Physics Factsheet

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 100

Stationary Waves on Strings and in Air Columns
This factsheet will: Fig 2
• Explain how stationary (standing) waves are formed displacement
• Consider the different modes of vibration and the effect of this
on musical notes
• Consider the similarities and differences between stationary
waves on strings (eg guitar) and those in air columns (eg organ t=0
half a period later
pipes) all parts of string in this
• Give you practice and guidance on doing exam-style questions 'loop' moving downwards

all parts of string in this time

'loop' moving upwards
A stationary wave is formed when two waves travelling in opposite
directions interfere. To make a stationary wave, the two waves must t=0
have:
half a period later
• the same speed
• the same frequency
• equal or nearly equal amplitudes
Example 1
A stationary wave is set up on a wire of length 0.93 m so that it
One easy way for this to happen is for a wave to interfere vibrates at 120 Hz. The fundamental frequency of the wire is 40
with its own reflection. This is what happens in stringed and Hz.
woodwind instruments. Before we look at strings and air (a) Draw a sketch of the stationary wave obtained. [1 mark]
columns, though, here are some general points about stationary (b) Calculate the speed of the wave. [3 marks]
waves.
Answer
The frequency is 3 times the fundamental frequency, so we have
There are points where the displacement is always zero – these are the third harmonic
called nodes. [1]

Midway between the nodes are antinodes, where the displacement The wavelength is the length of two loops
is greatest (Fig 1). = 2/3 × 0.93 m = 0.62 m [1]
For the speed, v = fλ
Fig 1
= 120 Hz × 0.62 m [1]
= 74 m s-1 [1]
node node
(minimum displacement) (minimum displacement) Stationary Waves on Strings
When one end of a stretched string is vibrated, a travelling wave
moves along the string, and reflects from the other end. The wave
interferes with its own reflection and so a stationary wave is set
up. The ends of the string can not move, and so must be nodes.
This one fact allows us to draw all the possible modes of vibration.

Fig 3
antinode fundamental mode (1st harmonic)
(maximum displacement) wavelength = 2 × length of string

1st overtone (2nd harmonic)

wavelength = length of string
At any one time all the particles in one “loop” are in phase, and
frequency = 2 × fundamental frequency
each loop is exactly out of phase with adjacent loops (Fig 2).

2nd overtone (3nd harmonic)

wavelength = 2/3 length of string
frequency = 3 × fundamental frequency

Notice that two adjacent nodes (or antinodes) are half a wavelength
apart.
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100. Stationary Waves on Strings and in Air Columns Physics Factsheet

Exam Hint Example 2

You can always find the wavelength if you know the length of A signal generator is set at 152 Hz, 10 loops fit the length of the
the string: vibrating length of string exactly. The string is of length 2.0 m
• the wavelength is the “length of two loops”. and the mass on the end of it is 0.72 kg. Calculate the mass of
• So for the ninth harmonic, which has nine loops, the the string. [5 marks]
wavelength is two ninths of the length of the string
Answer
You can force the string to vibrate in a given mode by using a The wavelength is the length of two loops = 2/10 x 2.0 m = 0.4 m
vibration generator oscillating at the required frequency Fig 4.
For the speed, v = fλ
Fig 4 = 152 Hz x 0.4 m
= 60.8 m s-1 [1]
string (here shown vibrating in callibrated signal We can now use this in
the fundamental mode) generator T
v=
µ
pulley
T
⇒µ=
v2 [1]
(check you can rearrange this correctly)
vibration
generator The tension, T, is equal to the weight hanging from it
= 0.72 kg × 9.8 N kg-1 = 7.056 N [1]
7.056
weight, mg Therefore, µ =
which is 60.82
equal to the = 1.9 × 10-3 kg m-1 (1.9 g m-1) [1]
tension in the
string And for the 2.0 m the mass is therefore 3.8 g [1]

Stationary Waves in Air Columns

However, if simply plucked, the string will vibrate in all modes at
These are set up when the air at one end of a pipe is caused to
once. The fundamental mode, will, in general have the largest
vibrate. (In an organ this is done by blasting air at an edge). The
amplitude, and the frequency of the fundamental determines the
resulting sound wave interferes with its own reflection from the
pitch obtained. Superposed on the fundamental are the other
other end of the pipe to produce the stationary wave.
harmonics in varying ‘strengths’ – it is the relative amplitudes of
these other frequencies that make middle ‘C’ on a guitar, say, sound
These are very similar to stationary waves on strings. One important
different from middle ‘C’ on a piano. The quality of a sound, due to
difference is that the stationary waves are longitudinal rather than
2nd and higher harmonics is sometimes called its timbre.
transverse because they are formed from sound waves.
The profile of a stationary wave does not move along the wire, but
Open pipes and closed pipes behave slightly differently.
the two travelling waves that produce it have a speed v equal to:
• In both cases at the end where the air is blasted in, the air is
free to move, and so there is an antinode.
• In a closed pipe, the closed end prevents air moving and so
T where T is the tension in the string, and µ is its
v= there must be a node here.
µ mass per unit length • In an open pipe, the sound wave reflects off the free air at the
end of the pipe, and since the air is free to move here, then
Since v = fλ and the wavelength of the fundamental mode is 2L, then there is an antinode at the open end.
the fundamental frequency f0 for a stretched string is given by
1 T Fig 5 node antinode
f0 =
2L µ

Notice that length, tension and mass per unit length are the only
Closed pipe Open pipe
factors affecting the pitch of the note. You knew this already: to
make a guitar play a higher pitch, you:
(a) shorten the string by holding a string down
(b) tighten the string
(c) play a thinner string antinode antinode

blast of air blast of air

2
100. Stationary Waves on Strings and in Air Columns Physics Factsheet

Because of this, the modes of vibration for open and closed pipes 3. A guitar string is 0.70 m long. The string is tuned so that when
are different Fig 6. its full length is plucked it vibrates at a frequency of 384 Hz. To
play a higher note, the string is pressed so that the length free to
Fig 6 vibrate is shorter. A fret (ridge) on the neck of the guitar ensures
N N that the correct length is produced when the string is pressed. A
N
certain fret is positioned so that when it is used, the frequency
A of the note obtained is 427 Hz. What length of string is vibrating
now?
A
N
4. What is the frequency of the sound emitted by an open-ended
A organ pipe 1.7 m long when sounding its fundamental frequency,
N
if the speed of sound in air is 340 m s-1?
N
5.
A A A

blast of air blast of air vibrating

blast of air
diaphragm tube closed end
fundamental mode 3rd harmonic 5th harmonic
Because there must be an antinode at the open end and a node at
the closed end, a closed pipe can only produce odd harmonics
In the diagram above, when the diaphragm vibrates at 2000 Hz a
stationary wave pattern is set up, and the distance between
Fig 7 adjacent nodes is 8.0 cm. When the frequency is gradually
A A A reduced, the stationary wave pattern disappears, but then
N reappears at a frequency of 1600 Hz. Calculate:
A (a) the speed of sound in air [2 marks]
N
(b) the distance between adjacent nodes at 1600 Hz [2 marks]
N
(c) the next lower frequency at which a stationary wave is
N A A
obtained [1 mark]
N (d) the length of the tube [2 marks]
N A
N 6. A piece of glass tubing is closed at one end by covering it with
A A A a sheet of metal. The fundamental frequency is found to be 280
Hz. Calculate the length of the tube. If the metal sheet is now
removed, calculate the wavelengths and frequencies of the
blast of air blast of air blast of air fundamental and second harmonic of the resulting open pipe.
fundamental mode 2nd harmonic 4th harmonic
Answers
Notice that, because there is an antinode at each end, an open pipe 1. 114 ms-1,
can produce both odd and even harmonics. This gives it a richer fundamental: wavelength = 1.30 m, f = 87.7 Hz
sound than a closed pipe. second harmonic:wavelength = 0.65 m, f = 175 Hz
2. 170 Hz, 60 Hz, 84.9 Hz
Notice also that the wavelength of the fundamental mode in the
open pipe is half that of the closed pipe, and thus the fundamental 3. 0.63 m
frequency of an open pipe is twice that of a closed pipe. 4. 100 Hz
5. (a) 320 m s-1
Practice Questions (b) 0.10 m apart
1. A horizontal string of length 0.65 m has a mass of 5.5 g and is (c) 1200 Hz
put under a tension of 110 N. It is plucked. (a) Calculate the (d) wavelength is 0.80 m, the tube is 0.40 m long
speed of the transverse waves on the string. (b) Calculate the
wavelengths and frequencies of the fundamental and second 6. 0.304 m
harmonic. 0.607 m, 560 Hz. 0.304 m, 1120 Hz

2. The fundamental frequency of vibration of a stretched wire is

120 Hz. Calculate the new fundamental frequency if (a) the tension
in the wire is doubled, the length remaining constant, (b) the Acknowledgements:
This Physics Factsheet was researched and written by Michael Lingard
length is doubled with constant tension, (c) the tension in the The Curriculum Press,Bank House, 105 King Street,Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU
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