Chapter 4

Probability

Edited by:
Dr. Mohamad Hammoudi

Edited by Dr. Mohamad Hammoudi Copyright © 2014, 2012, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. 1
 Topics of Chapter 4

• 4.1: Experiment, Outcome, and Sample Space.

• 4.2: Calculating Probability.
• 4.3: Marginal Probability, Conditional Probability, and
Related Probability Concepts.
• 4.4: Intersection of Events and the Multiplication Rule.
• 4.5: Union of Events and the Addition Rule.
• 4.6: Counting Rule, Factorials, Combinations, and
Permutations.

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  Definition
 An experiment is a process that, when performed, results in one and
only one of many observations. These observations are called the
outcomes of the experiment.

 The collection of all outcomes for an experiment is called a sample

space.

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 Table 4.1 Examples of Experiments, Outcomes,
and Sample Spaces

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 Example 4-1

 Draw the Venn and tree diagrams for the experiment of tossing a coin
once.

 Figure 4.1 (a) Venn Diagram and (b) tree diagram for one toss of a coin.

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 Example 4-2

 Draw the Venn and tree diagrams for the experiment of tossing a coin
twice.

 Figure 4.2 (a) Venn diagram and (b) tree diagram for two tosses of a
coin.

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 Example 4-3

 Suppose we randomly select two workers from a company and observe

whether the worker selected each time is a man or a woman. Write all
the outcomes for this experiment. Draw the Venn and tree diagrams for
this experiment.

 Figure 4.3 (a) Venn diagram and (b) tree diagram for selecting two
workers.

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 Simple and Compound Events

 Definition
 An event is a collection of one or more of the outcomes of an
experiment.

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 Simple and Compound Events

 Definition
 An event that includes one and only one of the (final) outcomes for
an experiment is called a simple event and is denoted by Ei.

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 Example 4-4

 Reconsider Example 4-3 on selecting two workers from a company and

observing whether the worker selected each time is a man or a woman.

 Each of the final four outcomes (MM, MW, WM, and WW) for this
experiment is a simple event. These four events can be denoted by E1, E2,
E3, and E4, respectively. Thus,

 E1 = (MM), E2 = (MW), E3 = (WM), and E4 = (WW)

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 Simple and Compound Events

 Definition
 A compound event is a collection of more than one outcome for an
experiment.

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 Example 4-5

 Reconsider Example 4-3 on selecting two workers from a company and

observing whether the worker selected each time is a man or a woman.
Let A be the event that at most one man is selected. Event A will occur
if either no man or one man is selected. Hence, the event A is given by

A = {MW, WM, WW}

 Because event A contains more than one outcome, it is a compound

event. The Venn diagram in Figure 4.4 gives a graphic presentation of
compound event A.

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 Figure 4.4 Venn diagram for event A.

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 Example 4-6

 In a group of people, some are in favor of genetic engineering and

others are against it. Two persons are selected at random from this
group and asked whether they are in favor of or against genetic
engineering. How many distinct outcomes are possible? Draw a Venn
diagram and a tree diagram for this experiment. List all the outcomes
included in each of the following events and state whether they are
simple or compound events.

(a) Both persons are in favor of the genetic engineering.

(b) At most one person is against genetic engineering.
(c) Exactly one person is in favor of genetic engineering.

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 Example 4-6: Solution

 Let
– F = a person is in favor of genetic engineering
– A = a person is against genetic engineering

– FF = both persons are in favor of genetic engineering

– FA = the first person is in favor and the second is
against
– AF = the first is against and the second is in favor
– AA = both persons are against genetic engineering

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 Figure 4.5 Venn and tree diagrams.

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 Example 4-6: Solution

a) Both persons are in favor of genetic engineering = {FF}

Because this event includes only one of the final four outcomes, it
is a simple event.

b) At most one person is against genetic engineering = {FF, FA, AF}

Because this event includes more than one outcome, it is a
compound event.

c) Exactly one person is in favor of genetic engineering = {FA, AF}

It is a compound event.

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  Definition
 Probability is a numerical measure of the likelihood that a specific
event will occur.

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 Two Properties of Probability

• The probability of an event always lies in the range 0 to 1.

• The sum of the probabilities of all simple events (or final outcomes)
for an experiment, denoted by ΣP(Ei), is always 1.

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 Three Conceptual Approaches to Probability

 1- Classical Probability

 Definition
 Two or more outcomes (or events) that have the same probability of
occurrence are said to be equally likely outcomes (or events).

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 Classical Probability

Classical Probability Rule to Find Probability

1
P ( Ei ) 
Total number of outcomes for the experiment

Number of outcomes favorable to A

P ( A) 
Total number of outcomes for the experiment

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 Example 4-7

 Find the probability of obtaining a head and the probability of obtaining

a tail for one toss of a coin.

1 1
P (head)    .50
Total number of outcomes 2
Similarly,

1
P ( tail)   .50
2

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 Example 4-8

 Find the probability of obtaining an even number in one roll of a die.

 A = {2, 4, 6}. If any one of these three numbers is obtained, event A is

said to occur. Hence,

 Number of outcomes included in A 3

P ( head )    .50
Total number of outcomes 6

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 Three Conceptual Approaches to Probability

 2- Relative Frequency Concept of Probability

 Using Relative Frequency as an Approximation of Probability

 If an experiment is repeated n times and an event A is
observed f times, then, according to the relative frequency
concept of probability,

f
P( A) 
n

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 Example 4-9

 In a group of 500 women, 120 have played golf at least once. Suppose
one of these 500 women is randomly selected. What is the probability
that she has played golf at least once?

 One hundred twenty of these 500 outcomes are included in the event
that the selected woman has played golf at least once. Hence,

120
P (selected woman has played golf at least once)   .24
500

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 Example 4-10

 Ten of the 500 randomly selected cars manufactured at a certain auto

factory are found to be lemons. Assuming that the lemons are
manufactured randomly, what is the probability that the next car
manufactured at this auto factory is a lemon?

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 Example 4-10: Solution

 Let n denote the total number of cars in the sample and f the
number of lemons in n. Then,
 n = 500 and f = 10
 Using the relative frequency concept of probability, we obtain

f 10
P ( next car is a lemon)    .02
n 500

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 Table 4.2 Frequency and Relative Frequency
Distributions for the Sample of Cars

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 Three Conceptual Approaches to Probability

 3- Subjective Probability

 Definition
 Subjective probability is the probability assigned to an event based
on subjective judgment, experience, information, and belief.

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 Suppose all 100 employees of a company were asked whether
they are in favor of or against paying high salaries to CEOs of
U.S. companies. Table 4.3 gives a two way classification of the
responses of these 100 employees.

Two-Way Classification of Employee Responses

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 Table 4.4 Two-Way Classification of Employee
Responses with Totals

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 MARGINAL PROBABILITY, CONDITIONAL
PROBABILITY, AND RELATED PROBABILITY
CONCEPTS

 Definition
 Marginal probability is the probability of a single event without
consideration of any other event. Marginal probability is also called
simple probability.

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 Table 4.5 Listing the Marginal Probabilities

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 MARGINAL PROBABILITY, CONDITIONAL
PROBABILITY, AND RELATED PROBABILITY
CONCEPTS

 Definition
 Conditional probability is the probability that an event will occur given
that another event has already occurred. If A and B are two events,
then the conditional probability A given B is written as
P ( A | B )
 and read as “the probability of A given that B has already occurred.”

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 Example 4-12

 Compute the conditional probability P (in favor | male) for the data on
100 employees given in Table 4.4.

Number of males who are in favor 15

P (in favor | male)    .25
Total number of males 60

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 Figure 4.6 Tree Diagram.

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 Example 4-13

 For the data of Table 4.4, calculate the conditional probability that a
randomly selected employee is a female given that this employee is in
favor of paying high salaries to CEOs.

Number of females who are in favor

P ( female | in favor) 
Total number of employees who are in favor
4
  .2105
19
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 Figure 4.7 Tree diagram.

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 MARGINAL PROBABILITY, CONDITIONAL
PROBABILITY, AND RELATED PROBABILITY
CONCEPTS

 Definition
 Events that cannot occur together are said to be mutually exclusive
events or disjoined events.

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 Example 4-14

 Consider the following events for one roll of a die:

A= an even number is observed= {2, 4, 6}

B= an odd number is observed= {1, 3, 5}
C= a number less than 5 is observed= {1, 2, 3, 4}

 Are events A and B mutually exclusive? Are events A and C mutually

exclusive?

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 Example 4-14: Solution

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 Example 4-15

 Consider the following two events for a randomly selected adult:

Y = this adult has shopped on the Internet at least once

N = this adult has never shopped on the Internet

 Are events Y and N mutually exclusive?

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 Example 4-15: Solution

As we can observe from the definitions of events Y and N and

from Figure 4.10, events Y and N have no common outcome.
Hence, these two events are mutually exclusive.

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 MARGINAL PROBABILITY, CONDITIONAL
PROBABILITY, AND RELATED PROBABILITY
CONCEPTS

 Definition
 Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence of one does not
change the probability of the occurrence of the other. In other words, A
and B are independent events if

 either P(A | B) = P(A) or P(B | A) = P(B)

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 Example 4-16

 Refer to the information on 100 employees given in Table 4.4 in Section

4.4. Are events “female (F)” and “in favor (A)” independent?

 Events F and A will be independent if

 P (F) = P (F | A)
 Otherwise they will be dependent.
Using the information given in Table 4.4, we compute the following two
probabilities:

P (F) = 40/100 = .40 and

P (F | A) = 4/19 = .2105
Because these two probabilities are not equal, the two events are
dependent.

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 Example 4-17

 A box contains a total of 100 DVDs that were manufactured on two

machines. Of them, 60 were manufactured on Machine I. Of the total
DVDs, 15 are defective. Of the 60 DVDs that were manufactured on
Machine I, 9 are defective.

 Let D be the event that a randomly selected DVD is defective, and let A
be the event that a randomly selected DVD was manufactured on
Machine I. Are events D and A independent?

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 Example 4-17: Solution

 From the given information,

 P (D) = 15/100 = .15 and
P (D | A) = 9/60 = .15

Hence,
P (D) = P (D | A)

 Consequently, the two events, D and A, are independent.

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 Table 4.6 Two-Way Classification Table

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 MARGINAL PROBABILITY, CONDITIONAL
PROBABILITY, AND RELATED PROBABILITY
CONCEPTS

 Definition
 The complement of event A, denoted by Ā and read as “A bar” or “A
complement,” is the event that includes all the outcomes for an
experiment that are not in A.

 Any two mutually exclusive events that happen together and include all
the outcomes for an experiment are called complementary event.

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 Figure 4.11 Venn diagram of two complementary
events.

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 Example 4-18

 In a group of 2000 taxpayers, 400 have been audited by the IRS at least
once. If one taxpayer is randomly selected from this group, what are the
two complementary events for this experiment, and what are their
probabilities?
The two complementary events for this experiment are
– A = the selected taxpayer has been audited by the IRS at least once

– Ā = the selected taxpayer has never been audited by the IRS

The probabilities of the complementary events are

P (A) = 400/2000 = .20 and

P (Ā) = 1600/2000 = .80

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 Figure 4.12 Venn diagram.

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 Example 4-19

 In a group of 5000 adults, 3500 are in favor of stricter gun control laws,
1200 are against such laws, and 300 have no opinion. One adult is
randomly selected from this group. Let A be the event that this adult is
in favor of stricter gun control laws. What is the complementary event of
A? What are the probabilities of the two events?

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 Example 4-19: Solution

The two complementary events for this experiment are

– A = the selected adult is in favor of stricter gun control laws

– Ā = the selected adult either is against such laws or has no opinion

The probabilities of the complementary events are

P (A) = 3500/5000 = .70 and

P (Ā) = 1500/5000 = .30

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 Figure 4.13 Venn diagram.

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  Intersection of Events

 Definition
 Let A and B be two events defined in a sample space. The
intersection of A and B represents the collection of all outcomes that
are common to both A and B and is denoted by
 A and B

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 Figure 4.14 Intersection of events A and B.

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 INTERSECTION OF EVENTS AND THE
MULTIPLICATION RULE

 Multiplication Rule

 Definition
 The probability of the intersection of two events is called their joint
probability. It is written as P(A and B)

 Multiplication Rule to Find Joint Probability

 The probability of the intersection of two events A and B is

 P(A and B) = P(A) P(B |A) = P(B) P(A |B)

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 Example 4-20

 Table 4.7 gives the classification of all employees of a company given by

gender and college degree.

 If one of these employees is selected at random for membership in the

employee-management committee, what is the probability that this
employee is a female and a college graduate?


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 Example 4-20: Solution

We are to calculate the probability of the intersection of the events F

and G.

P(F and G) = P(F) P(G |F)

P(F) = 13/40
P(G |F) = 4/13
P(F and G) = P(F) P(G |F)
= (13/40)(4/13) = .100

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 Figure 4.15 Intersection of events F and G.

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 Figure 4.16 Tree diagram for joint probabilities.

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 Example 4-21

 A box contains 20 DVDs, 4 of which are defective. If two DVDs are

selected at random (without replacement) from this box, what is the
probability that both are defective?

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 Example 4-21: Solution

 Let us define the following events for this experiment:


G1 = event that the first DVD selected is good
D1 = event that the first DVD selected is defective
G2 = event that the second DVD selected is good
D2 = event that the second DVD selected is defective
We are to calculate the joint probability of D1 and D2,

P(D1 and D2) = P(D1) P(D2 |D1)
P(D1) = 4/20
P(D2 |D1) = 3/19
P(D1 and D2) = (4/20)(3/19) = .0316

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 Figure 4.17 Selecting two DVDs.

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 INTERSECTION OF EVENTS AND THE
MULTIPLICATION RULE

 Calculating Conditional Probability

 If A and B are two events, then,

P( A and B) P( A and B)
P( B | A)  and P( A | B ) 
P( A) P( B)
 given that P (A ) ≠ 0 and P (B ) ≠ 0.

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 Example 4-22

 The probability that a randomly selected student from a college is a

senior is .20, and the joint probability that the student is a computer
science major and a senior is .03. Find the conditional probability that a
student selected at random is a computer science major given that the
student is a senior.

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 Example 4-22: Solution

Let us define the following two events:

 A = the student selected is a senior
 B = the student selected is a computer science major

From the given information,

P(A) = .20 and P(A and B) = .03

Hence,
P (B | A) = P(A and B) / P(A) = .03 / .20 = .15

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 MULTIPLICATION RULE FOR INDEPENDENT
EVENTS

 Multiplication Rule to Calculate the Probability of Independent Events

 The probability of the intersection of two independent events A and B is

 P(A and B) = P(A) P(B)

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 Example 4-23

 An office building has two fire detectors. The probability is .02 that any
fire detector of this type will fail to go off during a fire. Find the probability
that both of these fire detectors will fail to go off in case of a fire.

We define the following two events:

A = the first fire detector fails to go off during a fire

B = the second fire detector fails to go off during a fire

Then, the joint probability of A and B is

P(A and B) = P(A) P(B) = (.02)(.02) = .0004


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 Example 4-24

 The probability that a patient is allergic to penicillin is .20. Suppose this

drug is administered to three patients.

a) Find the probability that all three of them are allergic to it.
b) Find the probability that at least one of the them is not allergic to it.

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 Example 4-24: Solution

a) Let A, B, and C denote the events the first, second, and third
patients, respectively, are allergic to penicillin. Hence,

P (A and B and C) = P(A) P(B) P(C)

= (.20) (.20) (.20) = .008

b) Let us define the following events:

G = all three patients are allergic
H = at least one patient is not allergic

P(G) = P(A and B and C) = .008

Therefore, using the complementary event rule, we obtain

P(H) = 1 – P(G) = 1 - .008 = .992
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 Figure 4.18 Tree diagram for joint probabilities.

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 MULTIPLICATION RULE FOR INDEPENDENT
EVENTS

 Joint Probability of Mutually Exclusive Events

 The joint probability of two mutually exclusive events is always zero. If

A and B are two mutually exclusive events, then

 P(A and B) = 0

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 Example 4-25

 Consider the following two events for an application filed by a person to

obtain a car loan:
A = event that the loan application is approved
R = event that the loan application is rejected

 What is the joint probability of A and R?

 The two events A and R are mutually exclusive. Either the loan
application will be approved or it will be rejected. Hence,

P(A and R) = 0

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  Definition
 Let A and B be two events defined in a sample space. The union of
events A and B is the collection of all outcomes that belong to either A or
B or to both A and B and is denoted by

 A or B

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 Example 4-26

 A senior citizen center has 300 members. Of them, 140 are male, 210
take at least one medicine on a permanent basis, and 95 are male and
take at least one medicine on a permanent basis. Describe the union
of the events “male” and “take at least one medicine on a permanent
basis.”

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 Example 4-26: Solution

• Let us define the following events:

M = a senior citizen is a male
F = a senior citizen is a female
A = a senior citizen takes at least one medicine
B = a senior citizen does not take any medicine

• The union of the events “male” and “take at least one medicine”
includes those senior citizens who are either male or take at least one
medicine or both. The number of such senior citizens is
140 + 210 – 95 = 255

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 Table 4.8

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 Figure 4.19 Union of events M and A.

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 UNION OF EVENTS AND THE ADDITION RULE

 Addition Rule

 Addition Rule to Find the Probability of Union of Events

 The portability of the union of two events A and B is

 P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)

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 Example 4-27

 A university president has proposed that all students must take a

course in ethics as a requirement for graduation. Three hundred faculty
members and students from this university were asked about their
opinion on this issue. Table 4.9 gives a two-way classification of the
responses of these faculty members and students.

 Find the probability that one person selected at random from these 300
persons is a faculty member or is in favor of this proposal.

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 Table 4.9 Two-Way Classification of Responses

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 Example 4-27: Solution

Let us define the following events:

A = the person selected is a faculty member
B = the person selected is in favor of the proposal

From the information in the Table 4.9,

P(A) = 70/300 = .2333
P(B) = 135/300 = .4500
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B | A) = (70/300)(45/70) = .1500

Using the addition rule, we obtain

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
= .2333 + .4500 – .1500 = .5333

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 Example 4-28

 In a group of 2500 persons, 1400 are female, 600 are vegetarian, and
400 are female and vegetarian. What is the probability that a randomly
selected person from this group is a male or vegetarian?

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 Example 4-28: Solution

 Let us define the following events:

F = the randomly selected person is a female
M = the randomly selected person is a male
V = the randomly selected person is a vegetarian
N = the randomly selected person is a non-vegetarian.

P( M or V )  P( M )  P(V )  P( M and V )
1100 600 200
  
2500 2500 2500
 .44  .24  .08  .60

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 Table 4.10 Two-Way Classification Table

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 Addition Rule for Mutually Exclusive Events

 Addition Rule to Find the Probability of the Union of Mutually

Exclusive Events

 The probability of the union of two mutually exclusive events A and B

is

 P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

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 Example 4-29

 A university president has proposed that all students must take a

course in ethics as a requirement for graduation. Three hundred
faculty members and students from this university were asked about
their opinion on this issue. The following table, reproduced from Table
4.9 in Example 4-30, gives a two-way classification of the responses of
these faculty members and students.

 What is the probability that a randomly selected person from these 300
faculty members and students is in favor of the proposal or is neutral?

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 Example 4-29: Solution

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 Example 4-29: Solution

Let us define the following events:

F = the person selected is in favor of the proposal
N = the person selected is neutral

From the given information,

P(F) = 135/300 = .4500
P(N) = 40/300 = .1333

Hence,
P(F or N) = P(F) + P(N) = .4500 + .1333 = .5833

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 Figure 4.20 Venn diagram of mutually exclusive
events.

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 Example 4-30

 Consider the experiment of rolling a die twice. Find the probability that
the sum of the numbers obtained on two rolls is 5, 7, or 10.

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 Table 4.11 Two Rolls of a Die

P(sum is 5 or 7 or 10)
= P(sum is 5) + P(sum is 7) + P(sum is 10)
= 4/36 + 6/36 + 3/36 = 13/36 = .3611

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 Example 4-31

The probability that a person is in favor of genetic engineering is .55

and that a person is against it is .45. Two persons are randomly
selected, and it is observed whether they favor or oppose genetic
engineering.

a) Draw a tree diagram for this experiment

b) Find the probability that at least one of the two persons favors
genetic engineering.

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 Example 4-31: Solution

a) Let
F = a person is in favor of genetic engineering
A = a person is against genetic engineering
This experiment has four outcomes. The tree diagram in Figure 4.21 shows these
four outcomes and their probabilities.

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 Example 4-31: Solution

b) P(at least one person favors)

= P(FF or FA or AF)
= P(FF) + P(FA) + P(AF)
= .3025 + .2475 + .2475 = .7975

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 Counting Rule to Find Total Outcomes

 If an experiment consists of three steps and if the first step can result in m
outcomes, the second step in n outcomes, and the third in k outcomes, then

 Total outcomes for the experiment = m · n · k

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 Example 4-32

 Suppose we toss a coin three times. This experiment has three steps:
the first toss, the second toss, and the third toss. Each step has two
outcomes: a head and a tail. How many total outcomes this experiment
has?

 Total outcomes for three tosses of a coin = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8

 The eight outcomes for this experiment are


 HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, and TTT

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 Example 4-33

 A prospective car buyer can choose between a fixed and a variable

interest rate and can also choose a payment period of 36 months, 48
months, or 60 months. How many total outcomes are possible?

There are two outcomes (a fixed or a variable interest rate) for the first
step and three outcomes (a payment period of 36 months, 48 months, or
60 months) for the second step. Hence,

Total outcomes = 2 x 3 = 6

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 Example 4-34

A National Football League team will play 16 games during a regular

season. Each game can result in one of three outcomes: a win, a loss, or
a tie. How many total outcomes are possible?

The total possible outcomes for 16 games are calculated as follows:

Total outcomes = 3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3 ·3·3·3·3

= 316 = 43,046,721

One of the 43,046,721 possible outcomes is all 16 wins.

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 COUNTING RULE, FACTORIALS, COMBINATIONS, AND
PERMUTATIONS

 Factorials

 Definition
 The symbol n!, read as “n factorial,” represents the product of all the
integers from n to 1. In other words,
 n! = n(n - 1)(n – 2)(n – 3) · · · 3 · 2 · 1
 By definition,
 0! = 1

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 Example 4-35

Evaluate 7!

7! = 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 5040

Example 4-36
Evaluate 10!

10! = 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 3,628,800

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 Example 4-37

Evaluate (12-4)!

(12-4)! = 8! = 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 40,320

Example 4-38
Evaluate (5-5)!

(5-5)! = 0! = 1
Note that 0! is always equal to 1

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 COUNTING RULE, FACTORIALS, COMBINATIONS, AND
PERMUTATIONS

 Combinations

 Definition
 Combinations give the number of ways x elements can be selected
from n elements. The notation used to denote the total number of
combinations is

n Cx

 which is read as “the number of combinations of n elements selected x

at a time.”

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 Combinations

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 Combinations

 Number of Combinations
 The number of combinations for selecting x from n distinct elements is
given by the formula

n!
n Cx 
x!(n  x)!
 where n!, x!, and (n-x)! are read as “n factorial,” “x factorial,” “n minus x
factorial,” respectively.

 Note: The order to selections in combinations is not important.

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 Example 4-39

 An ice cream kiosk has six flavors of ice cream. Kristen wants to buy
two flavors of ice cream. If she randomly selects two flavors out of six,
how many combinations are there?

 n = total number of ice cream flavors = 6

 x = # of ice cream flavors to be selected = 2

6! 6! 6  5  4  3  2 1
6 C2     15
2!(6  2)! 2!4! 2 1  4  3  2 1
 Thus, there are 15 ways for Kristen to select two ice cream flavors out
of six.

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 Example 4-40

 Three members of a jury will be randomly selected from five people.

How many different combinations are possible?

 n = 5 and x = 3

5! 5! 5  4  3  2  1 120
5 C3      10
3 !(5  3)! 3 !2 ! 3  2  1  2  1 6  2

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 Example 4-41

 Marv & Sons advertised to hire a financial analyst. The company has
received applications from 10 candidates who seem to be equally
qualified. The company manager has decided to call only 3 of these
candidates for an interview. If she randomly selects 3 candidates
from the 10, how many total selections are possible?

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 Example 4-41: Solution

 n = 10 and x = 3

10! 10! 3,628,800

10 C3     120
3!(10  3)! 3!7! (6)(5040)

 Thus, the company manager can select 3 applicants from 10 in

120 ways.

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 Permutations

 Permutations Notation
 Permutations give the total selections of x element from n (different)
elements in such a way that the order of selections is important. The
notation used to denote the permutations is

n Px
 which is read as “the number of permutations of selecting x elements
from n elements.” Permutations are also called arrangements.

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 Permutations

 Permutations Formula

 The following formula is used to find the number of permutations or
arrangements of selecting x items out of n items. Note that here, the n
items should all be different.

n!
n Px 
(n  x )!

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 Example 4-42

 A club has 20 members. They are to select three office holders –

president, secretary, and treasurer – for next year. They always
select these office holders by drawing 3 names randomly from the
names of all members. The first person selected becomes the
president, the second is the secretary, and the third one takes over
as treasurer. Thus, the order in which 3 names are selected from the
20 names is important.

 Find the total arrangements of 3 names from these 20.

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 Example 4-42: Solution

 n = total members of the club = 20

 x = number of names to be selected = 3

n! 20! 20!
n Px     6840
(n  x )! (20  3)! 17!
 Thus, there are 6840 permutations or arrangements for
selecting 3 names out of 20.

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