1. To combine relatively Low-Speed Digital signals used for voice-grade channels.

Modems are required for the implementation of this scheme.
2. Operates at higher bit rates for communication carriers.

Basic Problems associated with Multiplexers:

1. Synchronization.
2. Multiplexed signal should include Framing.
3. Multiplexer Should be capable handling Small variations

56
Digital Hierarchy based on T1 carrier:

This was developed by Bell system. The T1 carrier is designed to operate at 1.544 mega
bits per second, the T2 at 6.312 megabits per second, the T3 at 44.736 megabits per
second, and the T4 at 274.176 mega bits per second. This system is made up of various
combinations of lower order T-carrier subsystems. This system is designed to
accommodate the transmission of voice signals, Picture phone service and television
signals by using PCM and digital signals from data terminal equipment. The structure is
shown in the figure 3.19.

Fig. 3.19: Digital hierarchy of a 24 channel system.

The T1 carrier system has been adopted in USA, Canada and Japan. It is designed to
accommodate 24 voice signals. The voice signals are filtered with low pass filter having
cutoff of 3400 Hz. The filtered signals are sampled at 8KHz. The µ-law Companding
technique is used with the constant μ = 255.

With the sampling rate of 8KHz, each frame of the multiplexed signal occupies a period
of 125μsec. It consists of 24 8-bit words plus a single bit that is added at the end of the
frame for the purpose of synchronization. Hence each frame consists of a total 193 bits.
Each frame is of duration 125μsec, correspondingly, the bit rate is 1.544 mega bits per
second.

57
Another type of practical system, that is used in Europe is 32 channel system which is
shown in the figure 3.20.

Fig 3.20: 32 channel TDM system

32 channel TDM Hierarchy:

In the first level 2.048 megabits/sec is obtained by multiplexing 32 voice channels.

4 frames of 32 channels = 128 PCM channels,
Data rate = 4 x 2.048 Mbit/s = 8.192 Mbit/s,
But due to the synchronization bits the data rate increases to 8.448Mbit/sec.

4 x 128 = 512 channels

Data rate = 4 x8.192 Mbit/s (+ signalling bits) = 34.368 Mbit/s

58
(2) Light Wave Transmission
Optical fiber wave guides are very useful as transmission medium. They have a
very low transmission losses and high bandwidths which is essential for high-speed
communications. Other advantages include small size, light weight and immunity to
electromagnetic interference.

The basic optical fiber link is shown in the figure 3.21. The binary data fed into the
transmitter input, which emits the pulses of optical power., with each pulse being on or
off in accordance with the input data. The choice of the light source determines the
optical signal power available for transmission.

Fig: 3.21- Optical fiber link.

The on-off light pulses produced by the transmitter are launched into the optical fiber
wave guide. During the course of the propagation the light pulse suffers loss or
attenuation that increases exponentially with the distance.

At the receiver the original input data are regenerated by performing three basic
operations which are :
1. Detection – the light pulses are converted back into pulses of electrical current.
2. Pulse Shaping and Timing - This involves amplification, filtering and
equalization of the electrical pulses, as well as the extraction of timing
information.
3. Decision Making: Depending the pulse received it should be decided that the
received pulse is on or off.

--END--

59