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Creativity
Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something somehow new and somehow valuable is formed.
The created item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical composition, or a
joke) or a physical object (such as an invention, a printed literary work, or a painting).

Scholarly interest in creativity is found in a number of disciplines, primarily psychology, business

studies, and cognitive science, but also education, the humanities, technology, engineering,
philosophy (particularly philosophy of science), theology, sociology, linguistics, the arts, economics,
and mathematics. These disciplines cover the relations between creativity and general intelligence,
personality type, mental and neural processes, mental health, or artificial intelligence; the potential
for fostering creativity through education and training; the fostering of creativity for national
economic benefit, and the application of creative resources to improve the effectiveness of teaching
and learning.

Contents
Etymology
Definition
Aspects
Conceptual history
Ancient A picture of a lightbulb is
Post-Enlightenment associated with
someone having an
Modern
idea, an example of
"Four C" model creativity.

Process theories
Incubation
Convergent and divergent thinking
Creative cognition approach
The Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory
Conceptual blending
Honing theory
Everyday imaginative thought
Dialectical theory of creativity
Neuroeconomic framework for creative cognition
Personal assessment
Creativity quotient
Psychometric approach
Social-personality approach
Self-report questionnaires
Intelligence
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Creativity as a subset of intelligence

Intelligence as a subset of creativity
Creativity and intelligence as overlapping yet distinct constructs
Creativity and intelligence as coincident sets
Creativity and intelligence as disjoint sets
Neuroscience
Working memory and the cerebellum
REM sleep
Affect
Positive affect relations
Computational creativity
Creativity and mental health
Bipolar Disorders and Creativity
Personality
Malevolent creativity
Crime
Predictive factors
Cultural differences in creativity
Organizational creativity
Team composition
Team processes
Organizational culture
Constraints
The sociology of creativity
Economic views
Fostering creativity
Managing the need for closure
Education policies
Scotland
Academic journals
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Etymology

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The English word creativity comes from the Latin term creare, "to create, make": its derivational
suffixes also come from Latin. The word "create" appeared in English as early as the 14th century,
notably in Chaucer (in The Parson's Tale[1]), to indicate divine creation.[2]

However, its modern meaning as an act of human creation did not emerge until after the
Enlightenment.[2]

Definition
In a summary of scientific research into creativity, Michael Mumford suggested: "Over the course of
the last decade, however, we seem to have reached a general agreement that creativity involves the
production of novel, useful products" (Mumford, 2003, p. 110),[3] or, in Robert Sternberg's words, the
production of "something original and worthwhile".[4] Authors have diverged dramatically in their
precise definitions beyond these general commonalities: Peter Meusburger reckons that over a
hundred different analyses can be found in the literature.[5] As an illustration, one definition given by
Dr. E. Paul Torrance described it as "a process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps in
knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, and so on; identifying the difficulty; searching for
solutions, making guesses, or formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies: testing and retesting
these hypotheses and possibly modifying and retesting them; and finally communicating the
results."[6]

Creativity in general is usually distinguished from innovation in particular, where the stress is on
implementation. For example, Teresa Amabile and Pratt (2016) defines creativity as production of
novel and useful ideas and innovation as implementation of creative ideas,[7] while the OECD and
Eurostat state that "Innovation is more than a new idea or an invention. An innovation requires
implementation, either by being put into active use or by being made available for use by other
parties, firms, individuals or organisations."[8]

There is also an emotional creativity[9] which is described as a pattern of cognitive abilities and
personality traits related to originality and appropriateness in emotional experience.[10]

Aspects
Theories of creativity (particularly investigation of why some people are more creative than others)
have focused on a variety of aspects. The dominant factors are usually identified as "the four Ps" —
process, product, person, and place (according to Mel Rhodes).[11] A focus on process is shown in
cognitive approaches that try to describe thought mechanisms and techniques for creative thinking.
Theories invoking divergent rather than convergent thinking (such as Guilford), or those describing
the staging of the creative process (such as Wallas) are primarily theories of creative process. A focus
on creative product usually appears in attempts to measure creativity (psychometrics, see below) and
in creative ideas framed as successful memes.[12] The psychometric approach to creativity reveals that
it also involves the ability to produce more.[13]
A focus on the nature of the creative person considers
more general intellectual habits, such as openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise,
exploratory behavior, and so on. A focus on place considers the circumstances in which creativity
flourishes, such as degrees of autonomy, access to resources, and the nature of gatekeepers. Creative
lifestyles are characterized by nonconforming attitudes and behaviors as well as flexibility.[13]

Conceptual history
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Ancient

Most ancient cultures, including thinkers of Ancient Greece,[14] Ancient

China, and Ancient India,[15] lacked the concept of creativity, seeing art as a
form of discovery and not creation. The ancient Greeks had no terms
corresponding to "to create" or "creator" except for the expression "poiein"
("to make"), which only applied to poiesis (poetry) and to the poietes (poet,
or "maker") who made it. Plato did not believe in art as a form of creation.
Asked in The Republic,[16] "Will we say, of a painter, that he makes
something?", he answers, "Certainly not, he merely imitates."[14] Greek philosophers like
Plato rejected the
It is commonly argued that the notion of "creativity" originated in Western concept of creativity,
cultures through Christianity, as a matter of divine inspiration.[2] According preferring to see art as a
form of discovery. Asked
to the historian Daniel J. Boorstin, "the early Western conception of
in The Republic, "Will
creativity was the Biblical story of creation given in the Genesis."[17]
we say, of a painter, that
However, this is not creativity in the modern sense, which did not arise
he makes something?",
until the Renaissance. In the Judaeo-Christian tradition, creativity was the Plato answers,
sole province of God; humans were not considered to have the ability to "Certainly not, he merely
create something new except as an expression of God's work.[18] A concept imitates."[14]
similar to that of Christianity existed in Greek culture, for instance, Muses
were seen as mediating inspiration from the Gods.[19] Romans and Greeks
invoked the concept of an external creative "daemon" (Greek) or "genius" (Latin), linked to the sacred
or the divine. However, none of these views are similar to the modern concept of creativity, and the
individual was not seen as the cause of creation until the Renaissance.[20] It was during the
Renaissance that creativity was first seen, not as a conduit for the divine, but from the abilities of
"great men".[20]

Post-Enlightenment

The rejection of creativity in favor of discovery and the belief that individual creation was a conduit of
the divine would dominate the West probably until the Renaissance and even later.[18] The
development of the modern concept of creativity begins in the Renaissance, when creation began to
be perceived as having originated from the abilities of the individual, and not God. This could be
attributed to the leading intellectual movement of the time, aptly named humanism, which developed
an intensely human-centric outlook on the world, valuing the intellect and achievement of the
individual.[21] From this philosophy arose the Renaissance man (or polymath), an individual who
embodies the principals of humanism in their ceaseless courtship with knowledge and creation.[22]
One of the most well-known and immensely accomplished examples is Leonardo da Vinci.

However, this shift was gradual and would not become immediately apparent until the
Enlightenment.[20] By the 18th century and the Age of Enlightenment, mention of creativity (notably
in aesthetics), linked with the concept of imagination, became more frequent.[23] In the writing of
Thomas Hobbes, imagination became a key element of human cognition;[2] William Duff was one of
the first to identify imagination as a quality of genius, typifying the separation being made between
talent (productive, but breaking no new ground) and genius.[19]

As a direct and independent topic of study, creativity effectively received no attention until the 19th
century.[19] Runco and Albert argue that creativity as the subject of proper study began seriously to
emerge in the late 19th century with the increased interest in individual differences inspired by the

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arrival of Darwinism. In particular, they refer to the work of Francis Galton, who through his
eugenicist outlook took a keen interest in the heritability of intelligence, with creativity taken as an
aspect of genius.[2]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, leading mathematicians and scientists such as Hermann von
Helmholtz (1896) and Henri Poincaré (1908) began to reflect on and publicly discuss their creative
processes.

Modern

The insights of Poincaré and von Helmholtz were built on in early accounts of the creative process by
pioneering theorists such as Graham Wallas[24] and Max Wertheimer. In his work Art of Thought,
published in 1926, Wallas presented one of the first models of the creative process. In the Wallas stage
model, creative insights and illuminations may be explained by a process consisting of 5 stages:

(i) preparation (preparatory work on a problem that focuses the individual's mind on the problem
and explores the problem's dimensions),
(ii) incubation (where the problem is internalized into the unconscious mind and nothing appears
externally to be happening),
(iii) intimation (the creative person gets a "feeling" that a solution is on its way),
(iv) illumination or insight (where the creative idea bursts forth from its preconscious processing
into conscious awareness);
(v) verification (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied).

Wallas' model is often treated as four stages, with "intimation" seen as a sub-stage.

Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the evolutionary process, which allowed humans to
quickly adapt to rapidly changing environments. Simonton[25] provides an updated perspective on
this view in his book, Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity.

In 1927, Alfred North Whitehead gave the Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh, later
published as Process and Reality.[26] He is credited with having coined the term "creativity" to serve
as the ultimate category of his metaphysical scheme: "Whitehead actually coined the term – our term,
still the preferred currency of exchange among literature, science, and the arts. . . a term that quickly
became so popular, so omnipresent, that its invention within living memory, and by Alfred North
Whitehead of all people, quickly became occluded".[27]

Although psychometric studies of creativity had been conducted by The London School of Psychology
as early as 1927 with the work of H. L. Hargreaves into the Faculty of Imagination,[28] the formal
psychometric measurement of creativity, from the standpoint of orthodox psychological literature, is
usually considered to have begun with J. P. Guilford's address to the American Psychological
Association in 1950.[29] The address helped to popularize the study of creativity and to focus attention
on scientific approaches to conceptualizing creativity. Statistical analyses led to the recognition of
creativity (as measured) as a separate aspect of human cognition to IQ-type intelligence, into which it
had previously been subsumed. Guilford's work suggested that above a threshold level of IQ, the
relationship between creativity and classically measured intelligence broke down.[30]

"Four C" model

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James C. Kaufman and Beghetto introduced a "four C" model of creativity; mini-c ("transformative
learning" involving "personally meaningful interpretations of experiences, actions, and insights"),
little-c (everyday problem solving and creative expression), Pro-C (exhibited by people who are
professionally or vocationally creative though not necessarily eminent) and Big-C (creativity
considered great in the given field). This model was intended to help accommodate models and
theories of creativity that stressed competence as an essential component and the historical
transformation of a creative domain as the highest mark of creativity. It also, the authors argued,
made a useful framework for analyzing creative processes in individuals.[31]

The contrast of terms "Big C" and "Little c" has been widely used. Kozbelt, Beghetto and Runco use a
little-c/Big-C model to review major theories of creativity.[30] Margaret Boden distinguishes between
h-creativity (historical) and p-creativity (personal).[32]

Robinson[33] and Anna Craft[34] have focused on creativity in a general population, particularly with
respect to education. Craft makes a similar distinction between "high" and "little c" creativity.[34] and
cites Ken Robinson as referring to "high" and "democratic" creativity. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi[35] has
defined creativity in terms of those individuals judged to have made significant creative, perhaps
domain-changing contributions. Simonton has analysed the career trajectories of eminent creative
people in order to map patterns and predictors of creative productivity.[36]

Process theories
There has been much empirical study in psychology and cognitive science of the processes through
which creativity occurs. Interpretation of the results of these studies has led to several possible
explanations of the sources and methods of creativity.

Incubation

Incubation is a temporary break from creative problem solving that can result in insight.[37] There has
been some empirical research looking at whether, as the concept of "incubation" in Wallas' model
implies, a period of interruption or rest from a problem may aid creative problem-solving. Ward[38]
lists various hypotheses that have been advanced to explain why incubation may aid creative problem-
solving, and notes how some empirical evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that incubation aids
creative problem in that it enables "forgetting" of misleading clues. Absence of incubation may lead
the problem solver to become fixated on inappropriate strategies of solving the problem.[39] This work
disputes the earlier hypothesis that creative solutions to problems arise mysteriously from the
unconscious mind while the conscious mind is occupied on other tasks.[40] This earlier hypothesis is
discussed in Csikszentmihalyi's five-phase model of the creative process which describes incubation
as a time that your unconscious takes over. This allows for unique connections to be made without our
consciousness trying to make logical order out of the problem.[41]

Convergent and divergent thinking

J. P. Guilford[42] drew a distinction between convergent and divergent production (commonly

renamed convergent and divergent thinking). Convergent thinking involves aiming for a single,
correct solution to a problem, whereas divergent thinking involves creative generation of multiple

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answers to a set problem. Divergent thinking is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in
psychology literature. Other researchers have occasionally used the terms flexible thinking or fluid
intelligence, which are roughly similar to (but not synonymous with) creativity.[43]

Creative cognition approach

In 1992, Finke et al. proposed the "Geneplore" model, in which creativity takes place in two phases: a
generative phase, where an individual constructs mental representations called "preinventive"
structures, and an exploratory phase where those structures are used to come up with creative ideas.
Some evidence shows that when people use their imagination to develop new ideas, those ideas are
heavily structured in predictable ways by the properties of existing categories and concepts.[44]
Weisberg[45] argued, by contrast, that creativity only involves ordinary cognitive processes yielding
extraordinary results.

The Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory

Helie and Sun[46] more recently proposed a unified framework for understanding creativity in
problem solving, namely the Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory of creativity. This new theory
constitutes an attempt at providing a more unified explanation of relevant phenomena (in part by
reinterpreting/integrating various fragmentary existing theories of incubation and insight).

The EII theory relies mainly on five basic principles, namely:

1. The co-existence of and the difference between explicit and implicit knowledge;
2. The simultaneous involvement of implicit and explicit processes in most tasks;
3. The redundant representation of explicit and implicit knowledge;
4. The integration of the results of explicit and implicit processing;
5. The iterative (and possibly bidirectional) processing.

A computational implementation of the theory was developed based on the CLARION cognitive
architecture and used to simulate relevant human data. This work represents an initial step in the
development of process-based theories of creativity encompassing incubation, insight, and various
other related phenomena.

Conceptual blending

In The Act of Creation, Arthur Koestler introduced the concept of bisociation — that creativity arises
as a result of the intersection of two quite different frames of reference.[47] This idea was later
developed into conceptual blending. In the 1990s, various approaches in cognitive science that dealt
with metaphor, analogy, and structure mapping have been converging, and a new integrative
approach to the study of creativity in science, art and humor has emerged under the label conceptual
blending.

Honing theory

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Honing theory, developed principally by psychologist Liane Gabora, posits that creativity arises due to
the self-organizing, self-mending nature of a worldview. The creative process is a way in which the
individual hones (and re-hones) an integrated worldview. Honing theory places emphasis not only on
the externally visible creative outcome but also the internal cognitive restructuring and repair of the
worldview brought about by the creative process. When faced with a creatively demanding task, there
is an interaction between the conception of the task and the worldview. The conception of the task
changes through interaction with the worldview, and the worldview changes through interaction with
the task. This interaction is reiterated until the task is complete, at which point not only is the task
conceived of differently, but the worldview is subtly or drastically transformed as it follows the natural
tendency of a worldview to attempt to resolve dissonance and seek internal consistency amongst its
components, whether they be ideas, attitudes, or bits of knowledge.

A central feature of honing theory is the notion of a potentiality state.[48] Honing theory posits that
creative thought proceeds not by searching through and randomly ‘mutating’ predefined possibilities,
but by drawing upon associations that exist due to overlap in the distributed neural cell assemblies
that participate in the encoding of experiences in memory. Midway through the creative process one
may have made associations between the current task and previous experiences, but not yet
disambiguated which aspects of those previous experiences are relevant to the current task. Thus the
creative idea may feel ‘half-baked’. It is at that point that it can be said to be in a potentiality state,
because how it will actualize depends on the different internally or externally generated contexts it
interacts with.

Honing theory is held to explain certain phenomena not dealt with by other theories of creativity, for
example, how different works by the same creator are observed in studies to exhibit a recognizable
style or 'voice' even though in different creative outlets. This is not predicted by theories of creativity
that emphasize chance processes or the accumulation of expertise, but it is predicted by honing
theory, according to which personal style reflects the creator's uniquely structured worldview.
Another example is in the environmental stimulus for creativity. Creativity is commonly considered to
be fostered by a supportive, nurturing, trustworthy environment conducive to self-actualization.
However, research shows that creativity is also associated with childhood adversity, which would
stimulate honing.

Everyday imaginative thought

In everyday thought, people often spontaneously imagine alternatives to reality when they think "if
only...".[49] Their counterfactual thinking is viewed as an example of everyday creative processes.[50]
It has been proposed that the creation of counterfactual alternatives to reality depends on similar
cognitive processes to rational thought.[51]

Dialectical theory of creativity

The term "dialectical theory of creativity" dates back to psychoanalyst Daniel Dervin[52] and was later
developed into an interdisciplinary theory.[53] The dialectical theory of creativity starts with the
antique concept that creativity takes place in an interplay between order and chaos. Similar ideas can
be found in neurosciences and psychology. Neurobiologically it can be shown that the creative process
takes place in a dynamic interplay between coherence and incoherence that leads to new and usable
neuronal networks. Psychology shows how the dialectics of convergent and focused thinking with
divergent and associative thinking leads to new ideas and products.[54] Also creative personality traits
like the ‘Big Five’ seem to be dialectically intertwined in the creative process: emotional instability vs.

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stability, extraversion vs. introversion, openness vs. reserve, agreeableness vs. antagonism and
disinhibition vs. constraint.[55] The dialectical theory of creativity applies also to counseling and
psychotherapy.[56]

Neuroeconomic framework for creative cognition

Lin and Vartanian developed a framework that provides an integrative neurobiological description of
creative cognition.[57] This interdisciplinary framework integrates theoretical principles and empirical
results from neuroeconomics, reinforcement learning, cognitive neuroscience, and neurotransmission
research on the locus coeruleus system. It describes how decision-making processes studied by
neuroeconomists as well as activity in the locus coeruleus system underlie creative cognition and the
large-scale brain network dynamics associated with creativity.[58] It suggests that creativity is an
optimization and utility-maximization problem that requires individuals to determine the optimal
way to exploit and explore ideas (multi-armed bandit problem). This utility maximization process is
thought to be mediated by the locus coeruleus system[59] and this creativity framework describes how
tonic and phasic locus coerulues activity work in conjunction to facilitate the exploiting and exploring
of creative ideas. This framework not only explains previous empirical results but also makes novel
and falsifiable predictions at different levels of analysis (ranging from neurobiological to cognitive and
personality differences).

Personal assessment

Creativity quotient

There was a creativity quotient developed similar to the intelligence quotient (IQ). It makes use of the
results of divergent thinking tests (see below) by processing them further. It gives more weight to
ideas that are radically different from other ideas in the response.[60]

Psychometric approach

J. P. Guilford's group,[42] which pioneered the modern psychometric study of creativity, constructed
several tests to measure creativity in 1967:

Plot Titles, where participants are given the plot of a story and asked to write original titles.
Quick Responses is a word-association test scored for uncommonness.
Figure Concepts, where participants were given simple drawings of objects and individuals and
asked to find qualities or features that are common by two or more drawings; these were scored
for uncommonness.
Unusual Uses is finding unusual uses for common everyday objects such as bricks.
Remote Associations, where participants are asked to find a word between two given words (e.g.
Hand _____ Call)
Remote Consequences, where participants are asked to generate a list of consequences of
unexpected events (e.g. loss of gravity)

Originally, Guilford was trying to create a model for intellect as a whole, but in doing so also created a
model for creativity. Guilford made an important assumption for creative research: creativity is not
one abstract concept.  The idea that creativity is a category rather than one single concept opened up
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the ability for other researchers to look at creativity with a whole new perspective.[61][62]

Additionally, Guilford hypothesized one of the first models for the components of creativity.   He
explained that creativity was a result of having:

1. Sensitivity to problems, or the ability to recognize problems;

2. Fluency, which encompasses

a. Ideational fluency, or the ability rapidly to produce a variety of ideas that fulfill stated
requirements;
b. Associational fluency, or the ability to generate a list of words, each of which is associated
with a given word;                    
c. Expressional fluency, or the ability to organize words into larger units, such as phrases,
sentences, and paragraphs;

3. Flexibility, which encompasses                      

a. Spontaneous flexibility, or the ability to demonstrate flexibility;                          

b. Adaptive flexibility, or the ability to produce responses that are novel and high in quality.

This represents the base model by which several researchers would take and alter to produce their
new theories of creativity years later.[61] Building on Guilford's work, Torrance[63] developed the
Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking in 1966.[64] They involved simple tests of divergent thinking and
other problem-solving skills, which were scored on:

Fluency – The total number of interpretable, meaningful, and relevant ideas generated in
response to the stimulus.
Originality – The statistical rarity of the responses among the test subjects.
Elaboration – The amount of detail in the responses.

Such tests, sometimes called Divergent Thinking (DT) tests have been both supported[65] and
criticized.[66]

Considerable progress has been made in automated scoring of divergent thinking tests using semantic
approach. When compared to human raters, NLP techniques were shown to be reliable and valid in
scoring the originality.[67][68] The reported computer programs were able to achieve a correlation of
0.60 and 0.72 respectively to human graders.

Semantic networks were also used to devise originality scores that yielded significant correlations
with socio-personal measures.[69] Most recently, an NSF-funded[70] team of researchers led by James
C. Kaufman and Mark A. Runco[71] combined expertise in creativity research, natural language
processing, computational linguistics, and statistical data analysis to devise a scalable system for
computerized automated testing (SparcIt Creativity Index Testing system). This system enabled
automated scoring of DT tests that is reliable, objective, and scalable, thus addressing most of the
issues of DT tests that had been found and reported.[66] The resultant computer system was able to
achieve a correlation of 0.73 to human graders.[72]

Social-personality approach

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Some researchers have taken a social-personality approach to the measurement of creativity. In these
studies, personality traits such as independence of judgement, self-confidence, attraction to
complexity, aesthetic orientation, and risk-taking are used as measures of the creativity of
individuals.[29] A meta-analysis by Gregory Feist showed that creative people tend to be "more open
to new experiences, less conventional and less conscientious, more self-confident, self-accepting,
driven, ambitious, dominant, hostile, and impulsive." Openness, conscientiousness, self-acceptance,
hostility, and impulsivity had the strongest effects of the traits listed.[73] Within the framework of the
Big Five model of personality, some consistent traits have emerged.[74] Openness to experience has
been shown to be consistently related to a whole host of different assessments of creativity.[75] Among
the other Big Five traits, research has demonstrated subtle differences between different domains of
creativity. Compared to non-artists, artists tend to have higher levels of openness to experience and
lower levels of conscientiousness, while scientists are more open to experience, conscientious, and
higher in the confidence-dominance facets of extraversion compared to non-scientists.[73]

Self-report questionnaires

An alternative is using biographical methods. These methods use quantitative characteristics such as
the number of publications, patents, or performances of a work. While this method was originally
developed for highly creative personalities, today it is also available as self-report questionnaires
supplemented with frequent, less outstanding creative behaviors such as writing a short story or
creating your own recipes. For example, the Creative Achievement Questionnaire, a self-report test
that measures creative achievement across 10 domains, was described in 2005 and shown to be
reliable and valid when compared to other measures of creativity and to independent evaluation of
creative output.[76] Besides the English original, it was also used in a Chinese,[77] French,[78] and
German-speaking[79] version. It is the self-report questionnaire most frequently used in research.[77]

Intelligence
The potential relationship between creativity and intelligence has been of interest since the late
1900s, when a multitude of influential studies – from Getzels & Jackson,[80] Barron,[81] Wallach &
Kogan,[82] and Guilford[83] – focused not only on creativity, but also on intelligence. This joint focus
highlights both the theoretical and practical importance of the relationship: researchers are interested
not only if the constructs are related, but also how and why.[84]

There are multiple theories accounting for their relationship, with the 3 main theories as follows:

Threshold Theory – Intelligence is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for creativity. There is a
moderate positive relationship between creativity and intelligence until IQ ~120.[81][83]
Certification Theory – Creativity is not intrinsically related to intelligence. Instead, individuals are
required to meet the requisite level intelligence in order to gain a certain level of education/work,
which then in turn offers the opportunity to be creative. Displays of creativity are moderated by
intelligence.[85]
Interference Theory – Extremely high intelligence might interfere with creative ability.[86]

Sternberg and O’Hara[87] proposed a framework of 5 possible relationships between creativity and
intelligence:

1. Creativity is a subset of intelligence

2. Intelligence is a subset of creativity
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3. Creativity and intelligence are overlapping constructs

4. Creativity and intelligence are part of the same construct (coincident sets)
5. Creativity and intelligence are distinct constructs (disjoint sets)

Creativity as a subset of intelligence

A number of researchers include creativity, either explicitly or implicitly, as a key component of

intelligence.

Examples of theories that include creativity as a subset of intelligence

Sternberg's Theory of Successful intelligence[86][87][88] (see Triarchic theory of intelligence)

includes creativity as a main component, and comprises 3 sub-theories: Componential (Analytic),
Contextual (Practical), and Experiential (Creative). Experiential sub-theory – the ability to use pre-
existing knowledge and skills to solve new and novel problems – is directly related to creativity.
The Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory includes creativity as a subset of intelligence. Specifically, it is
associated with the broad group factor of long-term storage and retrieval (Glr). Glr narrow abilities
relating to creativity include:[89] ideational fluency, associational fluency, and originality/creativity.
Silvia et al.[90] conducted a study to look at the relationship between divergent thinking and verbal
fluency tests, and reported that both fluency and originality in divergent thinking were significantly
affected by the broad level Glr factor. Martindale[91] extended the CHC-theory in the sense that it
was proposed that those individuals who are creative are also selective in their processing speed.
Martindale argues that in the creative process, larger amounts of information are processed more
slowly in the early stages, and as the individual begins to understand the problem, the processing
speed is increased.
The Dual Process Theory of Intelligence[92] posits a two-factor/type model of intelligence. Type 1
is a conscious process, and concerns goal directed thoughts, which are explained by g. Type 2 is
an unconscious process, and concerns spontaneous cognition, which encompasses daydreaming
and implicit learning ability. Kaufman argues that creativity occurs as a result of Type 1 and Type 2
processes working together in combination. The use of each type in the creative process can be
used to varying degrees.

Intelligence as a subset of creativity

In this relationship model, intelligence is a key component in the development of creativity.

Theories of creativity that include intelligence as a subset of creativity

Sternberg & Lubart's Investment Theory.[93][94] Using the metaphor of a stock market, they
demonstrate that creative thinkers are like good investors – they buy low and sell high (in their
ideas). Like under/low-valued stock, creative individuals generate unique ideas that are initially
rejected by other people. The creative individual has to persevere, and convince the others of the
ideas value. After convincing the others, and thus increasing the ideas value, the creative
individual ‘sells high’ by leaving the idea with the other people, and moves onto generating
another idea. According to this theory, six distinct, but related elements contribute to successful
creativity: intelligence, knowledge, thinking styles, personality, motivation, and environment.
Intelligence is just one of the six factors that can either solely, or in conjunction with the other five
factors, generate creative thoughts.
Amabile's Componential Model of Creativity.[95][96] In this model, there are 3 within-individual
components needed for creativity – domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant processes, and task
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motivation – and 1 component external to the individual: their surrounding social environment.
Creativity requires a confluence of all components. High creativity will result when an individual is:
intrinsically motivated, possesses both a high level of domain-relevant skills and has high skills in
creative thinking, and is working in a highly creative environment.
Amusement Park Theoretical Model.[97] In this 4-step theory, both domain-specific and generalist
views are integrated into a model of creativity. The researchers make use of the metaphor of the
amusement park to demonstrate that within each of these creative levels, intelligence plays a key
role:
To get into the amusement park, there are initial requirements (e.g., time/transport to go to the
park). Initial requirements (like intelligence) are necessary, but not sufficient for creativity. They
are more like prerequisites for creativity, and if an individual does not possess the basic level
of the initial requirement (intelligence), then they will not be able to generate creative
thoughts/behaviour.
Secondly are the subcomponents – general thematic areas – that increase in specificity. Like
choosing which type of amusement park to visit (e.g. a zoo or a water park), these areas relate
to the areas in which someone could be creative (e.g. poetry).
Thirdly, there are specific domains. After choosing the type of park to visit e.g. waterpark, you
then have to choose which specific park to go to. Within the poetry domain, there are many
different types (e.g. free verse, riddles, sonnet, etc.) that have to be selected from.
Lastly, there are micro-domains. These are the specific tasks that reside within each domain
e.g. individual lines in a free verse poem / individual rides at the waterpark.

Creativity and intelligence as overlapping yet distinct constructs

This possible relationship concerns creativity and intelligence as distinct, but intersecting constructs.

Theories that include Creativity and Intelligence as Overlapping Yet Distinct Constructs

Renzulli's Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness.[98] In this conceptualisation, giftedness occurs as

a result from the overlap of above average intellectual ability, creativity, and task commitment.
Under this view, creativity and intelligence are distinct constructs, but they do overlap under the
correct conditions.
PASS theory of intelligence. In this theory, the planning component – relating to the ability to solve
problems, make decisions and take action – strongly overlaps with the concept of creativity.[99]
Threshold Theory (TT). A number of previous research findings have suggested that a threshold
exists in the relationship between creativity and intelligence – both constructs are moderately
positively correlated up to an IQ of ~120. Above this threshold of an IQ of 120, if there is a
relationship at all, it is small and weak.[80][81][100] TT posits that a moderate level of intelligence is
necessary for creativity.

In support of the TT, Barron[81][101] reported finding a non-significant correlation between creativity
and intelligence in a gifted sample; and a significant correlation in a non-gifted sample.
Yamamoto[102] in a sample of secondary school children, reported a significant correlation between
creativity and intelligence of r = .3, and reported no significant correlation when the sample consisted
of gifted children. Fuchs-Beauchamp et al.[103] in a sample of preschoolers found that creativity and
intelligence correlated from r = .19 to r = .49 in the group of children who had an IQ below the
threshold; and in the group above the threshold, the correlations were r = <.12. Cho et al.[104]

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reported a correlation of .40 between creativity and intelligence in the average IQ group of a sample of
adolescents and adults; and a correlation of close to r = .0 for the high IQ group. Jauk et al.[105] found
support for the TT, but only for measures of creative potential; not creative performance.

Much modern day research reports findings against TT. Wai et al.[106] in a study using data from the
longitudinal Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth – a cohort of elite students from early
adolescence into adulthood – found that differences in SAT scores at age 13 were predictive of creative
real-life outcomes 20 years later. Kim's[107] meta-analysis of 21 studies did not find any supporting
evidence for TT, and instead negligible correlations were reported between intelligence, creativity,
and divergent thinking both below and above IQ's of 120. Preckel et al.,[108] investigating fluid
intelligence and creativity, reported small correlations of r = .3 to r = .4 across all levels of cognitive
ability.

Creativity and intelligence as coincident sets

Under this view, researchers posit that there are no differences in the mechanisms underlying
creativity in those used in normal problem solving; and in normal problem solving, there is no need
for creativity. Thus, creativity and Intelligence (problem solving) are the same thing. Perkins[109]
referred to this as the ‘nothing-special’ view.

Weisberg & Alba[110] examined problem solving by having participants complete the nine dots puzzle
– where the participants are asked to connect all 9 dots in the 3 rows of 3 dots using 4 straight lines or
less, without lifting their pen or tracing the same line twice. The problem can only be solved if the
lines go outside the boundaries of the square of dots. Results demonstrated that even when
participants were given this insight, they still found it difficult to solve the problem, thus showing that
to successfully complete the task it is not just insight (or creativity) that is required.

Creativity and intelligence as disjoint sets

In this view, creativity and intelligence are completely different, unrelated constructs.

Getzels and Jackson[80] administered 5 creativity measures to a group of 449 children from grades 6-
12, and compared these test findings to results from previously administered (by the school) IQ tests.
They found that the correlation between the creativity measures and IQ was r = .26. The high
creativity group scored in the top 20% of the overall creativity measures, but were not included in the
top 20% of IQ scorers. The high intelligence group scored the opposite: they scored in the top 20% for
IQ, but were outside the top 20% scorers for creativity, thus showing that creativity and intelligence
are distinct and unrelated.

However, this work has been heavily criticised. Wallach and Kogan[82] highlighted that the creativity
measures were not only weakly related to one another (to the extent that they were no more related to
one another than they were with IQ), but they seemed to also draw upon non-creative skills.
McNemar[111] noted that there were major measurement issues, in that the IQ scores were a mixture
from 3 different IQ tests.

Wallach and Kogan[82] administered 5 measures of creativity, each of which resulted in a score for
originality and fluency; and 10 measures of general intelligence to 151 5th grade children. These tests
were untimed, and given in a game-like manner (aiming to facilitate creativity). Inter-correlations
between creativity tests were on average r = .41. Inter-correlations between intelligence measures
were on average r = .51 with each other. Creativity tests and intelligence measures correlated r = .09.
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Neuroscience
The neuroscience of creativity looks at the operation of the brain
during creative behaviour. It has been addressed[112] in the article
"Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms." The authors
write that "creative innovation might require coactivation and
communication between regions of the brain that ordinarily are
not strongly connected." Highly creative people who excel at
creative innovation tend to differ from others in three ways:
distributed functional brain network
associated with divergent thinking
they have a high level of specialized knowledge,
they are capable of divergent thinking mediated by the frontal
lobe.
and they are able to modulate neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine in their frontal lobe.

Thus, the frontal lobe appears to be the part of the cortex that is most important for creativity.

This article also explored the links between creativity and sleep, mood and addiction disorders, and
depression.

In 2005, Alice Flaherty presented a three-factor model of the creative drive. Drawing from evidence in
brain imaging, drug studies and lesion analysis, she described the creative drive as resulting from an
interaction of the frontal lobes, the temporal lobes, and dopamine from the limbic system. The frontal
lobes can be seen as responsible for idea generation, and the temporal lobes for idea editing and
evaluation. Abnormalities in the frontal lobe (such as depression or anxiety) generally decrease
creativity, while abnormalities in the temporal lobe often increase creativity. High activity in the
temporal lobe typically inhibits activity in the frontal lobe, and vice versa. High dopamine levels
increase general arousal and goal directed behaviors and reduce latent inhibition, and all three effects
increase the drive to generate ideas.[113] A 2015 study on creativity found that it involves the
interaction of multiple neural networks, including those that support associative thinking, along with
other default mode network functions.[114]

Similarly, in 2018, Lin and Vartanian proposed a neuroeconomic framework that precisely describes
norepinephrine's role in creativity and modulating large-scale brain networks associated with
creativity.[57] This framework describes how neural activity in different brain regions and networks
like the default mode network are tracking utility or subjective value of ideas.

In 2018, experiments showed that when the brain suppresses obvious or 'known' solutions, the
outcome is solutions that are more creative. This suppression is mediated by alpha oscillations in the
right temporal lobe.[115]

Working memory and the cerebellum

Vandervert[116] described how the brain's frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum
collaborate to produce creativity and innovation. Vandervert's explanation rests on considerable
evidence that all processes of working memory (responsible for processing all thought[117]) are
adaptively modeled for increased efficiency by the cerebellum.[118] The cerebellum (consisting of 100
billion neurons, which is more than the entirety of the rest of the brain[119]) is also widely known to
adaptively model all bodily movement for efficiency. The cerebellum's adaptive models of working

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memory processing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe working memory control processes[120]
where creative and innovative thoughts arise.[121] (Apparently, creative insight or the "aha"
experience is then triggered in the temporal lobe.[122])

According to Vandervert, the details of creative adaptation begin in "forward" cerebellar models
which are anticipatory/exploratory controls for movement and thought. These cerebellar processing
and control architectures have been termed Hierarchical Modular Selection and Identification for
Control (HMOSAIC).[123] New, hierarchically arranged levels of the cerebellar control architecture
(HMOSAIC) develop as mental mulling in working memory is extended over time. These new levels of
the control architecture are fed forward to the frontal lobes. Since the cerebellum adaptively models
all movement and all levels of thought and emotion,[124] Vandervert's approach helps explain
creativity and innovation in sports, art, music, the design of video games, technology, mathematics,
the child prodigy, and thought in general.

Essentially, Vandervert has argued that when a person is confronted with a challenging new situation,
visual-spatial working memory and speech-related working memory are decomposed and re-
composed (fractionated) by the cerebellum and then blended in the cerebral cortex in an attempt to
deal with the new situation. With repeated attempts to deal with challenging situations, the cerebro-
cerebellar blending process continues to optimize the efficiency of how working memory deals with
the situation or problem.[125] Most recently, he has argued that this is the same process (only
involving visual-spatial working memory and pre-language vocalization) that led to the evolution of
language in humans.[126] Vandervert and Vandervert-Weathers have pointed out that this blending
process, because it continuously optimizes efficiencies, constantly improves prototyping attempts
toward the invention or innovation of new ideas, music, art, or technology.[127] Prototyping, they
argue, not only produces new products, it trains the cerebro-cerebellar pathways involved to become
more efficient at prototyping itself. Further, Vandervert and Vandervert-Weathers believe that this
repetitive "mental prototyping" or mental rehearsal involving the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex
explains the success of the self-driven, individualized patterning of repetitions initiated by the
teaching methods of the Khan Academy. The model proposed by Vandervert has, however, received
incisive critique from several authors.[128][129]

REM sleep

Creativity involves the forming of associative elements into new combinations that are useful or meet
some requirement. Sleep aids this process.[130] REM rather than NREM sleep appears to be
responsible.[131][132] This has been suggested to be due to changes in cholinergic and noradrenergic
neuromodulation that occurs during REM sleep.[131] During this period of sleep, high levels of
acetylcholine in the hippocampus suppress feedback from the hippocampus to the neocortex, and
lower levels of acetylcholine and norepinephrine in the neocortex encourage the spread of
associational activity within neocortical areas without control from the hippocampus.[133] This is in
contrast to waking consciousness, where higher levels of norepinephrine and acetylcholine inhibit
recurrent connections in the neocortex. It is proposed that REM sleep adds creativity by allowing
"neocortical structures to reorganize associative hierarchies, in which information from the
hippocampus would be reinterpreted in relation to previous semantic representations or nodes."[131]

Affect

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Some theories suggest that creativity may be particularly susceptible to affective influence. As noted
in voting behavior, the term "affect" in this context can refer to liking or disliking key aspects of the
subject in question. This work largely follows from findings in psychology regarding the ways in which
affective states are involved in human judgment and decision-making.[134]

Positive affect relations

According to Alice Isen, positive affect has three primary effects on cognitive activity:

1. Positive affect makes additional cognitive material available for processing, increasing the number
of cognitive elements available for association;
2. Positive affect leads to defocused attention and a more complex cognitive context, increasing the
breadth of those elements that are treated as relevant to the problem;
3. Positive affect increases cognitive flexibility, increasing the probability that diverse cognitive
elements will in fact become associated. Together, these processes lead positive affect to have a
positive influence on creativity.

Barbara Fredrickson in her broaden-and-build model suggests that positive emotions such as joy and
love broaden a person's available repertoire of cognitions and actions, thus enhancing creativity.

According to these researchers, positive emotions increase the number of cognitive elements available
for association (attention scope) and the number of elements that are relevant to the problem
(cognitive scope). Day-by-day psychological experiences including emotions, perceptions, and
motivation will significantly impacts creative performance. Creativity is higher when emotions and
perceptions are more positive and when intrinsic motivation is stronger.[135]

Various meta-analyses, such as Baas et al. (2008) of 66 studies about creativity and affect support the
link between creativity and positive affect.[136][137]

Computational creativity
Jürgen Schmidhuber's formal theory of creativity[138][139] postulates that creativity, curiosity, and
interestingness are by-products of a simple computational principle for measuring and optimizing
learning progress. Consider an agent able to manipulate its environment and thus its own sensory
inputs. The agent can use a black box optimization method such as reinforcement learning to learn
(through informed trial and error) sequences of actions that maximize the expected sum of its future
reward signals. There are extrinsic reward signals for achieving externally given goals, such as finding
food when hungry. But Schmidhuber's objective function to be maximized also includes an additional,
intrinsic term to model "wow-effects." This non-standard term motivates purely creative behavior of
the agent even when there are no external goals. A wow-effect is formally defined as follows. As the
agent is creating and predicting and encoding the continually growing history of actions and sensory
inputs, it keeps improving the predictor or encoder, which can be implemented as an artificial neural
network or some other machine learning device that can exploit regularities in the data to improve its
performance over time. The improvements can be measured precisely, by computing the difference in
computational costs (storage size, number of required synapses, errors, time) needed to encode new
observations before and after learning. This difference depends on the encoder's present subjective
knowledge, which changes over time, but the theory formally takes this into account. The cost
difference measures the strength of the present "wow-effect" due to sudden improvements in data
compression or computational speed. It becomes an intrinsic reward signal for the action selector.
The objective function thus motivates the action optimizer to create action sequences causing more
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wow-effects. Irregular, random data (or noise) do not permit any wow-effects or learning progress,
and thus are "boring" by nature (providing no reward). Already known and predictable regularities
also are boring. Temporarily interesting are only the initially unknown, novel, regular patterns in both
actions and observations. This motivates the agent to perform continual, open-ended, active, creative
exploration. Schmidhuber's work is highly influential in intrinsic motivation which has emerged as a
research topic in its own right as part of the study of artificial intelligence and robotics.

According to Schmidhuber, his objective function explains the activities of scientists, artists, and
comedians.[140][141]
For example, physicists are motivated to create experiments leading to
observations obeying previously unpublished physical laws permitting better data compression.
Likewise, composers receive intrinsic reward for creating non-arbitrary melodies with unexpected but
regular harmonies that permit wow-effects through data compression improvements.
Similarly, a
comedian gets intrinsic reward for "inventing a novel joke with an unexpected punch line, related to
the beginning of the story in an initially unexpected but quickly learnable way that also allows for
better compression of the perceived data."[142]
Schmidhuber argues that ongoing computer hardware
advances will greatly scale up rudimentary artificial scientists and artists based on simple
implementations of the basic principle since 1990.[143]
He used the theory to create low-complexity
art[144] and an attractive human face.[145]

Creativity and mental health

A study by psychologist J. Philippe Rushton found creativity to correlate with intelligence and
psychoticism.[146] Another study found creativity to be greater in schizotypal than in either normal or
schizophrenic individuals. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the
prefrontal cortex, schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their right
prefrontal cortex.[147] This study hypothesizes that such individuals are better at accessing both
hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. In agreement with this
hypothesis, ambidexterity is also associated with schizotypal and schizophrenic individuals. Three
recent studies by Mark Batey and Adrian Furnham have demonstrated the relationships between
schizotypal[148][149] and hypomanic personality[150] and several different measures of creativity.

Particularly strong links have been identified between creativity and mood disorders, particularly
manic-depressive disorder (a.k.a. bipolar disorder) and depressive disorder (a.k.a. unipolar disorder).
In Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament, Kay Redfield
Jamison summarizes studies of mood-disorder rates in writers, poets, and artists. She also explores
research that identifies mood disorders in such famous writers and artists as Ernest Hemingway (who
shot himself after electroconvulsive treatment), Virginia Woolf (who drowned herself when she felt a
depressive episode coming on), composer Robert Schumann (who died in a mental institution), and
even the famed visual artist Michelangelo.

A study looking at 300,000 persons with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or unipolar depression, and
their relatives, found overrepresentation in creative professions for those with bipolar disorder as well
as for undiagnosed siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There was no overall
overrepresentation, but overrepresentation for artistic occupations, among those diagnosed with
schizophrenia. There was no association for those with unipolar depression or their relatives.[151]

Another study involving more than one million people, conducted by Swedish researchers at the
Karolinska Institute, reported a number of correlations between creative occupations and mental
illnesses. Writers had a higher risk of anxiety and bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, unipolar
depression, and substance abuse, and were almost twice as likely as the general population to kill
themselves. Dancers and photographers were also more likely to have bipolar disorder.[152]
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As a group, those in the creative professions were no more likely to have psychiatric disorders than
other people, although they were more likely to have a close relative with a disorder, including
anorexia and, to some extent, autism, the Journal of Psychiatric Research reports.[152]

According to psychologist Robert Epstein, PhD, creativity can be obstructed through stress.[153]

Conversely, research has shown that creative activities such as art therapy, poetry writing, journaling,
and reminiscence can promote mental well-being.[154]

Bipolar Disorders and Creativity

Nancy Andreasen was one of the first known researchers to carry out a large scale study revolving
around creativity and whether mental illnesses have an impact on someone's ability to be creative.
Originally she had expected to find a link between creativity and schizophrenia but her research
sample had no real history of schizophrenia from the book authors she pooled. Her findings instead
showed that 80% of the creative group had previously had some form of mental illness episode in
their lifetime.[155] When she performed follow up studies over a 15-year period, she found that 43% of
the authors had bipolar disorder compared to the 1% of the general public that has the disease. In
1989 there was another study done by Kay Redfield Jamison that reaffirmed those statistics by having
38% of her sample of authors having a history of mood disorders.[156] Anthony Storr who is a
prominent psychiatrist remarked that, “The creative process can be a way of protecting the individual
against being overwhelmed by depression, a means of regaining a sense of mastery in those who have
lost it, and, to a varying extent, a way of repairing the self-damaged by bereavement or by the loss of
confidence in human relationships which accompanies depression from whatever cause.”[155]

According to a study done by Shapiro and Weisberg, there appears to be a positive correlation
between the manic upswings of the cycles of bipolar disorder and the ability for an individual to be
more creative.[157] The data that they had collected and analyzed through multiple tests showed that it
was in fact not the depressive swing that many believe to bring forth dark creative spurts, but the act
of climbing out of the depressive episode that sparked creativity. The reason behind this spur of
creative genius could come from the type of self-image that the person has during a time of
hypomania. A hypomanic person may be feeling a bolstered sense of self-confidence, creative
confidence, and sense of individualism.[157]

In reports from people who were diagnosed with bipolar disorder they noted themselves as having a
larger range of emotional understanding, heightened states of perception, and an ability to connect
better with those in the world around them.[158] Other reported traits include higher rates of
productivity, higher senses of self-awareness, and a greater understanding of empathy. Those who
have bipolar disorder also understand their own sense of heightened creativity and ability to get
immense amounts of tasks done all at once. McCraw, Parker, Fletcher, & Friend, (2013) report that
out of 219 participants (aged 19 to 63) that have been diagnosed bipolar disorder 82% of them
reported having elevated feelings of creativity during the hypomanic swings.[159]

Giannouli believes that the creativity a person diagnosed with bipolar disorder feels comes as a form
of “stress management”.[160] In the realm of music, one might be expressing their stress or pains
through the pieces they write in order to better understand those same feelings. Famous authors and
musicians along with some actors would often attribute their wild enthusiasm to something like a
hypomanic state.[161] The artistic side of society has also been notorious for behaviors that are seen as
maladapted to societal norms. Side effects that come with bipolar disorder match up with many of the
behaviors that we see in high-profile creative personalities; these include, but are not limited to,

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alcohol addiction, drug abuse including stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens and dissociatives,
opioids, inhalants, and cannabis, difficulties in holding regular occupations, interpersonal problems,
legal issues, and a high risk of suicide.[161]

Weisberg believes that the state of mania sets “free the powers of a thinker”. What he implies here is
that not only has the person become more creative they have fundamentally changed the kind of
thoughts they produce.[162] In a study done of poets, who seem to have especially high percentages of
bipolar authors, it was found that over a period of 3 years those poets would have cycles of really
creative and powerful works of poetry. The timelines over the three-year study looked at the poet's
personal journals and their clinical records and found that the timelines between their most powerful
poems matched that of their upswings in bipolar disorder.[162]

Personality
Creativity can be expressed in a number of different forms, depending on unique people and
environments. A number of different theorists have suggested models of the creative person. One
model suggests that there are four "Creativity Profiles" that can help produce growth, innovation,
speed, etc.[163]

(i) Incubate (Long-term Development)

(ii) Imagine (Breakthrough Ideas)
(iii) Improve (Incremental Adjustments)
(iv) Invest (Short-term Goals)

Research by Dr Mark Batey of the Psychometrics at Work Research Group at Manchester Business
School has suggested that the creative profile can be explained by four primary creativity traits with
narrow facets within each

(i) "Idea Generation" (Fluency, Originality, Incubation and Illumination)

(ii) "Personality" (Curiosity and Tolerance for Ambiguity)
(iii) "Motivation" (Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Achievement)
(iv) "Confidence" (Producing, Sharing and Implementing)

This model was developed in a sample of 1000 working adults using the statistical techniques of
Exploratory Factor Analysis followed by Confirmatory Factor Analysis by Structural Equation
Modelling.[164]

An important aspect of the creativity profiling approach is to account for the tension between
predicting the creative profile of an individual, as characterised by the psychometric approach, and
the evidence that team creativity is founded on diversity and difference.[165]

One characteristic of creative people, as measured by some psychologists, is what is called divergent
production. Divergent production is the ability of a person to generate a diverse assortment, yet an
appropriate amount of responses to a given situation.[166] One way of measuring divergent
production is by administering the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.[167] The Torrance Tests of
Creative Thinking assesses the diversity, quantity, and appropriateness of participants responses to a
variety of open-ended questions.

Other researchers of creativity see the difference in creative people as a cognitive process of
dedication to problem solving and developing expertise in the field of their creative expression. Hard
working people study the work of people before them and within their current area, become experts in
their fields, and then have the ability to add to and build upon previous information in innovative and
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creative ways. In a study of projects by design students, students who had more knowledge on their
subject on average had greater creativity within their projects.[168] Other researchers emphasize how
creative people are better are balancing between divergent and convergent production, which depends
on an individual's innate preference or ability to explore and exploit ideas.[57]

The aspect of motivation within a person's personality may predict creativity levels in the person.
Motivation stems from two different sources, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation
is an internal drive within a person to participate or invest as a result of personal interest, desires,
hopes, goals, etc. Extrinsic motivation is a drive from outside of a person and might take the form of
payment, rewards, fame, approval from others, etc. Although extrinsic motivation and intrinsic
motivation can both increase creativity in certain cases, strictly extrinsic motivation often impedes
creativity in people.[169]

From a personality-traits perspective, there are a number of traits that are associated with creativity
in people.[170] Creative people tend to be more open to new experiences, are more self-confident, are
more ambitious, self-accepting, impulsive, driven, dominant, and hostile, compared to people with
less creativity.

From an evolutionary perspective, creativity may be a result of the outcome of years of generating
ideas. As ideas are continuously generated, the need to evolve produces a need for new ideas and
developments. As a result, people have been creating and developing new, innovative, and creative
ideas to build our progress as a society.[171]

In studying exceptionally creative people in history, some common traits in lifestyle and environment
are often found. Creative people in history usually had supportive parents, but rigid and non-
nurturing. Most had an interest in their field at an early age, and most had a highly supportive and
skilled mentor in their field of interest. Often the field they chose was relatively uncharted, allowing
for their creativity to be expressed more in a field with less previous information. Most exceptionally
creative people devoted almost all of their time and energy into their craft, and after about a decade
had a creative breakthrough of fame. Their lives were marked with extreme dedication and a cycle of
hard-work and breakthroughs as a result of their determination.[172]

Another theory of creative people is the investment theory of creativity. This approach suggest that
there are many individual and environmental factors that must exist in precise ways for extremely
high levels of creativity opposed to average levels of creativity. In the investment sense, a person with
their particular characteristics in their particular environment may see an opportunity to devote their
time and energy into something that has been overlooked by others. The creative person develops an
undervalued or under-recognised idea to the point that it is established as a new and creative idea.
Just like in the financial world, some investments are worth the buy in, while others are less
productive and do not build to the extent that the investor expected. This investment theory of
creativity views creativity in a unique perspective compared to others, by asserting that creativity
might rely to some extent on the right investment of effort being added to a field at the right time in
the right way.[173]

Malevolent creativity
So called malevolent creativity is associated with the "dark side" of creativity.[174] This type of
creativity is not typically accepted within society and is defined by the intention to cause harm to
others through original and innovative means. Malevolent creativity should be distinguished from

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negative creativity in that negative creativity may unintentionally cause harm to others, whereas
malevolent creativity is explicitly malevolently motivated. While it is often associated with criminal
behaviour, it can also be observed in ordinary day-to-day life as lying, cheating and betrayal.[175]

Crime

Malevolent creativity is often a key contributor to crime and in its most destructive form can even
manifest as terrorism. As creativity requires deviating from the conventional, there is a permanent
tension between being creative and producing products that go too far and in some cases to the point
of breaking the law. Aggression is a key predictor of malevolent creativity, and studies have also
shown that increased levels of aggression also correlates to a higher likelihood of committing
crime.[176]

Predictive factors

Although everyone shows some levels of malevolent creativity under certain conditions, those that
have a higher propensity towards it have increased tendencies to deceive and manipulate others to
their own gain. While malevolent creativity appears to dramatically increase when an individual is
placed under unfair conditions, personality, particularly aggressiveness, is also a key predictor in
anticipating levels of malevolent thinking. Researchers Harris and Reiter-Palmon investigated the
role of aggression in levels of malevolent creativity, in particular levels of implicit aggression and the
tendency to employ aggressive actions in response to problem solving. The personality traits of
physical aggression, conscientiousness, emotional intelligence and implicit aggression all seem to be
related with malevolent creativity.[174] Harris and Reiter-Palmon's research showed that when
subjects were presented with a problem that triggered malevolent creativity, participants high in
implicit aggression and low in premeditation expressed the largest number of malevolently-themed
solutions. When presented with the more benign problem that triggered prosocial motives of helping
others and cooperating, those high in implicit aggression, even if they were high in impulsiveness,
were far less destructive in their imagined solutions. They concluded premeditation, more than
implicit aggression controlled an individual's expression of malevolent creativity.[177]

The current measure for malevolent creativity is the 13-item test Malevolent Creativity Behaviour
Scale (MCBS) [175]

Cultural differences in creativity

Creativity is viewed differently in different countries.[178] For example, cross-cultural research centred
on Hong Kong found that Westerners view creativity more in terms of the individual attributes of a
creative person, such as their aesthetic taste, while Chinese people view creativity more in terms of the
social influence of creative people e.g. what they can contribute to society.[179] Mpofu et al. surveyed
28 African languages and found that 27 had no word which directly translated to 'creativity' (the
exception being Arabic).[180] The principle of linguistic relativity, i.e. that language can affect thought,
suggests that the lack of an equivalent word for 'creativity' may affect the views of creativity among
speakers of such languages. However, more research would be needed to establish this, and there is
certainly no suggestion that this linguistic difference makes people any less (or more) creative; Africa
has a rich heritage of creative pursuits such as music, art, and storytelling. Nevertheless, it is true that
there has been very little research on creativity in Africa,[181] and there has also been very little
research on creativity in Latin America.[182] Creativity has been more thoroughly researched in the

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northern hemisphere, but here again there are cultural differences, even between countries or groups
of countries in close proximity. For example, in Scandinavian countries, creativity is seen as an
individual attitude which helps in coping with life's challenges,[183] while in Germany, creativity is
seen more as a process that can be applied to help solve problems.[184]

Organizational creativity
It has been the topic of various research studies to establish that
organizational effectiveness depends on the creativity of the
workforce to a large extent. For any given organization, measures
of effectiveness vary, depending upon its mission, environmental
context, nature of work, the product or service it produces, and
customer demands. Thus, the first step in evaluating
organizational effectiveness is to understand the organization
itself — how it functions, how it is structured, and what it
emphasizes. Training meeting in an eco-design
stainless steel company in Brazil.
Amabile[185] argued that to enhance creativity in business, three The leaders among other things
components were needed: wish to cheer and encourage the
workers in order to achieve a higher
Expertise (technical, procedural and intellectual knowledge), level of creativity.
Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imaginatively people
approach problems),
and Motivation (especially intrinsic motivation).

There are two types of motivation:

extrinsic motivation – external factors, for example threats of being fired or money as a reward,
intrinsic motivation – comes from inside an individual, satisfaction, enjoyment of work, etc.

Six managerial practices to encourage motivation are:

Challenge – matching people with the right assignments;

Freedom – giving people autonomy choosing means to achieve goals;
Resources – such as time, money, space, etc. There must be balance fit among resources and
people;
Work group features – diverse, supportive teams, where members share the excitement,
willingness to help, and recognize each other's talents;
Supervisory encouragement – recognitions, cheering, praising;
Organizational support – value emphasis, information sharing, collaboration.

Nonaka, who examined several successful Japanese companies, similarly saw creativity and
knowledge creation as being important to the success of organizations.[186] In particular, he
emphasized the role that tacit knowledge has to play in the creative process.

In business, originality is not enough. The idea must also be appropriate—useful and
actionable.[187][188] Creative competitive intelligence is a new solution to solve this problem.
According to Reijo Siltala it links creativity to innovation process and competitive intelligence to
creative workers.

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Creativity can be encouraged in people and professionals and in the workplace. It is essential for
innovation, and is a factor affecting economic growth and businesses. In 2013, the sociologist Silvia
Leal Martín, using the Innova 3DX method, suggested measuring the various parameters that
encourage creativity and innovation: corporate culture, work environment, leadership and
management, creativity, self-esteem and optimism, locus of control and learning orientation,
motivation, and fear.[189]

Similarly, social psychologists, organizational scientists, and management scientists (who conduct
extensive research on the factors that influence creativity and innovation in teams and organizations)
have developed integrative theoretical models that emphasize the roles of team composition, team
processes, and organizational culture. These theoretical models also emphasize the mutually
reinforcing relationships between them in promoting innovation.[190][191][192][193]

The investigation by Sai Loo, an academic and author of research monographs, [194] on creative
working in the knowledge economy brings together studies of creativity as descibed in this web page.
It offers connections with the sections on the ‘”Four C” model’, ‘Theories of creative processes’,
‘Creativity as a subset of intelligence’, ‘Creativity and personality’, and ‘In organisations’. It is the last
section that the investigation addresses.

Research studies of the knowledge economy may be classified into three levels: macro, meso and
micro. Macro studies refer to investigations at a societal or transnational dimension. Meso studies
focus on organisations. Micro investigations centre on the minutiae workings of workers. There is also
an interdisciplinary dimension such as research from businesses,[195][196] economics,[197][198][199]
education,[200][201] human resource management,[202] knowledge and organizational
management,[203][204][205] sociology, psychology, and knowledge economy-related sectors –
especially information technology (IT) software[206][207] and advertising.[208][209]

Loo studies how individual workers in the knowledge economy use their creativity and know-how in
the advertising and IT software sectors. It examines this phenomenon across three developed
countries of England, Japan, and Singapore to observe global perspectives. Specifically, the study uses
qualitative data from semi-structured interviews of the related professionals in the roles of creative
directing and copywriting (in advertising), and systems software developing and software programme
managing.[194]

The study[194] offers a conceptual framework of a two-dimensional matrix of individual and

collaborative working styles, and single and multi-contexts. The investigation draws on literature
sources from the four disciplines of economics,[210][211] management,[212][213][214]
sociology,[215][216][217][218][219] and psychology.[220][221] The themes arising from the analysis of
knowledge work and creativity literature serve to create a distinct theoretical framework of creative
knowledge work. These workers apply their cognitive abilities, creative personalities and skill sets in
the areas of science, technology, or culture industries to invent or discover new possibilities – e.g. a
medium, product or service. These work activities may be done individually or collectively. Education,
training and ‘encultured environments’ are necessary for the performance of these creative activities.
Acts of creativity are viewed as asking new questions over and above those questions asked by an
intelligent person, seeking novelty when reviewing a situation,[222] and creating something that is
different and novel, i.e. a ‘variation’ on the idea of existing ideas in a domain.[223] This framework is
evidenced by the empirical chapters on the micro-workings of creative workers in the two knowledge
economy sectors from global perspectives.

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This investigation identifies a definition of creative work, three types of work and the necessary
conditions for it to occur. These workers use a combination of creative applications including
anticipatory imagination, problem-solving, problem seeking, and generating ideas and aesthetic
sensibilities. Taking aesthetic sensibilities as an example, for a creative director in the advertising
industry, it is a visual imagery whether still or moving via a camera lens, and for a software
programmer, it is the innovative technical expertise in which the software is written. There are
specific creative applications for each of the sectors such as emotional connection in the advertising
sector, and the power of expression and sensitivity in the IT software sector. In addition to the
creative applications, creative workers require abilities and aptitudes to carry out their roles. Passion
for one's job is generic. For copywriters, this passion is identified with fun, enjoyment and happiness
alongside attributes such as honesty (regarding the product), confidence, and patience in finding the
appropriate copy. Knowledge is also required in the disciplines of the humanities (e.g. literature), the
creative arts (e.g. painting and music) and technical-related know-how (e.g. mathematics, computer
sciences and physical sciences). In the IT software, technical knowledge of computer languages (e.g.
C++) is especially significant for programmers whereas the degree of technical expertise may be less
for a programme manager, as only knowledge of the relevant language is necessary to understand the
issues for communicating with the team of developers and testers.

There are three types of work. One is intra-sectoral (e.g. ‘general sponge’ and ’in tune with the
zeitgeist’ [advertising], and ‘power of expression’ and ‘sensitivity’ [IT software]). The second is inter-
sectoral (e.g. ‘integration of advertising activities’ [advertising], and ‘autonomous decentralized
systems’ [ADS] [IT software]). The third relates to changes in culture/practices in the sectors (e.g.
‘three-dimensional trust’ and ‘green credentials’ [advertising], and ‘collaboration with HEIs and
industry’ and ‘ADS system in the Tokyo train operator’ [IT software]).

The necessary conditions for creative work to exist are a supportive environment such as supportive
information, communications and electronic technologies (ICET) infrastructure, training, work
environment and education.

This investigation has implications for lifelong learning of these workers informally and formally.
Teaching institutions need to offer multi-disciplinary knowledge of humanities, arts and sciences and
it has impacts on the programme structure, delivery approaches and assessments. At a macro level,
governments need to offer a rich diet of cultural activities, outdoor activities and sports fixtures that
inform potential creative workers in the areas of video gaming and advertising. This study has
implications for work organisations that support and encourage collaborative working alongside
individual working, offer opportunities to engage in continuous professional development (formally
and informally), and foster an environment, which promotes experiential functioning and supports
experimentation.

Team composition

Diversity between team members’ backgrounds and knowledge can increase team creativity by
expanding the total collection of unique information that is available to the team and by introducing
different perspectives that can integrate in novel ways. However, under some conditions, diversity can
also decrease team creativity by making it more difficult for team members to communicate about
ideas and causing interpersonal conflicts between those with different perspectives.[224] Thus, the
potential advantages of diversity must be supported by appropriate team processes and organizational
cultures in order to enhance creativity.[190][191][192][193][225][226] Recent study by An Zeng et al[227]
found that studies of fresh research teams is associated with higher creativity or originality.

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Team processes

Team communication norms, such as respecting others’ expertise, paying attention to others’ ideas,
expecting information sharing, tolerating disagreements, negotiating, remaining open to others’
ideas, learning from others, and building on each other's ideas, increase team creativity by facilitating
the social processes involved with brainstorming and problem solving. Through these processes, team
members are able to access their collective pool of knowledge, reach shared understandings, identify
new ways of understanding problems or tasks, and make new connections between ideas. Engaging in
these social processes also promotes positive team affect, which facilitates collective
creativity.[190][192][193][225]

Organizational culture

Supportive and motivational environments that create psychological safety by encouraging risk taking
and tolerating mistakes increase team creativity as well.[190][191][192][193] Organizations in which help-
seeking, help giving, and collaboration are rewarded promote innovation by providing opportunities
and contexts in which team processes that lead to collective creativity can occur.[228] Additionally,
leadership styles that downplay status hierarchies or power differences within an organization and
empower people to speak up about their ideas or opinions also help to create cultures that are
conducive to creativity.[190][191][192][193]

Constraints

There is a long-standing debate on how material constraints (e.g., lack of money, materials, or
equipment) affect creativity. In psychological and managerial research, two competing views in this
regard prevail. In one view, many scholars propose a negative effect of material constraints on
innovation and claim that material constraints starve creativity.[229] The proponents of this view
argue that adequate material resources are needed to engage in creative activities like experimenting
with new solutions and idea exploration.[229] In an opposing view, scholars assert that people tend to
stick to established routines or solutions as long as they are not forced to deviate from them by
constraints.[230][231][232] In this sense, Neren posits that scarcity is an important driver of
creativity.[233] Consistently, Gibbert and Scranton demonstrated how material constraints facilitated
the development of jet engines in World War II.[234]

To reconcile these competing views, contingency models were proposed.[235][236][237] The rationale
behind these models is that certain contingency factors (e.g., creativity climate or creativity relevant
skills) influence the relationship between constraints and creativity.[235] These contingency factors
reflect the need for higher levels of motivation and skills when working on creative tasks under
constraints.[235] Depending on these contingency factors, there is either a positive or negative
relationship between constraints and creativity.[235][236]

The sociology of creativity

Creativity research for most of the twentieth century was dominated by psychology and business
studies, with little work done in sociology as a discipline. While since the turn of the millennium,
there has been more attention paid by sociological researchers,[238][239] it has yet to establish itself as
a specific research field, with reviews of sociological research into creativity a rarity in high impact
literature.[240]
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While psychology has tended to focus on the individual as the locus of creativity, sociological research
is directed more at the structures and context within which creative activity takes place, primarily
based in the more long-standing field of the sociology of culture, which finds its roots in the works of
Marx, Durkheim, and Weber. This has meant a particular focus on the cultural and creative industries
as sociological phenomena. Such research has covered a variety of areas, including the economics and
production of culture, the role of creative industries in development, and the rise of the "creative
class".[241]

Economic views
Economic approaches to creativity have focussed on three aspects — the impact of creativity on
economic growth, methods of modelling markets for creativity, and the maximisation of economic
creativity (innovation).

In the early 20th century, Joseph Schumpeter introduced the economic theory of creative
destruction, to describe the way in which old ways of doing things are endogenously destroyed and
replaced by the new. Some economists (such as Paul Romer) view creativity as an important element
in the recombination of elements to produce new technologies and products and, consequently,
economic growth. Creativity leads to capital, and creative products are protected by intellectual
property laws.

Mark A. Runco and Daniel Rubenson have tried to describe a "psychoeconomic" model of
creativity.[242] In such a model, creativity is the product of endowments and active investments in
creativity; the costs and benefits of bringing creative activity to market determine the supply of
creativity. Such an approach has been criticised for its view of creativity consumption as always
having positive utility, and for the way it analyses the value of future innovations.[243]

The creative class is seen by some to be an important driver of modern economies. In his 2002 book,
The Rise of the Creative Class, economist Richard Florida popularized the notion that regions with "3
T's of economic development: Technology, Talent and Tolerance" also have high concentrations of
creative professionals and tend to have a higher level of economic development.

Fostering creativity
Several different researchers have proposed methods of increasing the creativity of an individual.
Such ideas range from the psychological-cognitive, such as Osborn-Parnes Creative Problem Solving
Process, Synectics, science-based creative thinking, Purdue Creative Thinking Program, and Edward
de Bono's lateral thinking; to the highly structured, such as TRIZ (the Theory of Inventive Problem-
Solving) and its variant Algorithm of Inventive Problem Solving (developed by the Russian scientist
Genrich Altshuller), and Computer-Aided morphological analysis.

Daniel Pink, in his 2005 book A Whole New Mind, repeating arguments posed throughout the 20th
century, argues that we are entering a new age where creativity is becoming increasingly important. In
this conceptual age, we will need to foster and encourage right-directed thinking (representing
creativity and emotion) over left-directed thinking (representing logical, analytical thought).
However, this simplification of 'right' versus 'left' brain thinking is not supported by the research
data.[244]

Nickerson[245] provides a summary of the various creativity techniques that have been proposed.
These include approaches that have been developed by both academia and industry:

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1. Establishing purpose and intention

2. Building basic skills
3. Encouraging acquisitions of domain-specific knowledge
4. Stimulating and rewarding curiosity and exploration
5. Building motivation, especially internal motivation
6. Encouraging confidence and a willingness to take risks
7. Focusing on mastery and self-competition
8. Promoting supportable beliefs about creativity
9. Providing opportunities for choice and discovery
10. Developing self-management (metacognitive skills)
11. Teaching techniques and strategies for facilitating creative performance
12. Providing balance

Managing the need for closure

Experiments suggest the need for closure of task participants, whether as a reflection of personality or
induced (through time pressure), negatively impacts creativity.[246] Accordingly, it has been
suggested that reading fiction, which can reduce the cognitive need for closure, may help to encourage
creativity.[247]

Education policies
Some see the conventional system of schooling as stifling of creativity and attempt (particularly in the
preschool/kindergarten and early school years) to provide a creativity-friendly, rich, imagination-
fostering environment for young children.[245][248][249] Researchers have seen this as important
because technology is advancing our society at an unprecedented rate and creative problem solving
will be needed to cope with these challenges as they arise.[249] In addition to helping with problem
solving, creativity also helps students identify problems where others have failed to do
so.[245][248][250] See the Waldorf School as an example of an education program that promotes
creative thought.

Promoting intrinsic motivation and problem solving are two areas where educators can foster
creativity in students. Students are more creative when they see a task as intrinsically motivating,
valued for its own sake.[248][249][251][252] To promote creative thinking, educators need to identify
what motivates their students and structure teaching around it. Providing students with a choice of
activities to complete allows them to become more intrinsically motivated and therefore creative in
completing the tasks.[245][253]

Teaching students to solve problems that do not have well defined answers is another way to foster
their creativity. This is accomplished by allowing students to explore problems and redefine them,
possibly drawing on knowledge that at first may seem unrelated to the problem in order to solve
it.[245][248][249][251] In adults, mentoring individuals is another way to foster their creativity.[254]
However, the benefits of mentoring creativity apply only to creative contributions considered great in
a given field, not to everyday creative expression.[79]

Scotland

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In the Scottish education system, creativity is identified as a core skillset for learning, life and work
and is defined as “a process which generates ideas that have value to the individual. It involves
looking at familiar things with a fresh eye, examining problems with an open mind, making
connections, learning from mistakes and using imagination to explore new possibilities.” [1] (https://
education.gov.scot/improvement/practice-exemplars/Creativity%203-18%20curriculum%20review%
20(impact%20report)) The need to develop a shared language and understanding of creativity and its
role across every aspect of learning, teaching and continuous improvement was identified as a
necessary aim [2] (https://education.gov.scot/improvement/learning-resources/Creative%20Learnin
g%20Networks) and a set of four skills is used to allow educators to discuss and develop creativity
skills across all subjects and sectors of education – curiosity, open—mindedness, imagination and
problem solving. [3] (https://education.gov.scot/improvement/learning-resources/What%20are%20
creativity%20skills?) Distinctions are made between creative learning (when learners are using their
creativity skills), creative teaching (when educators are using their creativity skills) and creative
change (when creativity skills are applied to planning and improvement). [4] (https://education.gov.s
cot/improvement/documents/creativity/cre24_infographics/cre24-the-big-picture.pdf) Scotland's
national Creative Learning Plan [5] (http://www.creativescotland.com/resources/our-publications/pl
ans-and-strategy-documents/scotlands-creative-learning-plan-2013) supports the development of
creativity skills in all learners and of educators’ expertise in developing creativity skills. A range of
resources have been created to support and assess this [6] (https://education.gov.scot/improvement/
Pages/Search.aspx?k=Creativity%20infographics) including a national review of creativity across
learning by Her Majesty's Inspectorate for Education. [7] (https://education.gov.scot/improvement/p
ractice-exemplars/Creativity%203-18%20curriculum%20review%20(impact%20report))

Academic journals
Creativity Research Journal Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the
International Journal of Creative Computing Arts
Journal of Creative Behavior Thinking Skills and Creativity

See also
Adaptive performance History of the concept of creativity
Brainstorming Innovation
Computational creativity Invention (such as "artistic invention" in the
Confabulation (neural networks) visual arts)
Content creation Lateral thinking
E-scape Learned industriousness
Genius Multiple discovery
Guided visualization Music therapy
Heroic theory of invention and scientific Musical improvisation
development Why Man Creates (film)

Notes
1. "And eke Job saith, that in hell is no order of rule. And albeit that God hath created all things in
right order, and nothing without order, but all things be ordered and numbered, yet nevertheless
they that be damned be not in order, nor hold no order."

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2. Runco, Mark A.; Albert, Robert S. (2010). "Creativity Research" (https://archive.org/details/cambri

dgehandboo0000unse_x7r7). In James C. Kaufman; Robert J. Sternberg (eds.). The Cambridge
Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73025-9.
3. Mumford, M. D. (2003). "Where have we been, where are we going? Taking stock in creativity
research". Creativity Research Journal. 15 (2–3): 107–120. doi:10.1080/10400419.2003.9651403
(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10400419.2003.9651403). S2CID 218546467 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:218546467).
4. Sternberg, Robert J. (2011). "Creativity". Cognitive Psychology (https://archive.org/details/cognitiv
epsychol00ster_511) (6 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 479 (https://archive.org/details/cognitivepsych
ol00ster_511/page/n510). ISBN 978-1-133-38701-5.
5. Meusburger, Peter (2009). "Milieus of Creativity: The Role of Places, Environments and Spatial
Contexts". In Meusburger, P.; Funke, J.; Wunder, E. (eds.). Milieus of Creativity: An
Interdisciplinary Approach to Spatiality of Creativity. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-9876-5.
6. Torrance, Paul. "Verbal Tests. Forms A and B-Figural Tests, Forms A and B.". The Torrance Tests
of Creative Thinking-Norms-Technical Manual Research Edition. Princeton, New Jersey:
Personnel Press. p. 6.
7. Amabile, Teresa M.; Pratt, Michael G. (2016). "The dynamic componential model of creativity and
innovation in organizations: Making progress, making meaning". Research in Organizational
Behavior. 36: 157–183. doi:10.1016/j.riob.2016.10.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.riob.2016.10.
001).
8. OECD/Eurostat (2018). Oslo Manual 2018: Guidelines for Collecting, Reporting and Using Data
on Innovation (https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oslo-manual-2018_97892643
04604-en) (4th ed.). Paris/Luxembourg: OECD/Eurostat. p. 44.
9. Averill, James R. (February 1999). "Individual Differences in Emotional Creativity: Structure and
Correlates". Journal of Personality. 67 (2): 331–371. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00058 (https://doi.org/
10.1111%2F1467-6494.00058). ISSN 0022-3506 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3506).
PMID 10202807 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10202807).
10. Ivcevic, Zorana; Brackett, Marc A.; Mayer, John D. (April 2007). "Emotional Intelligence and
Emotional Creativity". Journal of Personality. 75 (2): 199–236. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
6494.2007.00437.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-6494.2007.00437.x). ISSN 0022-3506 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3506). PMID 17359237 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1735923
7).
11. Rhodes, Mel (1961). "An Analysis of Creativity". The Phi Delta Kappan. 42 (7): 305–310.
JSTOR 20342603 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20342603).
12. Gabora, Liane (1997). "The Origin and Evolution of Culture and Creativity" (http://cogprints.org/79
4/1/oecc.html). Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission. 1.
13. Sternberg, Robert J. (2009). Jaime A. Perkins; Dan Moneypenny; Wilson Co (eds.). Cognitive
Psychology (https://archive.org/details/cognitivepsychol00ster_347). CENGAGE Learning. p. 468
(https://archive.org/details/cognitivepsychol00ster_347/page/n496). ISBN 978-0-495-50629-4.
14. Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, p. 244.
15. Albert, R. S.; Runco, M. A. (1999). "A History of Research on Creativity". In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.).
Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge University Press.
16. Plato, The Republic, Book X – wikisource:The Republic/Book X
17. Albert, R. S.; Runco, M. A. (1999). "A History of Research on Creativity". In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.).
Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge University Press. p. 5.

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18. Niu, Weihua; Sternberg, Robert J. (2006). "The Philosophical Roots of Western and Eastern
Conceptions of Creativity" (https://www.webcitation.org/641OBVx0d?url=http://www.westga.edu/~
stpp/JTPP_Aticles/26-2/THE1210.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical
Psychology. 26 (1–2): 18–38. doi:10.1037/h0091265 (https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0091265).
Archived from the original (http://www.westga.edu/~stpp/JTPP_Aticles/26-2/THE1210.pdf) (PDF)
on 18 December 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2010.; cf. Michel Weber, "Creativity, Efficacy and
Vision: Ethics and Psychology in an Open Universe (https://www.academia.edu/3640181/_Creativi
ty_Efficacy_and_Vision_Ethics_and_Psychology_in_an_Open_Universe_2006_)," in Michel
Weber and Pierfrancesco Basile (eds.), Subjectivity, Process, and Rationality,
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Further reading
Chung-yuan, Chang (1970). Creativity and Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and
Poetry. New York: Harper Torchbooks. ISBN 978-0-06-131968-6.
Cropley, David H.; Cropley, Arthur J.; Kaufman, James C.; et al., eds. (2010). The Dark Side of
Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13960-1. Lay summary (htt
p://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item2704083/?site_locale=en_GB) (24 November
2010).
Robinson, Andrew (2010). Sudden Genius?: The Gradual Path to Creative Breakthroughs (https://
archive.org/details/suddengeniusgrad00robi_0). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
956995-3. Lay summary (http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199569953.do) (24 November
2010).
Sonenshein, Scott (2017). Stretch: Unlock the Power of Less and Achieve More Than You Ever
Imagined. Harper Business. ISBN 978-0062457226.
The Roots of Human Genius Are Deeper Than Expected (http://www.scientificamerican.com/articl
e.cfm?id=creativity-roots-human-genius-deeper-than-expected) (March 10, 2013) Scientific
American
Dean Keith Simonton (1999). Origins of Genius: Darwinian Perspectives on Creativity (https://arch
ive.org/details/originsofgeniusd00simo). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195128796.

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8/13/2021 Creativity - Wikipedia

Isaac Asimov (2014-10-20) on Cultivating Creativity (http://www.technologyreview.com/view/53191

1/isaac-asimov-mulls-how-do-people-get-new-ideas/)
John Cleese (2014-08-08) on Fostering Creativity (http://www.fastcocreate.com/1680999/4-lesson
s-in-creativity-from-john-cleese)

External links
Videos

Raphael DiLuzio (2012-06-28) on 7 Steps of Creative Thinking (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v

=MRD-4Tz60KE)

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