Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics

PHY357

Better name is probably Introduction to Subatomic physics:

Emphasis is on particle physics; nuclear physics is simply particle physics
at relatively low energy.
Course web page http://www.physics.utoronto.ca/~krieger/phys357.html
Course outline
Announcements
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1
The Subatomic World

Experimental investigation
of smaller and smaller
distance scales require
higher and higher energies

“fundamental” particles
are point-like at the highest
experimentally achievable
energy scale

2
 The Standard Model
Describes the FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES and their INTERACTIONS

All known FORCES are mediated by PARTICLE EXCHANGE

a a Effective strength of an interaction depends on

X • the (dimensionless) coupling strength at the vertex
α α • the mass of the exchanged particle MX

a a

Force Effective Strength Physical Process

Strong 100 Nuclear binding

Electromagnetic 10-2 Electron-nucleus binding

Weak 10-5 Radioactive β decay

3
 Fundamental Interactions

Structure of the Standard Model:

Electromagnetic Interaction (QED)
Weak Interaction
Strong Interaction (QCD)
} Electroweak Theory

QED = Quantum Electrodynamics

QCD = Quantum Chromodynamics

These models are defined by their particle content of the theory and by the
allowed interactions of these particles (i.e. what are the allowed vertices)

4
 electromagnetic force

strong force
spin 1/2

weak force

spin 1/2

spin 1

5
Number of Light Fermion Generations

Need to account for the

three colour states of each
quark when calculating the
SM rate for this process.

6
 The Standard Model of Particle Physics

Fermions ⎛e⎞ ⎛µ⎞ ⎛τ ⎞ charged leptons

( spin ½ ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Matter particles ⎝ν e ⎠ L ⎝ν µ ⎠ L ⎝ν τ ⎠L neutral leptons

⎛u⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛t⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ quarks
⎝ d ⎠L ⎝ s ⎠L ⎝ b ⎠L

γ Standard Model predicts the existence

of one fundamental scalar (spin-0)
Bosons ± 0 particle known as the Higgs Boson.
( spin 1 ) W ,Z
Force carriers This is the only particle of the SM that
g has yet to be experimentally observed.

7
 The Standard Model of Particle Physics

Fermions ⎛e⎞ ⎛µ⎞ ⎛τ ⎞ Q = -1

( spin ½ ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Matter particles ⎝ν e ⎠ L ⎝ν µ ⎠ L ⎝ν τ ⎠L
⎛u⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛t⎞ Q = +2/3
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠L ⎝ s ⎠L ⎝ b ⎠L Q = -1/3

γ Particles with electromagnetic interactions

Bosons ± 0
( spin 1 ) W ,Z
Force carriers
g
8
 The Standard Model of Particle Physics

Fermions ⎛e⎞ ⎛µ⎞ ⎛τ ⎞

( spin ½ ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Matter particles ⎝ν e ⎠ L ⎝ν µ ⎠ L ⎝ν τ ⎠L
⎛u⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛t⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠L ⎝ s ⎠L ⎝ b ⎠L

γ
Bosons ± 0
( spin 1 ) W ,Z Particles with weak interactions
Force carriers
g
9
 The Standard Model of Particle Physics

Fermions ⎛e⎞ ⎛µ⎞ ⎛τ ⎞

( spin ½ ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Matter particles ⎝ν e ⎠ L ⎝ν µ ⎠ L ⎝ν τ ⎠L
⎛u⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛t⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠L ⎝ s ⎠L ⎝ b ⎠L

γ
Bosons ± 0
( spin 1 ) W ,Z
Force carriers
g Particles with strong interactions
10
 The Standard Model of Particle Physics

Fermions ⎛e⎞ ⎛µ⎞ ⎛τ ⎞

( spin ½ ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Matter particles ⎝ν e ⎠ L ⎝ν µ ⎠ L ⎝ν τ ⎠L First observation 2001

⎛u⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛t⎞ First observation 1995

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠L ⎝ s ⎠L ⎝ b ⎠L

γ
Bosons ± 0
( spin 1 ) W ,Z
Force carriers
g
11
 Feynman Diagrams for Fundamental Processes

Used to represent all fundamental interactions

A Stable particle (A) in free space (moving or at rest)

particle traveling backwards in time =

anti-particle traveling forwards in time

A
Stable anti-particle (A) in free space (moving or at rest)

NB here time runs upwards – The choice is merely a

convention and has no other meaning. Often you
will see it left to right.

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Feynman Diagrams for Fundamental Processes

B X

Particle decay A BX
time
(assumes MA > MB + MX)
A

Read this as: at some point in time there is a particle A, and at a later
point it decays into particles B and X
or X couples A to B
or X and B and A couple together
Note that there is no spatial component to these diagrams (the
diverging lines do not imply that the particles are flying apart)

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 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

A B

Combine two vertex primitives to

make lowest order scattering diagram

X A+B A+B

A B

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 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

C D

if for example, X also couples C to D

X

A+B C+D

A B

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 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

B D

A+C B+D
X

A C

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 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

e e

e+ e- e+ e-
g
(Bhabha scattering)

Electromagnetic interaction
e e

17
 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

νe e

e νe e νe
W (electron-neutrino scattering)

weak interaction

e νe

18
 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

νµ µ

e νe µ νµ
W

weak interaction

e νe

19
 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

u d

e νe ud
W

weak interaction

e νe

20
 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

d u

ud ud
W

weak interaction

d u

21
 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

s c

ud cs
W

weak interaction

d u

22
 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

μ νµ

ud µ νµ
W

weak interaction

d u

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 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

Often there is more than one diagram contributing to a single process

e e

e+ e- e+ e- (Bhabha scattering)
g
annihilation diagram
(s-channel)

e e

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 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

e e
g e+ e- e+ e- (Bhabha scattering)
photon exchange diagram
(t-channel)
e e

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 Feynman Diagrams for Scattering

e e
g e- e- e- e- (Moller scattering)
photon exchange diagram
(there is no annihilation diagram)
e e

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 The Higgs Boson
Quantum Electrodynamics can be made to yield finite values for all calculations
Electroweak Theory give infinite result for processes such as W+W- W+W-

W W W W W W
g
g + +

W W W W W W

Amplitude for this process is finite if the Higgs boson is included

W W
H0
Higgs Boson makes W± and Z0 massive and
is also responsible generating the masses
of fundamental particles. It is a quantum
field permeating the Universe
W W
27
 A Physical Analogy

In vacuum, a photon has velocity = c and mass = 0

In glass a photon has velocity < c which is equivalent to mass > 0

This is due to the photon interactions with the electromagnetic field in

condensed matter

By analogy, we can understand the masses of particles as arising due

to interactions with Higgs field (in vacuum).
This Higgs field is an important part of inflationary theories

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 Force Unifications

magnetism
Standard Model does NOT account
Maxwell electromagnetism
for gravitational interactions
electricity electroweak
S
T
A
Planck Scale (or Planck Mass)
weak interactions N
D is defined as the energy scale at
A
R GUT which gravitational interactions
D
M become of the same strength as
O
D
E
SM interactions
strong interactions L TOE

celestial
movement
gravitation
Newton
terrestrial
movement
-

MEW MGUT Mplanck

Energy scale

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 YOU ARE HERE !

last-scattering

Responsible for
Cosmic Microwave Background

Grand Unification era

30
 Expansion of the Universe
BIG BANG model came from the observation that the UNIVERSE IS EXPANDING

For distant galaxies velocity (w.r.t us) ∝ distance v = H0 x distance

Hubble constant

Whether the Universe continue to expand or begins at some point to

contract depends upon the density of matter and energy in the Universe

e.g. is there enough matter and energy in the Universe for the gravitational
attraction to stop (and possible reverse) the Universe’s expansion ? 31
 The Fate of the Universe

If ρ0, the density of matter and energy in the Universe, is greater than
some critical density, ρc, the expansion of the Universe will eventually
cease and reverse, so that it ultimately contracts (THE BIG CRUNCH)

If ρ0, the density of matter and energy in the Universe, is LESS than then
critical density, ρc, the expansion of the Universe will continue forever
(THE BIG FREEZE)

ρ0 8π G ρ0
Usually measure the density in units of ρc Ω0 = =
ρC 3 H 02
Ω0 > 1 spherical space-time: contraction

Ω0 = 1 flat space time: expansion (asymptotic)

Ω0 < 1 hyperbolic space-time: expansion

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 Measuring Ω0

Amazingly, we can measure the total matter/energy density in the Universe !!!

Use temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background (CMB)

Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)

ℓ related to angular scale

peak at ~200 evidence for Ω0 = 1
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 Density of Standard Model Matter

Referred to as Baryonic Matter (eg. made of protons and neutrons)

Density is ΩB

If Universe is made of ONLY quarks and leptons ΩB = Ω0 = 1

ΩB measured from abundance of elements produced in nucleosynthesis

Deuterium, Helium, Lithium Most of the Universe is NOT

Standard Model matter.
ΩB = 0.05 Instead it is some form of
ΩB ≠ Ω0 DARK MATTER

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 Density of All Matter ΩM

Can measure the density of ALL matter by looking at gravitational effects

Rotation curves of galaxies
Motion of galactic clusters

This provides evidence for DARK MATTER since

ΩM = 0.4 ± 0.1

Even with Dark Matter we cannot account for Ω0 = 1

Universe must ~ 60% DARK ENERGY

35
 Dark Energy ΩΛ

If the expansion of the Universe is slowed by gravitational attraction,

expect that in the remote past galaxies were moving apart more rapidly
than now.
Observations of distant supernovae show the opposite. Past galaxies are
moving apart more slowly !
Expansion of the Universe is accelerating !

ΩΛ = 0.85 ± 0.2
(0.4 ± 0.1) + (0.85 ± 0.2) = 1.25 ± 0.22
ΩM + ΩΛ = 1

Driven by some quantum field permeating the universe

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Supernova Cosmology Project
http://www-supernova.LBL.gov

37
 Supersymmetry (SUSY)

With only the particle content of the SM, unification of the forces does not
appear to take place: forces never have the same strengths

60
α-1 ( µ )

60

α-1 ( µ )
U(1) U(1
E.M. ) E.
50 α-11 ( µ ) Force 50 M.
For
α-11 ( µ ) ce
Inverse coupling constant

Inverse coupling constant

40 rce 40
eak Fo Grand Unified#
SU(2) W (GUT) Scale
Grand Unified# SU(2) Weak Force
30 α-12 ( µ ) or ce 30
on gF (GUT) Scale α-12 ( µ )
) Str ?
20 (3 20 Forc e
SU Strong
SU(3)
α-13 ( µ )
10 No Supersymmetry 10 α-13 ( µ ) With Supersymmetry

0 0
103 105 107 109 10 11 10 13 10 15 10 17 103 105 107 109 10 11 10 13 10 15 10 17
Energy Scale, µ[GeV] Energy Scale, µ[GeV]

The Higgs mass runs away to the Planck scale (technical issue for SM)
Both of these problems can be addressed by an extension to the SM called
SUPERSYMMETRY (also known as SUSY)
38
 Supersymmetry

Each SM boson (fermion) has a fermionic (bosonic)

supersymmetric partner with IDENTICAL MASS
and Standard Model COUPLINGS
W± W ±
Z0 Z 0 gauginos
leptons sleptons γ γ
⎛e⎞ ⎛µ⎞ ⎛τ ⎞ ⎛ ~e ⎞ ⎛ µ~ ⎞ ⎛ τ~ ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ↔ ⎜⎜ ~ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ~ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ~ ⎟⎟
⎝ν e ⎠ ⎝ν µ ⎠ ⎝ν τ ⎠ ⎝ν e ⎠ ⎝ν µ ⎠ ⎝ν τ ⎠ h0 h 0
~ H0 H 0
⎛u⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛t⎞ ~⎞
⎛u ⎛ ~c ⎞ ⎛t⎞ higgsinos
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ↔ ⎜~⎟ ⎜~⎟ ⎜⎜ ~ ⎟⎟ A0 A 0
⎝d⎠ ⎝s⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝d⎠ ⎝s⎠ ⎝b⎠
quarks squarks H± H ±
Spin 1/2 Spin 0 g g gluinos

Spin 1 Spin 1/2 39

 Supersymmetry is a Broken Symmetry

Supersymmetry requires a doubling of the particle spectrum. Is this cost excessive ?

It has been successful before (anti-matter) BUT

M e+ = M e− M e ≠ M e

We do NOT see supersymmetric matter made of snucleons and selectrons

Supersymmetry is a BROKEN SYMMETRY

For supersymmetry is to solve the problems mentioned require that

MSUSY ≤ 1 TeV

This is often referred to as WEAK-SCALE SUPERSYMMETRY

40
 SUSY and Dark Matter

A conserved quantum number (R-parity) distinguishes SM from SUSY

particles: this has two important phenomenological consequences:
SUSY particles must be produced in pairs
A SUSY particle must decay into SUSY particle + SM particle(s)
SUSY SUSY + SM
The the lightest SUSY particles is cannot decay ! It is STABLE, but does
not interact with ordinary matter (it is like a neutrino in that respect but is
very massive).
Lightest SUSY particle has properties making it a good Dark Matter
candidate (so called Cold Dark Matter or CDM: non-relativistic)
WIMP = Weakly Interacting Massive Particle

Hope to produce SUSY particles at the Large Hadron Collider (and the
Higgs Boson as well) starting in 2007.
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 Scattering Experiments

• Particles off a target (Rutherford scattering)

• Particles of particles (colliding beam)
• Will see that colliding beams is kinematically superior – more energy
available to produce new particles in final state (no need to have
momentum in final state.

42
 Particle Detectors

Tracking Calorimeters Muon

Detector(s) EM Hadronic Detector(s)

γ n, K L0
e±
µ±
π ±, p

n, K L0

Neutrinos pass through the detector unobserved. The same would be true
for any neutral, weakly interacting particle (if such particles exist)

43
Detector for Fixed Target Experiment

44
 A Collider Detector

Radial “layering” of detector technologies

Require cylindrical symmetry and ~ full solid angle coverage (hermiticity)
45
 Collider Experiments
Linear Collider: have to accelerate particles in one shot
Circular Colliders: particles can travel in circles, slowly being accelerated
up to the required energy over many circuits, then brought into collision.
World’s largest collider is being built at CERN, in Geneva

Lake
Geneva

46
The Large Hadron Collider at CERN

47
The ATLAS Cavern

48
49
 Hadron Colliders vs Electron Positron Colliders
Bending a charged particle in a magnetic field costs energy
(synchrotron radiation)
4 π e 2 β 2γ 4 1
∆ E= ⋅ ∝ 4 or E 4
3 ρ m

For fixed radius machine (i.e. in the LEP tunnel at CERN with ρ = 6.28km)
synchrotron radiation loss for protons less than that for electrons by the amount

4 Cannot build electron synchrotrons of arbitrarily

⎛ me ⎞ − 13 high energy. Need either:
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈ 10
☺ hadron collider
⎝ mp ⎠
linear electron-positron collider (next ?)

50
 Circular Colliders
In order to keep the particles in a circular orbit, need to bend them with
magnetic fields.
7000 GeV protons beams of LHC require VERY strong magentic fields

Relationship between beam momentum and field required for fixed

bending radius:

51
LHC Dipole (Bending) Magnet in LHC Tunnel

52
 The LHC pp Collider at CERN
14 TeV pp collider to be installed in the existing 27km ring

First collisions scheduled for 2007

Two general purpose detectors:

ATLAS and CMS

Main objectives: Discover the new TeV scale
physics
Discovery or exclusion of the SM Higgs
Discovery or exclusion of Weak-Scale SUSY

53
 Feynman Diagrams for Quark-Quark Scattering

d u

ud ud
W

d u

If free quarks do not exist, how do we look at such a process experimentally ?

54
 Collisions at Hadron Colliders
Hadron colliders can achieve higher centre-of-mass energies than
electron-positron machines, but ECM of constituent collision ≠ 2 × E beam

Ebeam Ebeam proton remnant

p p 0.7

x f(x)
0.6
p-p “collision” p 0.5
q q 0.4

u u g
p q q 0.3

p 0.2

d 0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
proton remnant
3 valence quarks
+ sea quarks
+ gluons

qq ′, qq ′, qg , gg collisions at a range of energies 0 < ECM

effective
< 2 Ebeam
Messy experimental environment for precision measurements, but
great for discovery of new physics
55
 Supersymmetric Particle Production at LHC

p
q
Highest cross-section are for strongly interacting
q˜
g˜ SUSY particles (squarks, gluinos)
q q˜
p
~q
q ~
Each production/decay sequence ends decay to the
lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP)
p
q g˜
q˜ missing E > 2· MLSP (at least ~ 100-200 GeV)
g q˜
p
~~
q g
Experimentally, detect this as an energy
imbalance in the detector, since missing massive
p
particles carry away undetectable energy in the
g g˜
g˜ form of mass and momentum
g g˜
p
~
g~g
56