ELECTROSTATICS

1. Electric charges and fields

Introduction:-
Electrostatics is the study of stationary charges. When a glass rod is rubbed with
silk, the glass rod attains positive charge because it loses some electrons. Also the
silk attains negative charge on account of the presence of excess electrons. Since the
charges are stationary, it is called as static electricity. It is also called as frictional
electricity because the rubbing of two materials caused the charge transfer.
In short, electrification of a body happens because of transfer of electrons .The body
with electron deficiency attains a positive charge & a body with excess electron attains
negative charge. Also like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
S.I unit of charge: Coulomb (C)
Electric charge = electric current × time.
If a conductor carries a current of 1ampere for 1 second, then the charge that flows
through the conductor will be 1 Coulomb.
1C = 1 A-s.
Quantisation/Atomicity of charge:-Electric charge cannot be divided indefinitely.
The charge of electron ’e’, is the smallest possible charge. All existing charges are
integer multiples of e. e = -1.6 × 10-19 Coulomb is the elementary charge .This
property of charge is called quantisation or atomicity.
In daily life though quantisation is not experienced because electric current involves
flow large quantity of charges.
Also electric charge is additive.
Conservation of charge:-Total amount of charge in an isolated system remains
constant. Charge can neither be created nor destroyed but it can only be transferred
from one part to another.
Electrostatic induction:-When charging of a body is done without actual contact
then it is said to be charging by induction.
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A positively charged object can induce negative charge on a metal rod B .This is a
result of the accumulation of free electrons towards the positively charged object .The
end C will be depleted of free electrons and so will have a positive charge .Now if C is
connected to earth, electrons from earth will flow in to cancel this positive charge
.Since this excess electrons remain in the insulated metal, the metal attains a net
negative charge .
Coulombs law:-
This law gives the force of interaction between charges.
It states that two stationary point charges q1 and q2 repel or attract each other with a
force F
• Directly proportional to the product of the charges
• Inversely proportional to the square of the distance ‘r’ between them
• And always acts along the line joining q1 & q2 .
Mathematically:-
#$ #% ' #$ #%
F ∝ or F= newton.
&% ()*+ & %

𝟏
Is the dimensional proportionality constant whose value depends on the units
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎
used.
𝜀 → Is the absolute electric permittivity of the medium in which charges are placed.
𝜀3 →absolute permittivity of vacuum or air.
*
= k called as the dielectric constant of the medium .It is also called as the relative
*+
permittivity or specific inductive capacity. Value of k is always greater than 1.
∴ Force between two charges reduces in any medium other than air or free space as
'
F ∝
5

𝜀3 = 8.854 ×109': C2⁄ N m2 → in S.I units

'
= 9× 109 N m2 ⁄ C2 → in S.I units
()*+

Coulombs law holds good only for point charges

1 Coulomb is that charge which when placed at a distance of 1m from an equal and
similar charge in vacuum repels it with a force equal to 9×109 N.

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Comparison with gravitational force

Electrostatic force is the force of Gravitational force is the force of
interaction between 2 charges. interaction between 2 masses.

F ∝ 𝑞' 𝑞: . Force is proportional to Force is proportional to product of

product of the charges. masses
F ∝ 𝑚' 𝑚: .
Force is inversely proportional to the Force is inversely proportional to the
square of distance between the charges square of distance between the masses
' '
F ∝ F ∝
&% &%

There are 2 kinds of electrostatic Mass is only of one kind.

charges
Gravitational force is always an
Positive charge & negative charge. attractive force.
∴ Electrostatic force is also two types –
attractive & repulsive in nature.
𝜀 is dependent on medium in which the The gravitational constant G does not
charge is situated. depend on medium.
Electrostatic force is a much stronger Gravitational force is weaker than
force electrostatic force

Electric force between two electrons is

1043 times greater than the gravitational
force between them.

Importance of Coulomb’s law:-

This law explains the force between charges at any distance, say, subatomic to very
large distances. The binding force between the
nucleus & electrons can be calculated. It can also
be seen that the nuclear force of attraction
between the like charges is much greater than the
coulomb’s repulsive force. The radioactivity &
instability of heavy elements could be because of
the coulomb’s repulsive force.

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Vector representation of force:-

' #$ #%
𝐹 = 𝑟 ; where 𝑟 is the unit direction vector
()*+ & %

& ' #$ #%
𝑟 = . ∴𝐹 = 𝑟 N.
& ()*+ & @

𝐹': is always the force on q1 due to q2 .

𝐹': → Away from q2 if charges are same (repulsive).
→ Towards q2 if charges are different (attractive).
Superposition principle:-If a system contains a no: of interacting charges, then the
net force on any one charge equals the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all other
charges individually. It means the presence of other charges do not influence the force
between two charges.

𝐹' = 𝐹': + 𝐹'A + ………….+𝐹'B

In vector form: - Force on q1 due to n charges is given as
1 𝑞' 𝑞: 𝑞' 𝑞A 𝑞' 𝑞B
𝐹' = 𝑟:' + + ⋯+ 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀3 𝑟': : 𝑟'A : 𝑟'B : B'

Electric field & Electric Dipole

Scalar and Vector Fields:-
Field is actually a continuous function which expresses the position of a physical
quantity in space. In simple terms it is the area around a source where the effect of
the source is felt.
When a scalar physical quantity is expressed as a continuous function Ø(x, y, z) it is
called scalar field .This function gives the value of the quantity at each point in space
.Examples of scalar field are temperature or pressure fields.
When a vector quantity is expressed from point to point by a continuous point function
𝐴(x, y, z) then it is called a vector field .It consists of 3 different scalar fields one in
each direction 𝚤 ,𝚥 and 𝑘 in a 3D space. 𝐴(x,y,z) = Ax(x, y, z) 𝚤 + Ay(x, y, z) 𝚥 + AZ (x,
y, z) 𝑘 .
Variation of gravitational force, magnetic force, electric intensity, velocity of fluid are
examples.
A vector field gives the variation of the vector quantity in a 3D space.
Electric Field:-
Say there are 2 point charges in space. The second charge is placed in an electric
field set up by the first charge .It experiences a force, value of which is given by the
Coulomb’s law .Thus field is a physical condition around a (source) charge which

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exerts electrical force on any other (test) charge (q0) placed in it. The source
charge could be a point-charge or a group of charges, but the test charge must be
vanishingly small.
Intensity /strength of an Electric field:-
Electric field at a point is the force acting on a unit positive test charge placed
at that point in space. The direction of 𝐸 is same as 𝐹 .It is the direction in which a
positive test charge tends to move in an electric field.
M
𝐸 = N/C.
#+

This equation immediately follows that force on a charge in an electric field is given
by,

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
S.I unit of Electric Field:-

From the above equation the unit of 𝐸 is Newton/Coulomb. But electric field is also
given as potential gradient and then its unit would be Volt/metre (V/m).
Dimensions are [MLT-3A-1] derived from basic unit Kg m s-2/A-s.
Electric field Intensity due to a Point Charge:-
To find the electric field intensity at a point in the electric field, we simply assume that
a unit positive charge is placed there and find the force experienced by that charge
.So to find E at a point P due to charge q placed at a distance ‘r’
' ##+ M
F= & E=
()*+ &% #+

1 𝑞 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
∴𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 .

' #
In vector form 𝐸 = 𝑟 ;where 𝑟 is the unit direction vector.
()*+ & %

Electric Field due to a group of charges:-

By the principle of superposition the electric field intensity at a point due to all ‘n’
charges will be equal to sum of individual field intensities produced.

𝐸 = 𝐸' + 𝐸: + 𝐸A + ⋯ + 𝐸B
B
1 𝑞X
𝐸= 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀3 𝑟X : Y
XZ'

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For a continuous charge distribution,

1 𝜎
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑑𝑆 ; Where σ is the surface charge density.
1 𝜌
Or 𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑑𝑉 ;where 𝜌 is volume charge density.

While doing numerical keep in mind the direction of each field.

Electric Lines of force:-Path of a free positive charge in an electric field is called lines
of force.

Properties of electric lines of force:-

i) The electric lines of force originate from positive charges and terminate on negative
charges.
ii) The tangent drawn on any point of the line of force gives the direction of the electric
field intensity 𝐸 at that point
iii) Lines of force never cross each other, because, that would mean that at the point
of intersection, 𝐸 can have two different directions which is impossible.
iv) The lines of force are always normal to the surface of a charged conductor. It never
passes through the conductor as the electric field inside the conductor is always zero.
V) In regions where lines of force are closer, the electric field is stronger; whereas in
regions where they are far apart field intensity is weaker.
vi) The lines of force have a tendency to shrink, hence they are under tension .This
explains the attractive force between unlike charges.
vii) They also exert a lateral pressure on one another .This explains why like charges
repel each other.
viii) They are imaginary smooth continuous lines representing the real electric field.

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Electric Dipole
Two equal and opposite charges, at a constant distance 2l between them constitute
an electric dipole. Then:

i) (+q) and (-q) are termed as the positive and negative poles of the dipole.

ii) 2𝑙 is the displacement of (+q) from (-q) = length vector of the dipole.

iii) 𝑝 = the electric dipole moment = q×2𝑙 = 2ql. 𝒑 is a vector directed from the
negative charge to the positive charge.
iv) The straight line joining the two poles is called its dipole axis.

v) The perpendicular bisector of 2𝑙 is called its dipole equator.

The electric dipole produces an electric field around it.
Electric intensity at a distance r from the midpoint of the dipole
i) Along the axis
Let E1 and E2 be the magnitudes of the intensities of the electric field at P due to the
charges +q and -q of the dipole respectively.
(r- l) → Distance of P from +q
(r+ l) → Distance of P from –q
1 𝑞
Then 𝐸' =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟−𝑙 2

1 𝑞
& 𝐸: =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟+𝑙 2
; though (–q) is not taken, the direction of E is assumed
accordingly.
The net electric field would be difference of E1 and E2 as they are oppositely directed.
' # ' #
E = E1 - E2 = %
− ;{ note the (-) sign coming from (-q).}
()*+ &9c ()*+ &dc %

# ' ' ' (#c& ' :e&

= %
− %
= =
()*+ &9c &dc ()*+ & % 9c % % ()*+ & % 9c % %

If r ≫ 2𝑙,then the equation can be written as

' :e
E= newton/Coulomb.
()*+ & @

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ii) On the equator

Here the distance from the point P to both the charges are same = 𝑟 : + 𝑙 :

Resolving E1 & E2 into sine & cosine components it can be seen that the sine
components cancel off and the cosine components add up
hi c
Also cos θ = = .
hj & % dc % $ %

Net E = E1cosθ + E2cosθ

' # c ' # c
= +
()*+ & % dc % & % dc % $ % ()*+ & % dc % & % dc % $ %

' :#c ' e

= =
()*+ & % dc % @ % ()*+ & % dc % @ %

If r ≫ 2𝑙,then the equation can be written as

' e
E= newton/Coulomb.
()*+ & @

𝐸 is antiparallel to 𝑝 .

Torque on a dipole in a uniform Electric Field:-

In a uniform electric field, the charges constituting a dipole experience equal and
opposite force (qE).Since these forces are equal, the net force on the dipole is zero,
but since the forces act at different points, the dipole will experience a torque which
will twist in such a way that it is aligned parallel to the field.

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Torque 𝜏 = force × perpendicular distance between the points where force acts
𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 2𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃

In vector form: 𝜏 = 𝑝×𝐸.

At θ = 900, 𝜏pqr = 𝑝𝐸
stuv
∴𝑝=
w

From this the moment of an electric dipole is the torque acting on the dipole placed
perpendicular to the direction of a uniform electric field of intensity 1N/C.

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2. Gauss’s Theorem
Area vector:-IT is a vector representation of a plane area in such a way that its magnitude is
the amount of area and its direction is the direction of an outward normal to the plane of
the area.

𝐴 = 𝑛𝐴 ; 𝑛 is a unit vector along the outward drawn normal.

Solid Angle vs Plane angle
Angle subtended by an area of a spherical Angle subtended by an arc of a circle at the
Surface at the centre of the sphere is called centre of the circle is called Plane Angle.
Solid Angle. .


1 Steradian (sr) is the solid angle subtended 1 radian is the angle which an arc of length
at the centre of sphere by any area on the equal to radius of the circle subtends at the
sphere whose area equals the square of the centre.
radius.
xy xc
dω = % .Maximum angle subtended by a d𝜃 = . So maximum angle subtended at
& &
y ()& % :)&
closed surface = % = = 4𝜋 the centre of a circle = = 2𝜋
& &% &

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Also for any area element dA the projection on a square with O as centre and r as radius will
be dAcos 𝜃
xy |}~ • xy
:. dω = = 𝑟
&% &%

Flux of a vector field:-To understand flux of a vector field, let us consider the velocity field
of a uniformly flowing liquid. Here flux is actually the rate of volume of liquid flowing
through a given area at a given time. If ‘v’ is magnitude of velocity, then
Case i) Plane of area perpendicular to direction of flow
Then flux 𝜑 = vA = vAcos 𝜃 where 𝜃 = 0
Case ii) if the plane is inclined to flow direction, no: of lines passing through the area is
lesser in this case. Then a projection of A perpendicular to the velocity vector is taken as
= Acos 𝜃.
:. 𝜑 = vAcos 𝜃

Case iii) the area A is parallel to the velocity vector, then none of the lines flow through A
:. :. ∅ = vAcos 𝜃 = 0; as 𝜃 = 90°.

:. Flux of a vector field φ is the dot product of velocity vector 𝑉 and the area vector 𝐴.
So flux is a scalar quantity. Flux leaving a surface is considered as positive whereas flux
entering a surface is taken as negative. It has the same direction as 𝐴 .
For non-uniform fields flux is given as

φ = 𝑉 .𝑑𝐴

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Electric flux:-
The electric flux is a measure of the number of lines of force passing through some surface
held in the electric field. It is the property of electric field denoted by φE . For a small
surface element 𝑑𝐴 placed in a uniform electric field 𝐸

dφ = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴

For the entire surface φE = y

𝐸 .𝑑𝐴

y
is surface integral over the entire surface.

So φE linked with a surface in an electric field may be

defined as the surface integral of electric field over that surface.

φE = y
𝐸 .𝑑𝐴 = y
𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃

= 𝐸 cos 𝜃 y
𝑑𝐴 = EAcos 𝜃.

Special cases:-

If the plane surface is normal to 𝐸 , θ= 0, φE = EA 𝑎𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 1

If surface is parallel to field, θ= 900, φE = 0 𝑎𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 0
& for field lines entering the surface normally,
θ= 1800, φE = −EA 𝑎𝑠 cos 𝜃 = −1

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Electric Flux Density:-

••
Electric flux density =
y

For a normal plane A , cos 𝜃 = 1

∴ φE = EA
wy
∴ Electric flux density = = 𝐸
y

Units & Dimension:-

φE = EAcos 𝜃.
… ‡
Unit of flux → 𝑚: = Nm-2C-1 {if E is given in ,then unit of flux is V-m}
† p

Dimension → [MLT-3A-1] [L2] = [ML3T-3A-1]

Gauss’s Theorem: -

This theorem states that the electric flux φE through any closed surface is equal to 𝟏 𝜺𝟎
times the net charge enclosed by that surface.
In integral form:-
𝒒
𝝓𝑬 = 𝑬. 𝒅𝑨 = ; 𝜀 0 is permittivity of free
𝜺𝟎
space.

This theorem applies to any closed real or

hypothetical surface called the Gaussian surface &
does not place any restriction on the number &
location of the charges inside the surface.
Proof: - Consider a point charge +q situated at ‘O’
inside a closed surface. Let dA be an infinitesimal
area element at P. 𝑑𝐴 is drawn normal to the
element. If 𝐸 is electric intensity at ‘P’ due to +q, then,

d𝜙w = 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = EdAcos 𝜃 ;
' #
But E = . %
()*+ &
' # xy |}~ •
∴ d𝜙w = . .dAcos 𝜃 ,but = dω the solid angle
()*+ & % &%

#
∴ Total flux 𝜙w = 𝑑𝜔
()*+

#
= 4𝜋 ;as solid angle subtended by a closed surface at a point inside it
()*+

is always 4𝜋 steradian.

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#
=
*+

If there are several charges say q1, q2, -q3 …... then,
'
𝜙w = 𝑞 ; 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒.
*+

Properties of Gaussian surface:-

i) It should be a closed surface so that there is clear distinction between points that
are inside the surface, on the surface and outside the surface.
ii) This surface must pass through the point where electric field is to be calculated.
iii) The surface must have a shape according to the symmetry of the source, so that
the field is normal to the surface at each point and constant in magnitude.
iv) For a system of charges the Gaussian surface should not pass through any
discrete charge. It is because electric field at the location of any charge is not
well defined. However Gaussian surface can pass through a continuous charge
distribution.

1. Electric field due to a point-charge (Deduction of coulomb’s law)
Given: - +q, an isolated point charge placed at point ‘O’ in free space.
Aim: - To find the electric field due to this charge at a distance ‘r’ from the charge.
Procedure: - Consider an imaginary
Gaussian spherical surface with radius
‘r’ and centre ‘O’ around the point
charge .Since sphere is a symmetrical
shape and electric field at point charge
is always directed radially outwards,
Electric field 𝐸 at any point on the
surface of the sphere will be equal in
magnitude & will have the same
direction as the area vector 𝑑𝐴. 𝑑𝐴 is a
small area element on the surface.

∴ Angle between 𝐸 & 𝑑𝐴 is zero.

∴ Total electric flux leaving the
Gaussian surface is given by

𝜙w = 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = EdA cos 𝜃 = EdA ; as (cos 𝜃 = 1).

= E 𝑑𝐴 ; as E is constant throughout the surface.
But 𝑑𝐴 = 4πr2 (area of the sphere).

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∴ 𝜙w = E (4πr2).
#
By Gauss’s theorem, 𝜙E =
*+
#
∴ 𝜙w = E (4πr2) =
*+
' #
So E = as derived from Gauss’s law.
()*+ & %

So if we place a test charge q0 at distance ‘r’ then it will experience a force

' ##+
F = q0E = .This is Coulomb’s law as derived from Gauss’s law.
()*+ & %

This particular derivation can be used to find electric field intensity at a point outside a
charged spherical conductor.
2 (a) An excess charge placed on an isolated conductor resides on the outer surface of a
charged conductor:-
An excess charge given to a conductor sets up
electric fields inside the conductor. This
causes the free electrons in the conductor to
move & thus sets up internal currents. The
moving electrons rearrange in such a way
that the electric fields inside the conductor
becomes zero everywhere. The entire charge
actually moves out to the surface of the
conductor.
Let us consider a Gaussian surface just
beneath the surface of the conductor. Since
the electric intensity 𝐸 is zero everywhere
inside the conductor, it is zero for the given
Gaussian surface also.
∴ The flux through this surface will also be zero. 𝜙w = 0.
'
According to Gauss’s law 𝜙w = 𝑞 ; which means the net charge inside the Gaussian
*+
surface & thus inside the conductor must be zero. So it means that any excess charge
supplied to a conductor would reside on its outer surface.
(b) Electric field inside a cavity in an isolated conductor:-
In the example above, imagine that there is a cavity within the conductor. Now imagine a
Gaussian surface just outside the cavity but totally inside the conductor. Since intensity 𝐸 is
zero inside the conductor there can be no flux through this newly defined Gaussian
surface. ∴ The flux through this surface will also be zero.

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Again from Gauss’s law net charge inside the Gaussian surface or rather on the walls of the
cavity would be zero.
We can conclude that any charge given to a conductor will move out to the surface. Also
within a conducting body whether hollow or solid, the charge, flux and field intensity are
all zero.
(c) Electric field intensity just outside a charged conductor:-
An irregular shaped conductor is chosen, say a charge of +q is deposited on it. As we
already know, the entire charge given resides on the surface of the conductor. The electric
field is normal to the surface of the conductor. But due to irregular shape of the conductor,
the surface charge density 𝜎 varies at different places.
To find electric intensity at a point P, a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder is drawn.
Out of the three planes of a cylinder, one circular face is within the conductor & at the
curved surface, intensity 𝐸 &area vector are at right angles to each other.so these two
surfaces do not contribute any flux. ∴ The net flux is contributed by the plane face of the
cylinder lying outside the conductor. Let dA be the area of the plane surface of cylinder.

𝜙w = 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = EdA cos 0 = EdA ; as (cos 𝜃 = 1).

Or fw = EA.
#
By Gauss’s theorem, 𝜙E =
*+

™ y
∴ 𝜙E = ; {where q = σA}
*+

™ y 𝝈
∴ EA = or E =
*+ 𝜺𝟎

This result is also valid for a large conducting sheet of finite thickness.

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3. 𝑬 due to an infinite line of charge:-

Consider a uniformly charged wire of infinite length having a

linear charge density λ C/m.
To find electric field intensity at a point P, consider a coaxial
Gaussian cylindrical surface of length l through the point P.
The magnitude of E will be same at all points and will be
directed radially outwards.

The flux through the plane faces of the cylinder is equal to zero because 𝐸 &area vector 𝐴
are at right angles. ( 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = 0)

The flux through the curved surface of the cylinder is the total flux through the Gaussian
surface =

𝜙w = 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = EdA cos 0 = EdA ; as (cos 𝜃 = 1).

= E y
𝑑𝐴

= E (2πrl)
# ›c
By Gauss’s law, 𝜙E = =
*+ *+

›c ›
∴ E (2πrl) = or E =
*+ :)&*+
›
In vector notation, 𝐸 = 𝑟 ; where 𝑟 is unit vector in the direction of r.
:)&*+

𝟒. 𝐄 due to an infinite plane sheet of charge:-

Consider a thin sheet of charge, infinite in
extent and having a surface charge density
σ C /m2. If we need to find the electric intensity
at a point P, then we draw a cylinder cutting
through the sheet with its plane ends parallel to
the sheet. Also the plane ends pass through the
points P & P’ which lie on opposite sides of the
sheet each at a distance r from the sheet.

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The flux through the curved surface of the cylinder is zero because zero because 𝐸 &area
vector 𝐴 are at right angles. ( 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = 0)

𝐸 at the plane ends are equal in magnitude and directed perpendicularly outwards.ie.
parallel to the area vector.

𝜙w = 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 + 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴

= EdA cos 0 + EdA cos 0

= EdA + EdA
= EA + EA = 2EA.
™ y
By Gauss’s theorem, 𝜙E = ; {where q = σA}
*+

™ y 𝝈
∴ 2EA = or E = .This equation implies that field is independent of the distance in
*+ 𝟐𝜺𝟎
the case of infinite plane, because as we move away more charges are visible which
compensates for the increase in the distance.

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5.𝑬 due to a thin hollow spherical shell:-

Consider a thin isolated spherical shell with centre at O and radius R carrying a charge +q.
The charge would be distributed uniformly on its surface.

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Let us find the electric intensity at :

i) An external point: - To find E at a point P situated at a distance r (r˃ R) from the centre.
A concentric spherical Gaussian surface is drawn through point P.As in the case with
point charge, Electric field 𝐸 at any point on the surface of the sphere will be equal in
magnitude because of symmetry of sphere & will have the same direction as the area
vector 𝑑𝐴. 𝑑𝐴 is a small area element on the surface.

∴ Angle between 𝐸 & 𝑑𝐴 is zero.

∴ Total electric flux leaving the Gaussian surface is given by

𝜙w = 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = EdA cos 𝜃 = EdA ; as (cos 𝜃 = 1).

= E 𝑑𝐴 ; as E is constant throughout the surface.

But 𝑑𝐴 = 4πr2 (area of the sphere).

∴ 𝜙w = E (4πr2).
#
By Gauss’s theorem, 𝜑E =
*+

#
∴ 𝜙w = E (4πr2) =
*+
𝟏 𝒒
So E = (refer derivation of field due to point charge .This means that for points
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
outside the spherical shell , the shell behaves as if all the charges were concentrated at its
centre.)
If σ is the surface charge density (q = 4πR2σ)
™ Ÿ%
E = . % .From this equation we can deduce the value of electric field intensity at the
*+ &
™
surface of sphere: - Here R = r, so E =
*+

ii) At An internal point: - Since the charges are all situated at the surface, if we draw an
inner Gaussian sphere, there won’t be any enclosed charges.

Hence E = 0 everywhere inside the charged shell.

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3. Electric potential

Conservative forces: - These forces are reversible forces, meaning that the work done by a
conservative force is recoverable. The work done by a conservative force can be
transformed into change in potential energy. Examples of conservative forces are:-
gravitational force, spring force, electrical force etc.
Conservative forces are path independent, in that work done by the force to move an object
between any 2 points is independent of the path taken. So work done by such a force is a
scalar quantity.
Electrostatic Potential:-

Consider a positive charge +q .It has an electric field around it.
Now, a positive test charge 𝑞3 is placed in this electric field will experience a repulsive force.
If we have to move 𝑞3 from point A to point B which is closer to the source charge, work has
to be done to overcome the repulsive force. This work done is stored inside the charge in
the form of potential energy. This means that point B is at a higher potential than point A.
The work done in transporting a unit test-charge from one point to the other in an electric
field is called the potential difference between those points.
Potential difference between A & B is given by

VB – VA = . This is a scalar quantity .A free positive charge always moves from higher
#+
potential to lower potential, whereas a negative free charge moves from lower to higher
potential.
S.I unit & Dimensions of potential:-
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb
Dimension of volt = Kg m2 s-3A-1
= [M L2 T-3 A-1 ]
1V = 1 JC-1; one volt is the potential difference between two points if one joule of work is
done in shifting a charge of one coulomb from one point to the other.

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Electric potential at a point:-

Now if point B is at infinity, then VB = 0 theoretically.

∴ VA = is the potential at point A.

#+

Potential at a point is numerically equal to the work done in bringing a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point against the electric field.
Physical meaning of Electric Potential:-
Electric potential of a conductor is its electric state which determines the direction of flow
of charge when the given conductor is connected to another. A free positive charge always
moves from higher potential to lower potential, whereas a negative free charge flows from
lower to higher potential until the potentials become equal.
Derive the Potential & potential difference due to a point charge:-

Some points to keep in mind before going in to the derivation
i) The test charge q0 is vanishingly small & does not affect the field or position of +q.
ii) External force applied to move q0 counters the repulsive force of +q. The motion of q0 is
uniform, i.e. No acceleration
iii) The path in which q0 travels does not affect the potential as electric force is a
conservative force.
First consider a small distance d𝑥 between A& B.
Work done is always force × displacement.
∴ Work done in moving the test charge from A to B
dW = Fexternal × d𝑥 =− F × d𝑥 {as external force is just equal& opposite to the repulsive
force}.
& 9' ##¤
𝑊 = £ ()*+ 𝑥%
𝑑𝑥
' '
= q q0
()*+ 𝑥

' ' ' ' ##+

= q q0 − =
()*+ & £ ()*+ &

Potential at P 𝑉 =
#+

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' #
∴ 𝑉j = .
()*+ &

Since potential is a scalar quantity, the resultant potential at a point due to a group of
charges will be = algebraic sum of the electric potentials at that point due to individual
fields.ie. V =Ʃ Vi ; where i = 1, 2, 3…..n
' #¥
V =
()*+ &¥

' x#
Or V = for a continuous distribution of charge
()*+ &

Potential due to an electric dipole:-

Refer notes on field due to dipole before going ahead. All definitions remain the same.
Here again we are going to find the potential at a point due to the dipole
a) On the axis:-
' #
Potential at P due to +q of dipole is V1 =
()*+ &9c

' #
Potential at P due to –q of dipole is V2 = −
()*+ &dc

The resultant potential V = V1 + V2

# ' '
= −
()*+ &9c &dc

# &dc 9 &9c ' :#c

= =
()*+ & % 9c % ()*+ & % 9c %

' e
= ; where p is the dipole moment.
()*+ & % 9c %

If r is very large r ≫ 2𝑙 then the equation becomes

' e
V = volt
()*+ & %

b) On the equatorial line:-

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Now since the point P is situated at equidistant from both the charges, the potential due to
+q & -q will cancel each other. Or no work is done in moving a charge along the equatorial
line of the dipole.
# ' '
V = V1 + V2 = − = 0
()*+ hj yj

c) At any other point:-

Take appoint P whose polar coordinates are (r,𝜃 ) .Join PA & PB. Also draw AD & BC
perpendicular to OP. Now finding lengths BP & AP keeping in mind r ≫ 2𝑙
BP ≃ CP = OP – OC = r −𝑙 cos 𝜃
& AP ≃ DP = OP + OD = r+𝑙 cos 𝜃
∴ Resultant potential at P due to both the
charges
V = V1 + V2
# ' '
= −
()*+ &9c |}~ • &dc |}~ •

# &dc |}~ • 9 &9c |}~ •

=
()*+ & % 9c % §¨© % •

' e |}~ • ' e |}~ •

= ≃ volts;
()*+ & % 9c % §¨© % • ()*+ & %
(r≫ l)
From this general equation, we can find the
value of potential on the axis & equator by substituting appropriate values to cos𝜃.
'
In vector form: V =
()*+

Points to note: For fixed 𝜃, V ∝ 1 𝑟 : and for fixed r, V∝ cos 𝜃.

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EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

Electric Potential energy:-
Potential energy at a point is the work done in bringing a point charge say, q from infinity
to the given point in the electric field. ∴ Potential energy U = Work done W

But we know that potential at a point is V = . ∴ W = Vq

#

Which means U = qV joules. It follows that to take a charge from point B to A within the
electric field the change in potential energy ∆U = q∆𝑉 = 𝑞 (VA – VB ).

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Expression for potential energy of a system with 2 point charges:-

Let the point charges q1 & q2 be placed at A & B respectively at r metres apart. Total
potential energy of the system would be the sum of the work done to bring q1 & q2 from
infinity to the positions A & B respectively.
If charge q1 is brought in first, then there is no work done because there is no initial electric
field. Further to bring q2 into the system, work has to be done against the existing field of q1.
∴ W1 = 0 & W2 = 𝑞: (VB – 𝑉£ ).
' #$
W2 = 𝑞: (VB – 0). = 𝑞: VB = 𝑞:
()*+ &

' #$ #%
=
()*+ &

Potential energy of the system is W1 + W2 = U

' #$ #%
∴ U = joules.
()*+ &

Thus the potential energy of a system of fixed point charges is equal to the work done by an
external force to assemble the system, by bringing in each charge from infinity.
If there are more than two charges in a system, then potential energy is calculated for each
pair and then the algebraic sum of all the energies are calculated.
So for a system with 3 charges A, B & C let’s calculate the potential energy.

Work done to bring q1 from ∞ to point A, W1 = 0
' #$ #%
Work done to bring q2 from ∞ to point B, W2 =
()*+ &$%

Now to bring the charge q3 to point C, work has to be done against two forces that of q1 &
q2. Taking the algebraic sum of both the works,
' #$ #% ' #$ #@ ' #% #@
W3 = q3 VC = q3 + = +
()*+ &$@ &%@ ()*+ &$@ ()*+ &%@

Net work done = potential energy of the system

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U = W = W1 + W2 + W3
' #$ #% ' #$ #@ ' #% #@
= + +
()*+ &$% ()*+ &$@ ()*+ &%@

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
= + +
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟑

Potential energy of a dipole in Electric field:-

Before proceeding to find the potential energy of a dipole let us find the work done in
rotating an electric dipole in an electric field .We have seen that when a dipole is placed at
an electric field 𝐸 making an angle 𝜃 with the field, then it experiences a torque given by
𝜏 = 𝑝 𝐸 sin 𝜃 .If we further rotate it by a very small angle d𝜃, then work done to do so

would be dW = 𝜏𝑑𝜃 =𝑝 𝐸 sin 𝜃. d𝜃

•
∴ W = 3
𝑝 𝐸 sin 𝜃 . d𝜃

= pE (1- cos𝜃).
Potential energy of an electric dipole in an electric field is the total work done in bringing
the dipole from infinity to the field in such way that the direction of the dipole moment &
direction of electric field are the same. Work has to be done against the force exerted by the
field on the charges +q & -q of the dipole. Since the field is uniform & the value of charges
are same, the force exerted are equal and opposite (+qE & -qE).
But from figure it can be seen that the charge –q has to travel an additional distance of 2l in
the field. Work done for that is given as
-qE × 2l = -pE = U0; is the potential energy of a dipole when it is placed parallel to the
electric field.
Now when the dipole is rotated at an angle 𝜃, then the total work done
𝑈• = 𝑈3 + W
= -pE + pE (1- cos𝜃).
= -pE cos𝜃 → general equation for potential energy of a dipole.

In vector notation, 𝑈• = 𝑝 . 𝐸
Special cases: - θ = 900 …….The above equation now becomes
𝑈• = -pE cos90 = 0.

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This implies that work done in bringing a dipole perpendicular to an electric field from
infinity is equal to zero. This is because of the fact that work done on +q & on –q would be
equal & opposite and would cancel each other.
θ = 1800 ………….
𝑈• = -pE cos180 = pE. The dipole will be unstable in this position. It will try to expend
this energy & attain equilibrium.

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5. Capacitors and Dielectrics

Electrical Capacitance of a conductor:-
When a charge is deposited on a conductor, its potential is raised. If the charge is increased
the potential also rises proportionally. If Q is the charge on the conductor and V = the
potential on its surface, Q = CV where C is a constant for the conductor depending only on
its size and geometry but independent of the nature (material) of the conductor. This
constant is called the capacitance of the conductor.
Q ∝ V
²
Or Q = C V → ∴ 𝐶 =
‡

Electrical capacitance of a conductor is a measure of its ability to hold electric charge. It is

also defined as the quantity of charge that must be deposited on the conductor to raise its
potential by unity.
Unit of Capacitance: - S.I unit of capacitance is called Farad and is denoted by F.
1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt
1F = 1CV-1 .Capacitance of a conductor is 1 farad if a charge of 1 coulomb raises the
potential of the conductor by 1 volt.
Farad is a very large unit. Normally smaller units like microfarad (10-6 F), Nano farad (10-9 F)
and Pico farad (10-12 F) are used.
§¨³c¨p´ §¨³c¨p´ % qpe¶&¶ ש¶§¨Bx %
Dimensions: - farad = µ¨³c¶ = =
µ¨³c¶ B¶·¸¨B ×p¶¸&¶
§¨³c¨p´

= Kg-1m-2s4A2 → 𝑀9' 𝐿9: 𝑇 ( 𝐴: is the dimension of C.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor:-
A parallel plate conductor consists of two parallel
conducting plates X & Y mounted on two insulating
stands and placed at a small distance apart in
air(vacuum).The plate X is being charged to +Q and
plate Y is earthed from the outer surface. By
induction the inner surface of plate Y acquires a –Q
charge. The +Q charge on the outer surface of Y will
flow to the earth. Thus plates X & Y will have equal&
opposite charges. The electric lines of force flow

from X to Y uniformly everywhere except in the
edges.
™
If σ is the surface charge density on each plate, then E =
*+

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𝜀3 is the permittivity of free space or air.

If A is area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates and V is the potential
difference between the plates, then,
²
E = . Also E = V/d
*+ y

²
∴ V = E d = 𝑑
*+ y

² *+ y
C = = farad.
‡ x

C increases with increase in area of the plates and decrease in distance between the plates.
If the space between the plates are filled with some dielectric then
¼*+ y
𝜀3 is replaced by K𝜀3 . ∴ C = farad.
x

Combination of capacitors:-
There are mainly two methods of combining capacitors: in series and in parallel
Capacitors in series:-

In series connection the capacitors are connected one after the other. In other words, the
first plate of the first capacitor is connected to electric source, the second plate is joined to
the first plate of the second capacitor & so on. The second plate of the last capacitor is
connected to earth. In this mode of connection
i) The charges on the individual capacitors are equal
ii) The total potential difference V across AB is shared by the capacitors in the inverse ratio
of their individual capacitances.
i.e. Q = C1V1 = C2V2 = C3V3 ……
And V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ……
² ² ² ²
= + + + …….
† §$ §% §@

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' ' ' '

∴ = + + + ……. is the effective combination of capacitors in series.
† §$ §% §@

Capacitors in Parallel:-

In this combination, the first plate of all capacitors are connected to one point and all the
second plates are connected to another point. Charge displaces from A to B independently
through individual capacitors. In this mode of connection
i) The potential difference across the individual capacitors are the same and
ii) The total charge displacement from A to B is shared by the capacitors in direct ratio of
their capacities.
V = V1 = V2 = V3 ……
² ²$ ² ²
= = % = @ ……..
† §$ §% §@

Q = Q1 +Q2 +Q3+ ……
CV = C1V1 + C2V2 + C3V3 +………
Or C = = C1 + C2 + C3 +……… is the resultant capacitance in parallel connection.

Energy stored in a capacitor:-

The total amount of work done in charging the capacitor is stored up in the capacitor in the
form of electric potential energy. A finite interval of time is required to charge a capacitor
to its full capacity. If the plates are charged to +Q & -Q, then during the process say we
increase the charge from q to q + dq,
The work that has to be done to increase the charge is dW = vdq; where v is the potential
difference between the plates at that instant.
So to charge the capacitor fully, the work done would be
² ²# ' ² ²%
W = 3 𝑣𝑑𝑞 = 3 𝑑𝑞 = 3 𝑞. 𝑑𝑞 =
† † :†

But Q = CV
' ²% '
∴ Energy stored U = = CV2 joule.
: † :

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Dielectrics:-

A dielectric is that material medium, the molecules of which have their electrons firmly
bound to them unlike a conductor. The molecule is generally electrically neutral, because
the centre of distribution of the negative & positive charges coincide.
However when the dielectric is introduced into an electric field, in each molecule the charge
centres are oppositely displaced. The positive centre displaces in the direction of the field
and the negative charge centre moves in the opposite direction .i.e., each molecule
becomes an electric dipole. The dielectric is said to be polarised .The polarisation produces
an electric field of its own in the dielectric, of intensity less than that of the external one but
opposite to it i.e., the effective field intensity reduces.
Again if the external field is very large, the negative charges from the molecules can be torn
off from the positive charges make the medium conducting. This is called ‘break down’ of
the dielectric. The electric intensity at which the break down happens is the measure of the
insulation strength or dielectric strength of the dielectric.
Effect of a dielectric between the conductors of a capacitor:-
Any dielectric, introduced between the conductors of a charged capacitor gets polarised,
reduces the field intensity between the plates, reduces the potential on the charged
conductor and hence increases the capacity of the capacitor.
Dielectric constant:-
When a dielectric is placed between the plates of a capacitor, the capacitance increases by a
dimensionless factor K which is called the ‘dielectric constant’ or ‘specific inductive capacity’
of the material.
C = K C0, where C0 is the capacitance before introduction of a dielectric and C is the
capacitance when the dielectric is introduced between the plates.

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†
K = . ∴ The dielectric constant of a material is the ratio of the capacitance of a given
†+
capacitor completely filled with that material to the capacitance of the same capacitor in
vacuum.
Permittivity & Relative permittivity of Dielectrics:-
The magnitude of electric field at a distance r from a point charge Q placed in vacuum is
given by
' ²
E0 = , where 𝜀3 is permittivity of free space.
()*+ & %

Corresponding expression for the electric field within a dielectric material is

' ²
E = , where 𝜀 is the absolute permittivity of the dielectric material.
()* & %
w+ *
= = K or 𝜀& is called as the relative permittivity of the dielectric.
w *+

Dielectric constant of a conductor is infinite because E will be zero.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with dielectric: -

Consider a parallel plate capacitor with two parallel plates having area A each and kept at a
distance d from each other. If a dielectric is introduced into the space between the capacitor
plates, then electric field reduces as
w+ ²
E = = = V/d
¼ ¼*+ y
𝑲𝜺𝟎 𝑨
So C =
𝒅

Special case:-if distance between the plates is d and the thickness of the dielectric is ‘t’ <‘d’
The potential difference between the plates V = E0 (d-t) + Et
² ² *+ y
C = = ¿ Â = Â
‡ x9¸ d x9¸d
À+ Á Ã Ã

If there are more than one dielectric slabs of varying thickness and dielectric constant filling
the entire space between the plates then

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*+ y
C = Â Â ,if d = t1+ t2 +……, then
x9 ¸$ d¸% d⋯. d $ d % d⋯
Ã$ Ã%

𝜺𝟎 𝑨
C = 𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐
d d⋯
𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟐

Spherical capacitor:-A solid charge A of radius ‘a’ is enclosed by a concentric hollow sphere
B of radius ’b’, insulated from A and earthed from outside.
' # ' #
V = -
()*+ q ()*+ ´

()*+ q´
C = q/v =
´9q

Cylindrical capacitor:-
A solid charged cylinder A is surrounded co-axially by a hollow cylinder B, insulated from A
and earthed from outside.
:)*+ c
C = È , a & b are radii of the two cylinders.
Å}ÆÇ
u

In all cases whenever a dielectric is included, replace𝜀3 𝑏𝑦 𝜀3 𝐾 .

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