THE BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

Diffusion of momentum – initial transient of flow

between parellel plates
 HEAT EXCHANGERS

Shell

Tubes

Baffle
Distillation Tower
Physical situation giving rise to the non-slip condition
 Velocity Boundary Layer development on
a flat plate

When fluid particles make contact with the surface, their velocity is reduced
significantly relative to the fluid velocity upstream of the plate, and for most
situation it is valid to assume that the particle velocity is zero at the wall. VBL is
important for problems involving convection transport. VBL relates strongly to
Ƭs, and hence to the surface frictional effects.
 Thermal Boundary Layer development
on an isothermal flat plate

Fluid particles that come into contact with the plate achieve thermal
equilibrium at the plate´s surface temperature. In turn, these particles
exchange energy with those in the adjoining fluid layer, and
temperature gradients develop in the fluid.
Species Concentration Boundary Layer development
on a flat plate

The CBL is the region of the fluid in which concentration gradients

exists, and its thickness is typically defined as the value of y for which
[(CA,s - CA )/(CA,s – CA,inf ) = 0.99
Bounday Layer formation and separation on a cylinder in cross flow
Velocity Profile associated with separation on a cylinder in cross flow
 Fluid flow conditions

Laminar Transient Turbulent

 Comparision of Laminar and Turbulent
Velocity Bounday Layers profiles for the same free stream velocity
Development of the Velocity, Thermal, and Concentration
Bounday Layers for an arbitrary surface
 Flow Over a Body
U0

y
U

x d

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Ruston, LA 71272
 Flow Over a Flat Plate
y
U0 U0 d – Boundary
layer thickness

d  x

x
What can we say about this flow?
v y is small
vx changes slowy in the x direction
vx changes rapidly in the y direction

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Ruston, LA 71272
The equation of change for mechanical energy
Equation of motion making use of equation of continuity
The Equation of Energy
 Equation of change for Internal Energy
By substracting equation of mechanical energy from equation of energy
 Continuity & Momentum

Use 2-dimensional equations.

vx v y
 0  continuity 
x y
 vx vx  P   2 vx  2 vx 
  vx  vy   2  2   x  momentum 
 x y  x  x y 
 v y v y  P   2
v  2
vy 
  vx  vy   2  2
y
 ( y  momentum)
 x
 x y  y  y 
In contrast to previous derivations, we do not say that terms
are zero. We say that they are “small.”

Louisiana Tech University

Ruston, LA 71272
 Thermal Energy Equation
Assumptions: [u = vx] [v=vy]

Steady, two-dimenasional flow, of an incompressiblle fluid with constant properties

Advection Conduction

µφ: is the viscuous disipation

 Conservation of Species
Assumptions:

Steady, two-dimensional flow of an incompressible fluid with constant properties

B.10-1

Advection Diffusion
Boundary Layer Equations

The Boundary Layer Equations

• Consider concurrent velocity and thermal boundary layer development for steady,
 
two-dimensional, incompressible flow with constant fluid properties  , c p , k and
negligible body forces.
• Apply conservation of mass, Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion and conservation of energy
to a differential control volume and invoke the boundary layer approximations.
Velocity Boundary Layer:

 2u  2u p dp
, 
x 2 y 2 x dx

Thermal Boundary Layer:

 2T  2T
x 2 y 2
Boundary Layer Equations (cont.)

• Conservation of Mass:
u v
 0
x y

• Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

x-direction :
u u 1 dp  2u
u v   2
x y  dx y

What is the physical significance of each term in the foregoing equation?

Why can we express the pressure gradient as dp∞/dx instead of p / x ?

Boundary Layer Equations (cont.)

• Conservation of Energy:
2
T T  2T   u 
u v  2   
x y y c p  y 

What is the physical significance of each term in the foregoing equation?

What is the second term on the right-hand side called and under what conditions
may it be neglected?
 Boundary Layer Similarity
Similarity Considerations

• As applied to the boundary layers, the principle of similarity is based on

determining similarity parameters that facilitate application of results obtained
for a surface experiencing one set of conditions to geometrically similar surfaces
experiencing different conditions.

• Dependent boundary layer variables of interest are:

 s and q or h

• For a prescribed geometry, the corresponding independent variables are:

Geometrical: Size (L), Location (x,y)
Hydrodynamic: Velocity (V)
Fluid Properties:
Hydrodynamic:  , 
Thermal : c p , k
Hence,
u  f  x , y , L, V ,  ,  
 s  f  x , L,V ,  ,  
Similarity Considerations (cont.)

and
T  f  x , y , L, V ,  ,  , c p , k 
h  f  x , L, V ,  ,  , c p , k 

• Key similarity parameters may be inferred by non-dimensionalizing the momentum

and energy equations.
• Recast the boundary layer equations by introducing dimensionless forms of the
independent and dependent variables.
x y
x*  y* 
L L
u v
u*  v* 
V V
T  Ts
T* 
T  Ts
• Neglecting viscous dissipation, the following normalized forms of the x-momentum
and energy equations are obtained:
* u * u 1  2u *
* *
dp*
u v  * 
x* y* dx Re L y*2
T * * T
*
1  2T *
u *
v 
x* y* Re L Pr y*2
Similarity Considerations (cont.)

VL VL
Re L    the Reynolds Number
 v
cp v
Pr    the Prandtl Number
k 
How may the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers be interpreted physically?

• For a prescribed geometry,


u*  f x* , y* ,Re L 
u  V  u
*
s     *
y y 0  L  y y*  0

The dimensionless shear stress, or local friction coefficient, is then

s2 u*
Cf  
V 2 / 2 Re L y* y*  0

u*
y*

 f x* , Re L 
y*  0

2
Cf 
Re L

f x* ,Re L 
Similarity Considerations (cont.)

• For a prescribed geometry,


T *  f x* , y* ,Re L ,Pr 
k f T / y k f T  Ts  T * k f T *
y 0
h  
Ts  T L Ts  T  y* y*  0
L y* y*  0

The dimensionless local convection coefficient is then

hL T *
Nu 
kf
 *
y

 f x* ,Re L ,Pr 
y*  0

Nu  local Nusselt number

How does the Nusselt number differ from the Biot number?
 Internal Flow:
General Considerations
Transition

Boundary Layer Transition

• What conditions are associated with transition from laminar to turbulent flow?
• Why is the Reynolds number an appropriate parameter for quantifying transition
from laminar to turbulent flow?
• Transition criterion for a flat plate in parallel flow:
u x
Re x ,c   c  critical Reynolds number

xc  location at which transition to turbulence begins
105  Re x ,c  3 x 106
~ ~
Transition (cont.)

What may be said about transition if ReL < Rex,c? If ReL > Rex,c?

• Effect of transition on boundary layer thickness and local convection coefficient:

Why does transition provide a significant increase in the boundary layer thickness?
Why does the convection coefficient decay in the laminar region? Why does it increase
significantly with transition to turbulence, despite the increase in the boundary layer
thickness? Why does the convection coefficient decay in the turbulent region?
Entrance Conditions

Entrance Conditions
• Must distinguish between entrance and fully developed regions.
• Hydrodynamic Effects: Assume laminar flow with uniform velocity profile at
inlet of a circular tube.

– Velocity boundary layer develops on surface of tube and thickens with increasing x.

– Inviscid (ideal – no viscosity) region of uniform velocity shrinks as boundary layer grow
 Does the centerline velocity change with increasing x? If so, how does it change?
– Subsequent to boundary layer merger at the centerline, the velocity profile
becomes parabolic and invariant with x. The flow is then said to be
hydrodynamically fully developed.
 How would the fully developed velocity profile differ for turbulent flow?
Entrance Conditions (cont)

• Thermal Effects: Assume laminar flow with uniform temperature, T  r ,0   Ti , at

inlet of circular tube with uniform surface temperature, Ts  Ti , or heat flux, qs .

– Thermal boundary layer develops on surface of tube and thickens with increasing x.
– Isothermal core shrinks as boundary layer grows.

– Subsequent to boundary layer merger, dimensionless forms of the temperature

profile  for Ts and qs  become independent of x. Conditions are then said to be
thermally fully developed.
• Neglecting viscous dissipation, the following normalized forms of the x-momentum
and energy equations are obtained:

u * * u
*
dp* 1  2u *
u*
v  * 
x* y* dx Re L y*2
T * * T
*
1  2T *
u*
v 
x* y* Re L Pr y*2
Reynolds Analogy

The Reynolds Analogy

• Equivalence of dimensionless momentum and energy equations for
negligible pressure gradient (dp*/dx*~0) and Pr~1:

u* * u
*
1  2u *
u*
v 
x* y* Re y*2

Advection terms Diffusion

T * * T
*
1  2T *
u*
v 
x* y* Re y*2

• Hence, for equivalent boundary conditions, the solutions are of the same form:
u*  T *
u * T *
 *
y* y*  0
y y*  0

Re
Cf  Nu
2
Development of the Velocity, Thermal, and Concentration
Bounday Layers for an arbitrary surface
 Boundary Layer Equations

Normalized boundary layer equations

u * u * dp * 1  2u *
Velocity: u*  v*  
x * y * dx * Re L y *2
T * T * 1  T* 2
Thermal: u*  v* 
x * y * Re L Pr y *2

C A * C A * 1  2C A *
Concentration: u*  v* 
x * y * Re L Sc y *2
 Dimensionless Parameters

VL V 2 / L FI Inertia Force

Re L    
 V / L2
Fs
Viscous Force

For a small Re: Viscous force is important

For a large Re: Viscous force is negligible

 Dimensionless Parameters

 Momentum Diffusivit y
cp
Pr   
k  Thermal Diffusivit y

Pr ≈ 1 for gases, Pr<<1 for liquid metals, Pr>>1 for oils

d
 Pr1/ 3
dt
 Dimensionless Parameters

/  Momentum Diffusivit y

Sc   
DAB DAB Mass Diffusivit y

d
 Sc1/ 3
dc
Dimensionless Parameters

 Sc Thermal Diffusivit y
Le   
DAB Pr Mass Diffusivit y

dt
 Le1/ 3
dc
 Dimensionless Parameters

s
Cf  Dimensionless surface shear stress
V / 2
2

hL
Nu  Dimensionless T gradient at the surface
kf

hm L
Sh  Dimensionless C gradient at the surface
DAB
 Boundary Layer Analogies
To establish relationship between Cf, Nu and Sh
Fluid Flow Heat Transfer Mass Transfer
dp * dp *
dp * T *  f ( x*, y*, Re L , Pr, ) C A *  f ( x*, y*, Re L , Sc,
u*  f ( x*, y*, Re L , ) dx * dx *
)
dx *
2 u * hf L T * hm L C *
Cf  Nu   Sh   A
Re L y * y*0 kf y * y *0 DAB y * y*0
2
Cf  f ( x*, Re L ) Nu  f ( x*, Re L , Pr) Sh  f ( x*, Re L , Sc)
Re L
 Boundary Layer Analogies
From hL
Observations: Nu   f ( x*, Re L ) Pr n
kf
hm L
Sh   f ( x*, Re L ) Sc n
DAB

Nu Sh
n
 f ( x*, Re L )  n
Pr Sc
Mass, Heat and Momentum Analogies

• Similarities between the transport phenomenon

• 5 conditions:

– No reaction to generate heat/mass

– No radiation
– No viscous dissipation
– Low mass-transfer rate
– Constant physical properties
 Continuity & Momentum
Use 2-dimensional equations.

vx v y
 0  continuity 
x y
 vx vx  P   2 vx  2 vx 
  vx  vy   2  2   x  momentum 
 x y  x  x y 
 v y v y  P   2v y  2v y 
  vx  vy   2  2  ( y  momentum)
 x
 x y  y  y 

In contrast to previous derivations, we do not say that terms

are zero. We say that they are “small.”
Louisiana Tech University
Ruston, LA 71272
• Key similarity parameters may be inferred by non-dimensionalizing the
momentum and energy equations.
• Recast the boundary layer equations by introducing dimensionless forms of the
independent and dependent variables.
x y
x*  y* 
L L
u v
u*  v* 
V V
T  Ts
T* 
T  Ts

• Neglecting viscous dissipation, the following normalized forms of the x-

momentum and energy equations are obtained:

u * * u
*
dp* 1  2u *
u*
v  * 
x *
y *
dx Re L y*2
T * * T
*
1  2T *
u*
v 
x *
y *
Re L Pr y*2
Reynolds Analogy

The Reynolds Analogy

• Equivalence of dimensionless momentum and energy equations for
negligible pressure gradient (dp*/dx*~0) and Pr~1:

u* * u
*
1  2u *
u*
v 
x* y* Re y*2

Advection terms Diffusion

T * * T
*
1  2T *
u*
v 
x* y* Re y*2

• Hence, for equivalent boundary conditions, the solutions are of the same form:
u*  T *
u * T *
 *
y* y*  0
y y*  0

Re
Cf  Nu
2
Reynolds Analogy (cont.)

or, with the Stanton number defined as,

h Nu
St  
Vc p Re Pr

With Pr = 1, the Reynolds analogy, which relates important parameters of the velocity
and thermal boundary layers, is
Cf
 St
2
• Modified Reynolds (Chilton-Colburn) Analogy:
– An empirical result that extends applicability of the Reynolds analogy:
Cf 2
 St Pr 3
 jH 0.6  Pr  60
2
Colburn j factor for heat transfer

– Applicable to laminar flow if dp*/dx* ~ 0.

– Generally applicable to turbulent flow without restriction on dp*/dx*.

Chilton-Colburn Analogies

Cf
 Stm Sc 2 / 3  jm
2
Chilton-Colburn Analogies

Cf 0.6 < Pr < 60

 St Pr 2 / 3  jH
2

Cf
 Stm Sc 2 / 3  jm 0.6 < Sc < 3000
2

For Laminar flow, need dP*/dx* =0;

Sherwood Number Relations in Mass Convection
Analogous Quantities in Transport Phenomena
 Example 1
As a means to prevent ice formation on the wings of small aircraft, it is

proposed that electric resistance heating elements be installed within the

wings. To determine the representative power requirements, considering

normal flying conditions for which plane moves at 100 m/s in air that is at

-23 ºC and has properties of k=0.022 W/mK, Pr=0.72, and ν=16.3x10-6 m2/s.

If the characteristic length of the airfoil is L=2m and the wind tunnel

measurements indicate an average friction coefficient of C f =0.0025 for the

normal conditions, what is the average heat flux needed to maintain a surface

temperature of Ts=5 C?
 Example 1
Known: Nominal operating conditions of aircraft,
characteristic length and average friction coefficient of wing

Find: Average heat flux needed to maintain prescribed surface

temperature of wing

Schematic:
 Example 1
Assumption: Steady-state, constant properties

Analysis:
The average heat flux that must be maintained over
the surface of the air foil is
where the average convection coefficient ( h ) may be
obtained from the modified Reynolds analogy
(Chilton-Colburn Analogy).
Example 1