1

CHAPTER 1
RELATIONS, FUNCTIONS and GRAPHS

1.1 Definition of a Relation

A relation is a rule, relationship, or a correspondence that associates the elements of a set
X with the elements of another set Y. Set X is called the domain of the relation while set Y is
called its range.

The rule, relationship, or correspondence could be described in various ways but in

this book, we will use mathematical means like set notation, graphs, and especially, equations.

Illustration 1: The set of ordered pairs {(-2,3), (-1,4), (0,5), (1,6), (0,8)} describes a relation
between the set X={-2, -1, 0, 1} as the domain and the set Y = (3, 4, 5, 6, 8} as
the range. The association may be viewed pictorially as

-2 3
-1 4
0 5
1 6
8

domain range

Illustration 2. Each of the following graphs represents a relation between x and y.

(a) (b)

x x

y y
domain: all real numbers domain: all real numbers
range : all real numbers range : y  0

(c) (d)
1
x x
-1

y y
domain: x  0 domain: all real numbers

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Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 2

range : all real numbers range : –1  y  1

(e) (f)
2

x -2 2 x
-4
-2
y y
domain: –2  x  2 domain: all real numbers
range : –2  y  2 range : y  –4

Remarks: Observe that the domain indicates where on the x-axis the graph has an image. On
the other hand, the range indicates where on the y-axis the graph has an image.

Illustration 3. Each of the following equations represents a relation between x and y.

a. y = x + 2 c. y2 = 4x e. x2 + y2 = 4
b. y = x d. x2 = y + 4 f. y = sin x

1.2 The Domain and Range

Unless otherwise specified in an equation, the domain is composed of all possible
values of x that yield a value of y. The resulting values of y then compose the range.

Example 1. Find the domain and range of each of the following equations.
a) y = x + 2 b) y = x c) xy = 1 d) y   x  1
Solutions:
a. For y = x + 2, x may assume any value so that the domain is the whole set of real
numbers. Since the y-value simply results by adding 2 to any x-value, the range is
also the whole set of real numbers.

b. For y = x, the domain is the set of real numbers since we can take the absolute
value of any real number. On the other hand, the range is the set of nonnegative real
numbers because the absolute value of any real number is never negative.

c. The domain and range of the equation xy = 1 excludes the number 0 because in each
case, we have the absurd result of 0 = 1. Furthermore, we can write xy = 1 into
either
1 1
y or x
x y
where we see that x = 0 or y = 0 do not yield real values.

d. For y   x  1 , we can only have x – 1 to be either 0 or positive since the square

root of a negative number is not a real number. That is, we must have x – 1  0
which implies that the domain is x  1. The range is all real numbers. Note however
Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.
Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 3

that the range of y  x  1 is only the set of positive numbers while the range of
y   x  1 is the set of negative numbers only.

Usually, the domain and the range are not evident. The following is a suggested
method of finding the domain and the range.

To find the domain,

i) solve for y in terms of x.
ii) observe the right-hand side of the equation.
iii) the domain is composed of all possible x-values.

To find the range,

i) solve for x in terms of y.
ii) observe the right-hand side of the equation.
iii) the range is composed of all possible y-values.

Example 2. Find the domain and range of each of the following.

a) x2 + y2 = 4 b) y(x2 – x – 2) = 3

Solutions:
a) x2 + y2 = 4
Solving for y in terms of x, we get
y   4  x2
Since there is no real square root of a negative number, we must have
4  x2  0
Using the method discussed in Trigonometry to solve this quadratic inequality, the
domain is
2 x  2
To find the range, we solve for x in terms of y. This yields
x   4  y2
Hence, by a similar analysis of the right-hand side, the range is
2 y 2

b. y(x2 – x – 2) = 3
Solving for y in terms of x yields
3
y
( x  2)( x  1)
The right side of the equation shows that x  2 or  1.

To solve for x in terms of y, we write the given equation as

yx2 – yx – 2y – 3 = 0
and use the quadratic formula with a = y, b = –y and c = –2y – 3.
Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.
Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 4

Thus,
 ( y)  ( y) 2  4 y(2 y  3)
x
2y
y  9 y 2  12 y
x
2y
The right side of the equation shows that the range does not include the value 0
and we must have
9y 2  12 y  3y(3y  4)  0 .

This quadratic inequality yields 0

y  4 / 3 or y0 -4/3

But we already know that y can not be 0!

Hence, the range is all real numbers in 0
the intervals (-,-4/3]  (0, ). Or, equivalently, all real numbers

NOT in the half-open interval (-4/3, 0]

Note that graphs and equations also describe a set of ordered pairs. So, a relation may
also be defined alternatively as any set of ordered pairs (x,y).

1.3 Definition of a Function

There are important relations having the property that for every element in the domain
there corresponds exactly one element from the range. These kinds of relations are of utmost
importance in mathematics that they are given a special name, functions.

Definition: A function is a relation such that for each element from the domain, there
corresponds exactly one element from the range.

Illustration 4. The relation {(-2,3), (-1,4), (0,5), (1,6), (0,8)} is not a function because the
element 0 from the domain is associated with the two elements 5 and 8 from the
range. (See illustration 1).

The relation {(-2,3), (-1,4), (0,5), (1,6), (2,3)} is a function. Every element in the
domain {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2} is associated with exactly one element in the range {3, 4,
5, 6}. Pictorially, we see the association as

Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.

Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 5

-2 3
-1 4
0 5
1 6
2

Domain Range

Remarks: A relation described as a set is a function if and only if no two ordered pairs (x,y)
in the set have the same x-components.

Illustration 5. Among the relations represented by graphs in Illustration 2, (c) and (e) are not
functions. For a single x0 in their domains, there are generally two y-values
associated with it: (x0,y1) and (x0,y2).

(c) (e)
(x0,y2)
(x0,y2)
x x0 x x0

(x0,y1) (x0,y1)
y y

Remarks: A relation described by a graph is a function if only if a vertical line could only
intersect the graph in one and only one point. This is known as the Vertical Line
Test.

The other relations in Illustration 2 are functions. Verify this by the vertical line
test.

1.4 Functional Notation

Functions are usually denoted by letters, especially the letter f. Thus,
f:xy
specifies the function, named f, that associates the elements x of a set with the elements y of
another set. If a function is given as an equation, we use the notation
y = f(x).
to denote the value y of the function for a specific value x. It must be emphasized here that f is
the name of the function while f(x) is a value of the function. Other commonly used letters to
denote functions are g, h, F, G, H, …, f1, f2, f3, … etc.

Illustration 6. The function y = x – 2 may be written equivalently as

f(x) = x – 2
So, f(-1) = the value of f when x = –1

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Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 6

= –1 – 2
=3
Similarly,
f(1/2) = 1/2 – 2 = –3/2 = 3/2
f(s+1) = s+1 – 2 = s – 1

Example. Suppose that f(x) = 3x2 – 5x + 2 and g(x) = 2 – 3x. Find each of the following:
a) f(2) d) f(1/2) – g(2) + 3/2
b) g(–3/2) e) f(3) + g(2x–7)
c) f(-2) – g(4/3)
Solutions:
a) f(2) = 3(2)2 – 5(2) + 2 = 34 – 10 + 2 = 4

b) g(-3/2) = 2 – 3(-3/2) = 2 + 9/2 = 13/2

c) f(-2) – g(4/3) = [3(-2)2 – 5(-2) + 2] – [2 – 3(4/3)]

= [12 + 10 + 2] – [2 – 4]
= 24 – (-2)
= 26

d) f(1/2) – g(2) + 2/3 = [3(1/2)2 – 5(1/2) + 2] – [2 – 3(2)] + 2/3

= [3/4 – 5/2 + 2] – [2 – 6] + 3/2
= ¼ - [-4] + 3/2
= 23/4

e) f(3) + g(2x-7) = [3(3)2 – 5(3) + 2] + [2 – 3(2x-7)]

= [14] + [2 – 6x + 21]
= 37 – 6x

1.5 Operations on Functions

Combining two or more functions using certain operations, which are described
below, may form new functions. This is possible because we only consider here functions
from a set of real numbers into a set of real numbers. This means that functional values such
as f(x), g(x), h(x) are real numbers and hence, they may be combined using the basic
operations

Sum of Two Functions . The sum or difference of two functions f and g is the function F = f
 g whose functional value is F(x) = f(x)  g(x).

Illustration 7.(a) If f(x) = x2 – 3x + 5 and g(x) = 2x2 + 1, then

F(x) = f(x) + g(x)

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Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 7

= [x2 – 3x + 5] + [2x2 + 1]
= 3x2 – 3x + 6.
G(x) = f(x) – g(x)
= [x2 – 3x + 5] – [2x2 + 1]
= –x2 – 3x + 4.

x 1 4
(b) If h(x) = , x 1/2 and g(x) = , x  –1, then
2x  1 x 1
F(x) = h(x) + g(x)
x 1 4
= +
2x  1 x  1

x 2  10 x  3
= (x -1, ½)
(2 x  1)( x  1)

Product of Two Functions. The product of two functions f and g is the function F = fg or fg
whose functional value is F(x) = f(x)g(x).

Illustration 8. (a) Let f(x) = x + 3 and g(x) = 2x – 1.

Then the product fg of the functions is
f(x)g(x) = (x+3)(2x –1)
= 2x2 + 5x – 3.
2
(b) If h(x) = 2x2 – x and g(x) =  1 , then
x
2 
h(x)g(x) = (2x2 – x)  1
x 
= 4x + 2x2 – 2 – x

= 2x2 + 3x – 2

f
Quotient of Two Functions. The quotient of two functions f and g is the function F 
g
f (x)
whose functional value is F( x )  , provided that g(x)  0.
g( x )

Illustration 9. (a) If f(x) = x3 – 8 and g(x) = x – 2, then

Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.

Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 8

f (x) x 3  8
 (x  2)
g( x ) x2

( x  2)( x 2  2x  4)
 (x  2)
x2
= x2 + 2x + 4 (x  2)

3
(b) If f(x) =  1 and g(x) = 3 – x, then
x
3
1
f (x) x
 (x  0 and 3)
g( x ) 3  x
1
=
x
Composite Function. The composite function of two functions f and g is the function f  g
(read f circle g) whose functional value is F(x) = f(g(x)).

Illustration 10. If f(x) = x2 – 3x + 1 and g(x) = x + 2, then

a. f(g(2)) = (g(2))2 – 3g(2) + 1 where g(2) = 2 + 2 = 4.

= 42 – 3(4) + 1
=5
b. g(f(-3)) = f(-3) + 2 where f(-3) = (-3)2 – 3(-3) + 1 = 19
= 19 + 2
= 21
c. f(g(x)) = (g(x))2 – 3g(x) + 1
= (x+2)2 – 3(x+2) + 1
= x2 + 4x + 4 – 3x – 6 + 1
= x2 + x – 1
d. g(f(x)) = f(x) + 2
= x2 – 3x + 1 + 2
= x2 – 3x + 3
e. f  f = f(f(x)) = (f(x))2 – 3f(x) + 1

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Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 9

= (x2 – 3x + 1)2 – 3(x2 – 3x + 1) + 1

= x4 + 9x2 + 1 – 6x3 + 2x2 – 6x – 3x2 + 9x – 3 + 1
= x4 – 6x3 + 8x2 + 3x – 1
f. f(g(x+2)) = (g(x+2))2 – 3g(x+2) + 1 where g(x+2) = x + 4.
= (x + 4)2 – 3(x + 4) + 1
= x2 + 8x + 16 – 3x – 12 + 1
= x2 + 5x + 5
1.6 Graphs of Functions
The graph of a function is the geometric representation of the set of points (x,y) whose
coordinates satisfy the given relation. To construct the graph of a given relation, the following
basic steps are suggested.

i) Find the coordinates of points (x,y) that belong to the graph. Assigning a sufficient
number of values to x and then caculating for the corresponding value of y does
this. It is advisable to make a table of x and y values like the one below in which
the corresponding values are recorded.

x
y

ii) Plot the points (x,y) thus determined on a Cartesian Coordinate System.

iii) Connect the plotted points in the order of increasing values of x with a smooth curve.

Since we can only possibly plot and connect a few points, the resulting curve is just a
portion of the graph of the relation. Nevertheless, such a portion of the graph may suggest the
complete picture of the graph, usually suggesting important behaviors of the relation. We
illustrate the process by graphing some important functions and relations.

Example 1. Graph each of the following constant functions.

a) f(x) = 2 b) f(x) = –4

Solution:
Following the basic steps outlined above, we generate the following table of x and
y values. For purposes of graphing, it is wise to use only small values of x.

a) f(x) = 2
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 x
y
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Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 10

The points are then plotted in the xy-plane.

Then, the points are connected by a smooth

curve, which is a horizontal line that is 2 x
units above the x-axis in this case. y

b) Similarly, for f(x) = –4 .

x
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4

The graph is also a horizontal line, which is y

4 units below the x-axis.

Remarks: Any function of the form f(x) = c where c is a constant, has for its graph a
horizontal line that is c units from the x-axis. They are called constant
functions.

Example 2. Graph each of the following linear functions.

a) f(x) = 2x – 3 b) f(x) = –x + 5
Solutions:
a) f(x) = 2x – 3 y
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) -9 -7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 x

The graph is a straight line with slope m = 2

and intersecting the y-axis at y = –3 .

b) f(x) = –x + 5
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

The graph is a straight line with slope x

m = –1 and intersecting the y-axis at y = 5. y

Remarks: Any function of the form f(x) = mx + b where m and b are constants, has for
its graph a straight line with slope m and intersecting the y-axis at y = b. They
are called linear functions. A special case is when m = 0 where we have the
constant function f(x) = b.

Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.

Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 11

Example 3. Graph each of the following absolute value functions.

a) f(x) = x c) f(x) = x + 2
b) f(x) = x–3 d) f(x) = x–3 + 2
Solutions:
a). f(x) = x

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
x
The graph has the form of the letter V,
which has its “vertex” at (0,0). y

b) f(x) = x–3

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y = f(x) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

The graph is also V-shaped similar to that x

of f(x) = x, only that it is “translated” 3
units to the right. The vertex is now at (3,0). y

c) f(x) = x + 2

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) 5 4 3 2 3 4 5
x
The graph is again V-shaped similar to that
of f(x) = x, only that it is “translated” 2 y
units upward. The vertex is now at (0,2).

d) f(x) = x – 3 + 2

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y = f(x) 5 4 3 2 3 4 5

The graph is again V-shaped similar to that x

of f(x) = x, only that it is “translated” 3
units to the right and 2 units upward. The y
vertex is now at (3,2).

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Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 12

Remarks: An absolute value function of the form f(x) = x+c + b where b and c are
constants takes the form of the letter V. The vertex is at (-c, b).

Example 4. Graph each of the following quadratic functions.

a. f(x) = x2 d) f(x) = (x – 2)2 + 3
b) f(x) = (x – 2)2 e) f(x) = x2 + 4x – 1
c) f(x) = x2 + 3
Solutions:
a. f(x) = x2

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

The graph is called a parabola, with vertex

at (0,0). Also, the graph turns or changes x
direction only once. y

b) f(x) = (x – 2)2

x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = f(x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

The graph is also a parabola similar to that

of f(x) = x2, only that it is translated 2 units
to the right. The vertex is moved to (2,0).

c) f(x) = x2 + 3

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) 12 7 4 3 4 7 12

The graph is still a parabola similar to that

of f(x) = x2, only that it is translated 3 units
upward. The vertex is moved to (0,3). x

Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.

Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 13

d) f(x) = (x–2)2 + 3

x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = f(x) 12 7 4 3 4 7 12

The graph is again a parabola similar to that of f(x) = x2, only that it is
translated 2 units to the right and 3 units upward. The vertex is now at (2,3).

Remarks: A quadratic equation of the form f(x) = (x+a)2 + b has a parabolic graph that
opens upward and with vertex at (–a, b).

e) f(x) = x2 + 4x – 1
First, we rewrite the given equation by completing the square. Thus,

f(x) = x2 + 4x – 1
= (x2 + 4x + 4) – 1 – 4
= (x + 2)2 – 5
The graph is a parabola that opens upward
and with vertex at (-2,-5).
x
It is easy to verify this result by using the
basic steps of graphing.
y

Example 5. Graph each of the following polynomial functions.

1
a) f ( x )  x 3  x 2  3x  5
3
b) f ( x)  x 4  2x 2  3
Solutions:
1 3
x  x 2  3x  5
a) f ( x ) 
3
We make the following table of x and y values.

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
f(x) -4 13/3 20/3 5 4/3 -7/3 -4 -5/3 20/3

The graph is constructed by plotting the

points determined in the table, and then
connecting them by a smooth curve in the
order of increasing values of x. x
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Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 14

Observe that the graph turns, or changes

its direction twice; at the points (-1,20/3) y
and (3,-4).

b) f ( x)  x 4  2x 2  3

Similarly, we make the following table.

x -2 -1 0 1 2
f(x) 11 2 3 2 11

The graph shows that it has 3 turning points:

(-1,2), (0,3), and (1,2).
x

Remarks: A degree-n polynomial function f(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 +…+ an-1x + an where each ai
is a constant has a graph that turns n-1 times.
We now consider the graphs of relations that are not functions. Observe the Vertical
Line Test in the following examples.

Example 6. Graph the relation y2 = x

Solution:
We assign values of x and find the corresponding y-values. To facilitate easy
computation of y-values, we first write the given into
y x
where we immediately see that x can not be assigned negative values (why?).
That is, the domain is nonnegative numbers.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y 0 1  2  3 2  5  6  7  8 3

. y

Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.

Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 15

The graph is called a parabola that opens to the right.

Example 7. Graph the relation xy2 = 1.

1
Solution: The given equation can be rewritten into y  
x
from which we see the domain to be x > 0. Thus,

x 1/10000 1/100 1/25 ¼ 1 4 9 100 10000

y 100 10 5 2 1 1/2 1/3 1/10 1/100

1.7 Graphs of Special Functions Using DRISA

DRISA is an acronym for Domain, Range, Intercepts, Symmetry and Asymptotes

which is considered as a tool for graphing relations and functions that are in equation form.
Using DRISA the students helps to discover an accurate picture of the graph.

Domain
The domain of a function f(x) is the set of all values for which the function is defined,
In other words the domain is the set of all permissible values of x. To find the domain of a
function given by an equation, solve for y interms of x and the domain is composed of all
permissible values of x. The domain excludes values that cause division by zero or undefined
or caused negative values under a radical sign with an even index.

Range
The range of the function is the set of all values that function f takes. In other words
the range of a relation is the set of all y-values that are paired with the x-values. To find the
range of a function given by an equation, solve for x interms of y and the range is composed

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Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 16

of all permissible values of y. The range excludes values that cause division by zero or
undefined or caused negative values under a radical sign with an even index.

Intercepts
The x-intercept is point where a line crosses the x-axis. The coordinates of such points
are always (x, 0). The y-intercept is the point where the line crosses the y-axis and the
coordinates of y-intercepts are always (0, y). To find the x-intercept, let y = 0 in the given
equation then solve for x. To find the y-intercept, let x = 0 in the given equation then solve for
y.

Symmetry
A graph is said to be symmetric with respect to a line if reflecting the graph over that
line leaves the graph unchanged. This line is called an axis of symmetry of the graph. We
consider three(3) symmetries that are easily detected algebraically from its given equation.
These are symmetry with respect to x-axis, symmetry with respect to y-axis and symmetry
with respect to origin.

Test for Symmetry

1) The graph is symmetric with respect to x-axis if we replace y by –y in the equation
and the equation remains unchanged.
2) The graph is symmetric with respect to y-axis if we replace x by –x in the equation
and the equation remains unchanged.
3) The graph is symmetric with respect to origin if we replace x by –x and y by –y at the
same time and the equation remains unchanged.

Asymptotes
An asymptote is a line that is always approaching the curve but never meeting the
curve. In this topic we consider only a horizontal asymptote and vertical asymptote.
Horizontal asymptotes are lines that correspond to the zeroes of the denominator(if any) when
the equation is solved for x in terms of y. While vertical asymptotes are lines that correspond
to the zeroes of the denominator(if any) when the equation is solved for y in terms of x.

Example. Use DRISA to graph xy – 3x = y + 1

Solution: Domain Range

Solve for y interms of x Solve for x interms of y
y( x – 1) = 3x + 1 x(y – 3) = y + 1

y = 3x + 1 x = y + 1_
x–1 y–3

Domain: x ≠ 1 Range: y ≠ 3

Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.

Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
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Intercepts
a) x – intercept (x, 0) b) y – intercept (0, y)
let y = 0 let x = 0
x(0) – 3x = 0 + 1 0(y) – 3(0) = y + 1
x = – 1/3 y=–1

Symmetry
a) Symmetry with respect to x-axis.
xy – 3x = y + 1
x(–y) – 3x = –y + 1
–xy – 3x = –y +1
Equation is changed. Therefore not symmetric with respect to x-axis.

b) Symmetry with respect to y-axis.

xy – 3x = y + 1
(–x)y – 3(–x) = y + 1
–xy + 3x = y + 1
Equation is changed. Therefore not symmetric with respect to y-axis.

c) Symmetry with respect to origin.

xy – 3x = y + 1
(–x)(–y) – 3(–x) = –y + 1
xy + 3x = –y + 1
Equation is changed. Therefore not symmetric with respect to origin.

Asymptotes
a) Vertical Asymptote b) Horizontal Asymptote

y = 3x + 1 x = y + 1_
x–1 y–3

x = 1 is a vertical asymptote y = 3 is a horizontal asymptote

Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.

Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics
 18

Graph of xy – 3x = y + 1

Prepared by: Asso.Prof. MELANIO G. ROMANO JR.

Central Luzon State University, College of Science
Department of Mathematics and Physics