Unit – IV Semiconductor Physics

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Introduction to Semiconductors

Semiconductors are the materials having electrical conductivity lies between the conductors and
insulating materials. Some of the semiconductors are of pure form (intrinsic) and some of them
are compound semiconductors (extrinsic). The resistivity of the semiconductor lies between the
conductors and insulators and the value of resistivity is about 106 – 107 𝜴.m.

The unique and interesting feature of semiconductors is that they are bipolar and two carrier
charges (electrons and holes) transport current in these materials. The electrical conductivity of
pure semiconductor is known as intrinsic conductivity. Intrinsic conductivity is significantly low
and are greatly influenced by the temperature.

The conductivity of the semiconductor can be increased by doping another semiconducting

materials (either pentavalent or trivalent impurities). It can also be made independent of
temperature in certain temperature interval. Doped semiconductors are known as extrinsic
semiconductors.

Basic Definitions

Valance electrons

A valence electron is an outer shell electron that is associated with an atom, and that can
participate in the formation of a chemical bond.

Shells and Subshells

The electrons in an atom exist in a particular shell or a subshell. The number of electrons in a
particular shell is 2n2 according to the Pauli’s exclusion principle.

Valance band

The valence band is the band of electron orbitals that electrons can jump into the conduction
band when excited. The valence band is simply the outermost electron orbital of an atom of any

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specific material that electrons actually occupy. It belongs to highest range of filled electronic
states.

Conduction band

It belongs to the lowest range of vacant electronic states.

Band Gap or Energy Gap

The energy difference between the highest occupied energy state of the valence band and the
lowest unoccupied state of the conduction band is called the band gap and is indicative of
the electrical conductivity of a material. A large band gap means that a lot of energy is required to
excite valence electrons to the conduction band.

Fermi energy level

The Fermi Level is the energy level which is occupied by the electron orbital at temperature equals
to 0 K. The level of occupancy determines the conductivity of different materials.

Classification of solids based on energy gap

Band theory demonstrates that the solids are classified into metals, insulators and
semiconductors

• Metals: valence band and conduction band overlap each other, thus electrons easily flow
from valence band to conduction band that leads to high electrical conductivity

• Semiconductors: valence and conduction bands are separated by Eg < 3 eV

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 • Insulators: valence band and conduction bands are separated by Eg > 6 eV. Electron
needs very high amount of energy to cross the energy gap and hence conductivity is poor
in insulators.

Direct and Indirect band gap semiconductors

The band gap represents the minimum energy difference between the top of the valence band and
the bottom of the conduction band. However, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the
conduction band are not generally at the same value of the electron momentum.

In a direct band gap semiconductor, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction
band occur at the same value of momentum

Examples: GaAs, InP, CdS, etc.,

In an indirect band gap semiconductor, the maximum energy of the valence band occurs at a
different value of momentum to the minimum in the conduction band energy.

Examples: Si, Ge, AlSb etc.,

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Fermi-Dirac Distribution function

The Fermi-Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integral spin. The spin of the electron
is ½. Hence an electron is said to be a Fermi particle or fermions.

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is given by

𝑓 (𝐸 ) =

Where f(E) represents the probability that a quantum state is occupied by an electron. k is the
Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin. E is the energy of an electron and EF is the
Fermi energy.

Case (i)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇 = 0 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 > 𝐸

The term 𝑒𝑥𝑝 =𝑒 = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝐸 ) = 0

Case (ii)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇 = 0 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 < 𝐸

The term 𝑒𝑥𝑝 =𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝐸 ) = 1

Case (iii)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇 > 0 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 𝐸

The term 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑒 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝐸 ) =

Thus from the above, the term Fermi level is defined as the energy level that has the probability
of ½ for the occupation of quantum states by the electrons when 𝑇 > 0 𝐾.

Density of states

Density of states is the number of states available per unit volume between the energy level E
and E+dE

Number of states available between the energy levels E and E + dE

Density of states =
Volume

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To derive density of states, let us assume that the semiconductor can be modeled as an infinite
quantum well in which electrons with effective mass, m*, are free to move. The semiconductor is
assumed a cube with side L. This assumption does not affect the result since the density of states
per unit volume is not depending on the actual size or shape of the semiconductor. Therefore, the
solution to energy levels of an electron can be given by

𝐸 = --------------(1)

To represent the number of states in a three-dimensional space, let us construct a three

dimensional space of points using the quantum numbers nx, ny and nz. n can be determined in
such a way that

𝑛 =𝑛 +𝑛 +𝑛 --------------(2)

Let us consider every point in the space represents a state, i.e a unit cube contains exactly one
state. The number of states available in any volume is equal to the numerical value of the
volume. In a space of radius n, the number of states (z) available is,

𝑍= 𝜋𝑛 --------------(3)

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Since the quantum numbers can have only positive integer values, the n-value can only be
degined in the positive octant of the sphere.

Therefore, the number of quantum states with energy equal to or smaller than E is proportional to
the first octant of the sphere.

Number of energy states within one octant of the sphere of radius is

𝑍(𝐸) = × 𝜋𝑛 --------------(4)

Similarly, the number of energy states within one octant of a sphere of redius (n+dn)
corresponding to energy (E+dE)

𝑍(𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸) = × 𝜋(𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛) --------------(5)

Therefore, the number of energy states having energy values between E and E+dE is given by

𝑍(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = × 𝜋(𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛) − × 𝜋𝑛

1 4
𝑍(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = × 𝜋[𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛 − 𝑛]
8 3
1 4 1 4
𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = × 𝜋 𝑑𝑛 = × 𝜋 × 3𝑛 𝑑𝑛
8 3 8 3

𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 𝜋 𝑛 𝑑𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑛 (𝑛𝑑𝑛) -------------------------(6)

From equation (1), we may write,

⁄
𝑛 = ⇒ 𝑛 = -------------------------(7)

Now, Differentiating equ. (7), we get,

2𝑛 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑑𝐸

𝑛 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑑𝐸 -------------------------(8)

Substituting equations (7) and (8) in equation (6), we get,

⁄
1 1 8𝐸𝑚𝐿 4𝑚𝐿
𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 𝜋 𝑛 (𝑛𝑑𝑛) = 𝜋 𝑑𝐸
2 2 ℎ ℎ

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 ⁄
⁄
𝑍 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 --------------------- (9)

According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, a state can occupy two electrons, one with up-spin and
another with down-spin. Therefore, the density of states available per unit volume in an energy
interval dE is
⁄
2𝜋 8𝑚𝐿 ⁄
𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
4 ℎ

Or

⁄ ⁄
𝑍(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ( 2𝑚) 𝐿 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 ---------------------------(10)

Density of states per unit volume is given by

4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
( 2𝑚) 𝐿 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝑍(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ℎ
𝐿
4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( 2𝑚) 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
ℎ

Intrinsic carrier concentration

At 0 K temperature, the electrons in the valance band are engaged in covalent bond. With an
increase in temperature, covalent bonds are broken in an intrinsic semiconductor an electron-hole
pairs are generated. At this stage, a large number of electrons can be found in the conduction band
and similarly, a large number of holes can be found in the valance band. As electrons and holes
are charged particles, they are together called as charge carries. Intrinsic carrier concentration is
the number of electrons in the conduction band per unit volume or the number of holes in the
valence band per unit volume of the material.

i.e Intrinsic carrier concentration 𝑛 =𝑛=𝑝

Where n is the number of electrons in the conduction band per unit volume and

p is the number of holes in the valence band per unit volume

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Carrier Concentration of Electrons in the conduction band

Let dn be the number of electrons whose energy lies in the energy interval E and E+dE in the
conduction band, then
𝑑𝑛 = 𝑍 (𝐸 ) 𝑓 (𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸

Where 𝑍 (𝐸 )dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and E+dE and 𝑓(𝐸 ) probability that
a state of energy is occupied by an electron.

The electron density in the conduction band can be determined by integrating the above equation
between the limits Ec and .

𝑛 = ∫ 𝑍(𝐸 ) 𝑓 (𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 -----------(1)

The density of states in the conduction band is given by

(2𝑚∗ ) ⁄ ⁄
𝑍(𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 -----------------(2)

The bottom edge of the conduction band Ec corresponds to the potential energy of an electron at
rest. Therefore, (EEc) will be the kinetic energy of the conduction electron at higher energy levels.

(2𝑚∗ ) ⁄ ⁄
𝑍(𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = (𝐸 − 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 -------------------(3)

The probability of an electron occupying an energy level is given by,

𝑓(𝐸 ) = -----------------------(4)

Since E >EF, the term 𝑒𝑥𝑝 > 1, therefore the above equation can be modified as,

𝑓(𝐸 ) = or 𝑒 ----------------------(5)

Now, substituting equation (3) and (5) in equation (1), we get,

4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
𝑛 = 𝑍(𝐸 ) 𝑓(𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = (2𝑚∗ ) (𝐸 − 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 × 𝑒
ℎ

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 4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
𝑛 = (2𝑚∗ ) (𝐸 − 𝐸 ) .𝑒 𝑑𝐸
ℎ

(2𝑚∗ ) ⁄ ⁄
𝑛= 𝑒 ∫ (𝐸 − 𝐸 ) .𝑒 𝑑𝐸 --------------(6)

For mathematical simplification, put 𝑥 = (𝐸 − 𝐸 ), and 𝑎 = , the 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝑥. The lower limit
of the integral becomes 0 and the upper limit is .

then the equation (6) takes the form,

4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
𝑛= (2𝑚∗ ) 𝑒 𝑥 .𝑒 𝑑𝑥
ℎ

4𝜋 ⁄ √𝜋
𝑛= (2𝑚∗ ) 𝑒
ℎ 2(𝑎) /

Now replacing 𝑎 by , then we get,

4𝜋 ⁄ √𝜋
𝑛= (2𝑚∗ ) 𝑒 /
ℎ 1
2
𝑘𝑇
∗
𝑛=2 𝑒 --------------(7)

or

𝑛=𝑁 𝑒
∗
Where 𝑁 = 2

Nc is temperature dependent material constant known as the effective density of states in the
conduction band. In silicon at 300 K, Nc= 2.8 x 1025 states/m3.

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Carrier Concentration of holes in the valence band

Let dp be the number of holes whose energy lies in the energy interval E and E+dE in the valence
band, then

𝑑𝑝 = 𝑍(𝐸 ) [1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )] 𝑑𝐸

Where 𝑍(𝐸 ) dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and E+dE and [1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )]
probability that a state of energy is vacant and not occupied by an electron.

The hole density in the valence band can be determined by integrating the above equation between
the limits  and EV.

𝑝 = ∫ 𝑍(𝐸 ) [1 − 𝑓 (𝐸 )] 𝑑𝐸 -----------(1)

The density of states in the valence band is given by

⁄ ⁄
𝑍(𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 = (2𝑚∗ ) 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 -----------------(2)

The top edge of the valence band Ev corresponds to the potential energy of a hole at rest. Therefore,
(EvE) will be the kinetic energy of the holes at lower energy levels.

(2𝑚∗ ) ⁄ ⁄
𝑍(𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = (𝐸 − 𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 -------------------(3)

The probability of a hole occupying an energy level is given by,

[1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )] = 1 −

𝐸−𝐸
1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
[1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )] = 𝑘𝑇
𝐸−𝐸
1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑘𝑇
𝐸−𝐸
𝑒𝑥𝑝
[1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )] = 𝑘𝑇
𝐸−𝐸
1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑘𝑇

Since E <EF, the term 𝑒𝑥𝑝 in the denominator is less than 1. So, it is negligible when
compared to 1. Therefore the above equation can be modified as,

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𝑓(𝐸 ) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ----------------------(5)

Now, substituting equation (3) and (5) in equation (1), we get,

4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
𝐸−𝐸
𝑝 = 𝑍 (𝐸 ) 𝑓(𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = (2𝑚∗ ) (𝐸 − 𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 × 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ 𝑘𝑇

4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
𝑝 = (2𝑚∗ ) (𝐸 − 𝐸) .𝑒 𝑑𝐸
ℎ

𝑝= (2𝑚∗ ) ⁄
𝑒 ∫ (𝐸 − 𝐸) ⁄
.𝑒 𝑑𝐸 --------------(6)

For mathematical simplification, put 𝑥 = (𝐸 − 𝐸), and 𝑎 = , the 𝑑𝐸 = −𝑑𝑥. The lower
limit of the integral becomes  and the upper limit is 0.

then the equation (6) takes the form,

4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
𝑝= (2𝑚∗ ) 𝑒 𝑥 .𝑒 (−𝑑𝑥)
ℎ

4𝜋 ⁄ ⁄
𝑝= (2𝑚∗ ) 𝑒 𝑥 .𝑒 𝑑𝑥
ℎ

4𝜋 ⁄ √𝜋
𝑝= (2𝑚∗ ) 𝑒
ℎ 2(𝑎) /

Now replacing 𝑎 by , then we get,

4𝜋 ⁄ √𝜋
𝑝= (2𝑚∗ ) 𝑒 /
ℎ 1
2
𝑘𝑇

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 2𝜋 𝑚∗ 𝑘𝑇
𝑝=2 𝑒
ℎ
Or

𝑝=𝑁 𝑒 --------------(7)
∗
Where 𝑁 = 2

NV is temperature dependent material constant known as the effective density of states in the
valence band. In silicon at 300 K, Nc= 1025 states/m3.

Fermi Energy level in an intrinsic semiconductor

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of hole in the valence band is equal to the
concentration of electron in the conduction band.

i.e n=p

Substituting the values of n and p, we get,

𝑁 𝑒 =𝑁 𝑒

𝑁 𝑒
= =𝑒
𝑁
𝑒
𝑁
= 𝑒
𝑁

Taking log on both sides, we get

𝑁 𝐸 + 𝐸 − 2𝐸
ln =
𝑁 𝑘𝑇

𝑁
𝐸 + 𝐸 − 2𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇 ln
𝑁

𝐸 +𝐸 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
𝐸 = − ln
2 2 𝑁

𝐸 +𝐸 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
𝐸 = + ln
2 2 𝑁

This equation gives us the Fermi energy level of an intrinsic semiconductor.

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Carrier concentration of an N-Type Semiconductor

The above figure shows the energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor. When the
semiconductor is at 0K, the donor atoms are not ionized and are at the donor energy level (ED)
which is near to conduction band (EC). When the temperature is raised above 0K, the donor atoms
get ionized and free electrons appear in the conduction band. With increase in temperature, more
and more donor atoms get ionized and the electron concentration in the conduction band increases.
The number of electrons present in the conduction band (n) of the n-type semiconductor is given
by the sum of the number of holes in the valence band and the number of ionized donor impurities.

𝑖. 𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑁 +𝑁 .............(1)

Where 𝑁 is the number of holes in the valence band and 𝑁 is the number of ionized donor
impurities.

The number of ionized donor impurities can be written as

𝑁 = 𝑁 [1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )] .............(2)

Where 𝑁 is the number of unionized donor impurities and [1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )] is the probability of
finding a hole in the donor energy level.

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The value of [1 − 𝑓 (𝐸 )] can be determined as follows,

1
[1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )] = 1 −
𝐸 −𝐸
1 + exp
𝑘𝑇

𝐸 −𝐸
1 + exp −1
= 𝑘𝑇
𝐸 −𝐸
1 + exp
𝑘𝑇

𝐸 −𝐸
exp
= 𝑘𝑇
𝐸 −𝐸
1 + exp
𝑘𝑇

Since 𝐸 < 𝐸 , exp < 1 , and hence the term exp in the denominator is
negligible. The value of [1 − 𝑓 (𝐸 )] is written as,

[1 − 𝑓(𝐸 )] = exp .............(3)

Therefore,

𝑁 = 𝑁 exp .............(4)

At T = 0 K, all the states in the valence band are occupied by the electrons and hence, 𝑁 is equal
to zero, therefore 𝑛 = 𝑁

 𝑛 = 𝑁 exp .............(5)

The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given by,

𝑛 = 𝑁 exp .............(6)

From the equations (5) and (6), we have

𝐸 −𝐸 𝐸 −𝐸
𝑁 exp = 𝑁 exp
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝑁 𝐸 −𝐸 𝐸 −𝐸
= exp . exp
𝑁 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

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 𝑁 𝐸 + 𝐸 − 2𝐸
= exp
𝑁 𝑘𝑇

Taking logarithm on both sides, we get

𝑁 𝐸 + 𝐸 − 2𝐸
𝑙𝑛 =
𝑁 𝑘𝑇

𝐸 +𝐸 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
𝐸 = − 𝑙𝑛
2 2 𝑁

𝐸 = + 𝑙𝑛 .............(7)

Equation (7) gives the equation for the Fermi level in an n-type semiconductor.

Substitute the value of 𝐸 in equation (6) we get,

The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given by

𝐸 +𝐸 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
𝐸 −𝐸 + 𝑙𝑛 −𝐸
2 2 𝑁
𝑛 = 𝑁 exp = 𝑁 exp
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

or

𝐸 +𝐸 1 𝑁 𝐸
𝑛 = 𝑁 exp + 𝑙𝑛 −
2𝑘𝑇 2 𝑁 𝑘𝑇

or

𝐸 −𝐸 1 𝑁
𝑛 = 𝑁 exp + 𝑙𝑛
2𝑘𝑇 2 𝑁

𝐸 −𝐸 𝑁
𝑛 = 𝑁 exp .
2𝑘𝑇 𝑁

𝑛 = (𝑁 𝑁 ) exp .............(8)

∗
Substituting the value of 𝑁 = 2 in equation (8), we get,

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 ∗
𝑛 = (2𝑁 ) . . exp .............(9)

The above equation gives the carrier concentration of electrons in an n-type semiconducting
material.

Carrier concentration of a p-Type Semiconductor

Intrinsic
E electrons
Conduction Band

Ec

Acceptor energy level

EA

EF Fermi energy level

Ev
Valence Band

Intrinsic holes

Fig. Energy band diagram of a p-type semiconductor

The above figure shows the energy band diagram of a p-type semiconductor. When the
semiconductor is at 0K, the acceptor atoms are not ionized and are at the acceptor energy level
(EA) which is near to valence band (EV). When the temperature is raised above 0K, the acceptor
atoms get ionized and holes appear in the valence band. With increase in temperature, more and
more acceptor atoms get ionized and the hole concentration in the valance band increases. The
number of holes in the valence band (p) of a p-type semiconductor is given by the sum of the
number of electrons in the conduction band and the number of ionized acceptor impurities.

𝑖. 𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑁 +𝑁 .............(1)

Where 𝑁 is the number of electrons in the conduction band and

𝑁 is the number of ionized acceptor impurities.

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The number of ionized acceptor impurities can be written as

𝑁 = 𝑁 . 𝑓(𝐸 ) .............(2)

Where 𝑁 is the number of unionized acceptor impurities and 𝑓(𝐸 ) is the probability of finding
an electron in the acceptor energy level.

The value of 𝑓(𝐸 ) can be determined as follows,

1
𝑓 (𝐸 ) =
𝐸 −𝐸
1 + exp
𝑘𝑇

Since 𝐸 > 𝐸 , exp > 1 , Therefore, 𝑓(𝐸 ) is written as,

𝑓(𝐸 ) = = exp .............(3)

Therefore,

𝑁 = 𝑁 exp .............(4)

At T = 0 K, all the states in the conduction band are empty and hence, 𝑁 is equal to zero, therefore
𝑝=𝑁

 𝑝 = 𝑁 exp .............(5)

The concentration of holes in the valence band is given by,

𝑝 = 𝑁 exp .............(6)

From the equations (5) and (6), we have

𝐸 −𝐸 𝐸 −𝐸
𝑁 exp = 𝑁 exp
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝑁 𝐸 −𝐸 𝐸 −𝐸
= exp . exp
𝑁 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

𝑁 𝐸 + 𝐸 − 2𝐸
= exp
𝑁 𝑘𝑇

Taking logarithm on both sides, we get

Prepared by Dr. T. KARTHICK, SASTRA Deemed University 17

 𝑁 𝐸 + 𝐸 − 2𝐸
𝑙𝑛 =
𝑁 𝑘𝑇

𝐸 = − 𝑙𝑛 .............(7)

Equation (7) gives the equation for the Fermi level in an p-type semiconductor.

Substitute the value of 𝐸 in equation (6) we get,

The concentration of holes in the valence band is given by

𝐸 +𝐸 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
𝐸 − − 𝑙𝑛
𝐸 −𝐸 ⎛ 2 2 𝑁 ⎞
𝑝 = 𝑁 exp = 𝑁 exp ⎜ ⎟
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
⎝ ⎠
or

𝐸 −𝐸 1 𝑁
𝑝 = 𝑁 exp + 𝑙𝑛
2𝑘𝑇 2 𝑁

𝐸 −𝐸 𝑁
𝑝 = 𝑁 exp .
2𝑘𝑇 𝑁

𝑝 = (𝑁 𝑁 ) exp .............(8)

∗
Substituting the value of 𝑁 = 2 in equation (8), we get,

∗
𝑝 = (2𝑁 ) . . exp .............(9)

The above equation gives the carrier concentration of holes in a p-type semiconducting material.

Prepared by Dr. T. KARTHICK, SASTRA Deemed University 18

Hall Effect

If a metal or a semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a magnetic field B which is acting

perpendicular to the direction of current, then a potential difference or e.m.f is produced in a

direction normal to both the magnetic field and the current directions. This is known as Hall Effect.

The potential difference or an e.m.f developed across the material is known as Hall voltage.

Determination of Hall coefficient and carrier concentration of a current carrying conductor

An experimental setup consists of a thin rectangular semiconductor slab which is mounted on an

insulating material. One of the opposite sides of the slab is connected to a constant current source

and the other pairs of the opposite sides of the slab is connected to a voltmeter in order to measure

the hall voltage. Now this rectangular semiconductor slab is placed in between the pole pieces of

an electron magnet in such a way that magnetic field acts perpendicular to the lateral faces of the

semiconductor slap.

N-type semiconductor P-type semiconductor

Let Ix be the current applied along the x-direction and By be the magnetic field applied along the

y-direction, then the force due to the magnetic field is 𝐵 𝑒 𝑣 and the force due to the electric

field is 𝑒𝐸 , where EH is the Hall electric field intensity. At equilibrium,

Prepared by Dr. T. KARTHICK, SASTRA Deemed University 19

 𝑒𝐸 = 𝐵 𝑒𝑣

Or

𝐸 = 𝐵 𝑣 (1)

The current density is given by, 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 (2)

Now substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get

𝐸 = 𝐵 (3)

As we know that the current density, 𝐽 =

Therefore equation (3) becomes 𝐸 = 𝐵 (4)

×

The Hall electric field intensity can be written as, 𝐸 =

Where d is the thickness of the semiconductor slab.

∴ = 𝐵
×

Area of cross section of the semiconductor slab 𝐴 = 𝑡 × 𝑑

∴ = 𝐵
×

𝐵 𝐼
𝑉 =
𝑡 × 𝑛𝑒
Or

𝐵 𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑅
𝑡

Where 𝑅 = is known as the Hall coefficient.

Therefore the carrier concentration of N-type semiconductor can be written as,

𝑛=−

Similarly, the carrier concentration of P-type semiconductor can be written as,

Prepared by Dr. T. KARTHICK, SASTRA Deemed University 20

 1
𝑝=
𝑅 𝑒

Mobility of the charge carrier

Hall mobility is defined as the drift velocity acquired by the majority charge carrier (either
electron/hole) in the unit electric field intensity.

Current density is given by the following expressions,

𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣

and

𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸

Where 𝜎 is the conductivity of the material

∴ 𝑛𝑒𝑣 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑣 𝜎
=
𝐸 𝑛𝑒
𝜇 =𝜎𝑅

Prepared by Dr. T. KARTHICK, SASTRA Deemed University 21