RADIO

NAVIGATION





COMPILED BY - AMAN AIRON
 RADIO AIDS
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

1. Whenever a electric charge moves it gives rise to a magnetic field.

2. If DC current (constant direction) is introduced in a wire, magnetic field starts to for

perpendicular to the wire.

3. If an AC current (direction changes) is then introduced to the wire , as the direction of the
current changes the polarity of the magnetic field changes and in turn an electric field is
generated.

4.In the end there are two fields

a. Magnetic field (H)

b. Electric field (E).

5.Both are collectively known as electromagnetic radiations.

6.If the frequency of the transmitter is low, magnetic field will move out and reverse and
collapse with the current.

7.If the frequency is high , the magnetic field will start moving forward before the reversal
starts and thus energy will move out of the transmitter in the form of a electro magnetic
waves.

POLARISATION
1. Polarisation (direction) is the plane of electric field and is dependent on the aerial.
2. If the Aerial is in the vertical plane it will emit radio waves in the vertical direction
forming vertically polarised waves.
AMAN AIRON
3. If the aerial is in the horizontal plane it will emit radio waves in the horizontal direction
thus horizontally polarised wave.

4.For maximum signal reception from an incoming radio wave it is essential that the
receiving signal is in the same plane as polaristion of wave.

5.Circular polarisation is produced by an helical antenna, which is basically an insulated

road wrapped with a wire in helical shape.

6.The helical antenna produces wave in the vertcial and horizontal and all other planes.

7.It is helpful as it reduces cultter caused by percipitaion when used in a radar and the
plane of aerial is not important and both vertical and horizontal waves are present.

8.Useful in GPS and mobile communications.

Period (T)

1. the length of time take by a cycle to complete in a second.

2. since the time is very less it is expressed in the μs( micro seconds).

3. A μs is basically 1/1000000 or 10^-6.

4.So if one cycle of radio wave takes .125 μs in one second how many cycles will be
there?

so for 1 second it wil be f= 1/ t, ie

1\.125*10^-6. = 8000000 cycles per second

AMAN AIRON
5. This 8000000 cycles per second is the frequency

6.So frequency of a wave is the number of cycles completed in a second.

7.Frequency is expressed in HZ hertz.

8. 1khz = 1000hz
1mhz = 1000000hz
1ghz =1000000000hz.

9. So the frequency can be written as 8Mhz of the above equation.

Wavelength(入 )

1.Wavelength is the distance of one cycle in a second.

2.The wavelength and frequency are related as

If the length of a radio wave is more the number of cycles would be less
and if the wavelength is less the number of cycles will be more.

3.So Wavelength is inversaly propotional to frequency.

4. Speed of radio waves is 300* 10^6.

5. So wavelength= c*t.

6. (入 ) = c/f.

AMAN AIRON
 FREQUENCY BAND

V o L u M e High Very U S E ful

Khz Mhz Ghz
100km-100m 100m-10cm 10cm-1mm

PHASE COMPARISON

1.It is the comparison of two signals

2.Reference signal (R) and Variable signal (V).

AMAN AIRON
3.Used in some radio equipments such as a VOR.

4.First we need to know the zero phase of each signal and then

where the zero phase of the variable signal is we measure the

reference signal phase.

5.Frequency should be same.

6.Comparison must yield a positive result.

7 Mathematical solution R - V= ans. (If -(negative) add 360).

PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES

Factors affecting propagation :-

AMAN AIRON
1. Attenuation
It is the loss of signal strength in a radio waves as it travels
outward from a transmitter. It has two aspects.
a. Absorption- due to water vapour, dust particles ,surface of
the earth.
Range is more over sea than land because water is a good
conductor of electricity.
LAND

b. Inverse square law- radiation spreads out as the surface of

a sphere so power available decreases with distance.

So basically if range has to be doubled power would have to be

increased by a factor of 4.Because power is inversely proportional to
the square of range.

3. Static interference- caused due to build up of negative electrical

charge in weather, geological activity, thunderstorm. Worse at lower
frequency.

4. Refraction
As the wave travels from one medium to another it bends as it
changes speed.

AMAN AIRON
5.Defraction
In low LF and MF bands the radio tend to refract or bend so much
that they remain in contact with the earth for a really long time for
thousands of km.

6. Super-Refraction
a. Increase in Line of Sight by 40 %
b. When certain metrological conditions are met.
1.Decrease in RH with height.
2.Temperature falling more slowly than standard.
3.High pressure system.
4.warm air flowing over cooler surfaces.

7.Sub-Refraction
a. Increase of 20%.
b. When certain conditions are met.
1.Increased RH.
2.Lower than ISA temperature.
3.Low pressure.
4.Cold air over hot surfaces.

8.Coastal refraction- Radio waves travel faster over sea than land so
they bend as they cross the cost.
a. Cross at 90* otherwise radio wave will bend towards the
medium it travels slower.

TYPES OF PROPAGATION

AMAN AIRON
Surface wave(20khz- 50khz)
1.They travel across the earth by the process of diffraction.
2.As the frequency increases the ranges decrease as surface
attenuation increases.
3.They are used in NDB transmissions.

Space Wave(>50mhz)
1.Theay are made up of two parts ground reflected waves
and direct waves.

AMAN AIRON
2.Line of sight propagation
3.Range of space wave can be calculated

Ionosphere Propagation

The ionosphere is composed of several layers, which vary

according to the time of day. Each layer has different
propagation characteristics:
1. D layer – This layer occurs only during the day at
altitudes of 60 to 90 km. High absorption takes place at
frequencies up to 7 MHz .

2.E layer – This layer occurs at altitudes of 100 to 125 km.

3.F layer - This single night time layer splits into two layers
(F1 and F2) during the day. The F1 layer forms at
about 200 km and F2 at about 400 km. The F2 layer
propagates most HF short-wave transmissions.

AMAN AIRON
Sky Waves
These waves head out to space but are reflected or refracted
back by the ionosphere. The height of the ionosphere ranges
from 50 to 1,000 km.
Radio waves are refracted by the ionized gas created by solar
radiation. The amount of ionization depends on the time of day,
season. The specific radio frequency refracted is a function of
electron density and launch angle.

First Returning sky wave

Starting from the vertical at the transmitter with a frequency
which penetrates the ionosphere as the angle between the
vertical and the radio waves increase.
An angle will be achieved at which the total internal
refraction occurs and waves return to the surface.

Critical Angle
Angle at which this refraction ouccrs is called the critical
angle.

AMAN AIRON
Skip Distance
Distance from the transmitter to the first reflected sky wave.

Dead Space (Skip Zone)

Surface wave gets totally attenuated to a point.
From this point to where the first sky wave appears there is
no signal reception.
Critical Frequency
the highest magnitude of frequency above which the waves
penetrate the ionosphere and below which the waves are
reflected back from the ionosphere.

As the ionisation increase C.A ,S.D, D.S decrease.

As frequency increases C.A ,S.D, D.S increase.
When the transmitter and the receiver are both tangential at
the surface of the earth maximum sky wave range.
OWF(optimum working frequency) = 0.85 time MUF
MUF(Maximum usable frequency).
Fading
Variations in signal strength due to low power, distance,
weather, and polarisation mismatch.

AMAN AIRON
 MODULATION

It is adding information to a radio wave.

It can be defined as the process of varying the RF of the carrier wave
in accordance with the information in a low frequency signal.
Types of modulation are –
1. Keying modulation - The simplest way of
adding information is switching the electric current on and
off.
Most messages can be send this way.
Emission is A1A.

2. Amplitude modulation - A type of modulation where the

amplitude of the carrier signal is modulated (changed) in proportion
to the message signal while the frequency and phase are kept
constant

3. Frequency modulation - modulation where the frequency of the

carrier signal is modulated (changed) in proportion to the message
signal while the amplitude and phase are kept constant.

4. Phase modulation - modulation where the phase of the carrier

signal is varied accordance to the low frequency of the message
signal is known as phase modulation.

5. Pulse modulation - modulation in which pulses are varied in some

respect, such as width or amplitude, to represent the amplitude of a
signal.

AMAN AIRON
 Heterodyning
It is the process of superimposing a sin wave over another such as a
audio frequency over a radio frequency.

Double side band - is transmission in which frequencies produced

by amplitude modulation (AM) are symmetrically spaced above and
below the carrier frequency.
1. Bandwidth is twice the audio frequency.
2. Channels are less.

Single side band – Since there is duplication of message in the

double side band it would be helpful if only one band carries the
message so generally the lower band is removed.
Advantages of SSB are -
1. More number of channels.
2. Bandwidth is less.
3. Less power required.

AMAN AIRON
 ANTENNAE
Means by which a radio energy is radiated or released.

Two basic types of aerials -

1.Half wave dipole aerial

Power is fed to the centre of the aerial and radiates in all direction
perpendicular to the aerial.

2. Marconi or quarter wave dipole aerial

Insulated from a metal surface acts as a second part of dipole radio

energy radiating perpendicular to the aerial.

AMAN AIRON
3. Aerial feeders
It is the means by which energy is carried between aerial and
transmitter or a receiver depending on frequency and power level.
Low/Medium frequency (wire)
VHF (twin wire).

4. Polar diagram

It is used to show radiation or reception pattern of an aerial.

5. Directivity
1.Radar system require direct emission or reception of energy
example RADAR, ILS.
2.It is achieved by adding parasitic elements like a metal plate 5%
longer than the antennae at a distance ¼ of wavelength and in
the same plane it will act as a reflector which re radiates the
energy 180* out of phase.
3 more signal in front ( less signal behind ).

6. Radar aerials
Radar system operates in UHF and SHF bands.
Wave guides are required rather than cables because of the power
required for these systems is more.

AMAN AIRON
7. Modern radar antennae

1. Narrow beam.
2. Reduced side lobes.
3. Improved resolution.
4. Narrow pulse.
5. Less power.

AMAN AIRON
 DOPPLER'S EFFECT

It is based on the principle that the received frequency will only be

same the transmitted frequency when there is no relative movement
between the transmitter and the receiver.

The Doppler's effect is the change in the frequency observed

when there is relative motion between the transmitter and
receiver.

The difference between the transmitted frequency and the received

frequency is directly proportional to the relative velocity between
the transmitter and receiver.
The difference is called Doppler's Shift.

F(d) =f*V\c
f= frequency
V= velocity
c=speed of radio wave.

AMAN AIRON
 VDF
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY DIRECTION FINDER

1.Use loop antennae theory to give the direction to fly to the

station.
2.Adcock antennae is more accurate and modern.

Bearings
(Direction to fly)
Types of bearing :
BASED ON MAGNETIC NORTH
1. QDM = Magnetic bearing "TO" the station.
2. QDR = Magnetic bearing "FROM" the station.

BASED ON TRUE NORTH

3. QTE = True bearing "FROM" the station.
4. QUJ = True bearing "TO" the station.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
QDM QDR
QDM= +/- 180 QDR.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
QUJ QTE
QUJ=+/- 180 QTE.

AMAN AIRON
QDM+/- VARIATION= QUJ.
QDR+-/VARIATION= QTE.
1.Variation EAST magnetic LEAST.
2.Variation WEST magnetic BEST.
CLASS OF BEARING
CLASS A = Accurate within +/-2*
CLASS B = Accurate within +/-5*
CLASS C = Accurate within +/-10*
CLASS D = Accurate to more than class C
VDF SUMMARY

FEQUENCIES 117.975 to 137.00 MHZ

Q-CODES QDM
QDR
QTE
QUJ
ACCURACY A = +/-2*
B = +/-5*
C = +/-10*
D = > 10*

AMAN AIRON
 ADF
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER
It is in the aircraft and works in conjunction with a low and medium
frequency NDB on the ground to provide an aid for navigation.

NDB
NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON
It is a ground based transmitter sending vertically polarised signals in
all directions.
When and ADF is tuned to an NDB'S frequency and it's call sign is
identified, direction of NDB will be indicated.

Polar Diagram
Polar diagram of a NDB is CARDIOD SHAPE.

AMAN AIRON
TYPES
1. LOCATOR (L) - 10 TO 25 NM RANGE
2. ENROUTE (E) - 50 OR MORE UPTO 200NM
3. HOMING/ HOLDING - 50 NM HOLDING
4. MARINE - 400 NM.

Night range = 75NM

Range = 200NM

BEAT FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR

Device which is used to produce signal inside the receiver at a
frequency reduced by 1000hz to make it in the audible range so it
can be identified.

1. NON A1A - BFO for tuning and ident.

2. NON A2A - BFO for tuning only.
3. A2A - BFO not required.

FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY

1.DOC designated operational coverage of NDB is based on daytime
protection ratio (Signal to Noise ratio 3 : 1 ) between wanted and
unwanted signals helping accuracy.

AMAN AIRON
ERRORS
1. STATIC INTERFERENCE.

2. NIGHT EFFECT (apt dawn and dusk) - because of D layer

disappearing the sky wave contamination occurs due to surface
wave being used.

3. COASTAL REFRACTION.

4.QUADRENTAL ERROR.

AMAN AIRON
 SUMMARY

NDB LF AND MF (190 to 1750 KHZ)

FREQUENCY
TYPES OF NDB LOCATOR
ENROUTE
HOMING/HOLDING
MARINE
RANGE 200NM
ADF AIRBRONE EQUIPMENT(aerials
receiver control unit (RBI/RMI)
PRINCIPLE (REALTIVE) BEARING BY
OPERATION SWITCHED CARDIOIDS
NONA1A-BFO (tuning
EMISSION identification and monitoring )
NONA2A-BFO (tuning)
USED HOMING,HOLDING,APPROACH

ERROS STATIC INTERFERENCE

STATION INTERFERNCE
NIGHT EFFECT
MOUNTAIN EFFECT
COASTAL REFRACTION
QUADRENTAL ERRORS
ACCURACY +/-5* WITHIN DOC.

AMAN AIRON
 VOR
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI DIRECTIONAL RANGE
Principle : Phase comparison.

PHASE COMPARISON
1.It is the comparison of two signals

2.Reference signal (R) and Variable signal (V).

3.Used in some radio equipments such as a VOR.

4.First we need to know the zero phase of each signal and then

where the zero phase of the variable signal is we measure the

reference signal phase.

5.Frequency should be same.

6.Comparison must yield a positive result.

7 Mathematical solution R - V= ans. (If -(negative) add 360).

AMAN AIRON
 OPERATION

1. It is practically free from static interference and is not

affected by sky waves, so to be used by day and night.
2. When VOR is co-located with DME an instant range and
bearing fix is obtained.
3. An aircraft VOR receiver measures the phase difference
between two signals from VOR transmitter.
4. 30 hz frequency modulated omni directional reference
signal , constant phase regardless of a receiver bearing
from the VOR.
5. 30 hz amplitude modulated variable signal created by a
rotating transmission pattern ( limacon ).
6. These two 30 hz modulations are in phase to an aircraft’s
VOR receiver when it is due magnetic North of the VOR
beacon, and

AMAN AIRON
 the phase difference measured at any other point will
equate to the aircraft’s magnetic bearing from VOR.
FREQUENCY RANGE
108 – 117.95 MHZ
IDENTIFICATION
1. It uses 3 letter aural morse code sent at 7 groups/ minute
at least every 10 seconds.
2. A continuous TONE or series of dots identifies a TEST VOR
( VOT ).

MONITORING
1. All VOR beacons are monitored by an automatic site
monitor.
2. It will shut off when
a. Bearing information changes exceeding 1*.
b. Reduction of > 15% signal strength.
c. A failure of monitor.

TYPES OF VOR
1. CVOR
2. BVOR
3. DVOR
4. TVOR
5. VOT

AMAN AIRON
6. VORTAC.

FACTORS AFFECTING VOR

1. RANGE = HIGH TRANSMITTER POWER MEANS MORE

RANGE.

2. DOC
For a positive no co frequency interference between 160
frequencies separate beacons by twice the LOS range.
So, if a range comes out to be 300 NM
Seperation = 600 nm.

3. SITE ERROR
It is caused by uneven terrain man made structures, tress
in the vicinity of the transmitter.
It is upto +/- 1* accuracy.

4. AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT ERROR

Equipment assemnet and conversion of phase difference
to 1* of bearing (+/- 3*).

5. TOTAL ERROR
It is (+/- 5) including pilotage error.
Because as the aircraft gets closer to VOR the radials gets

AMAN AIRON
 closer.

CONE OF AMBIGUITY

1.As the VOR is approached , the radial converge and the

VOR needle becomes sensitive. The needle oscillates
TO/FROM and an OFF FLAG appears because of no planned
radiation.

COVERAGE
1. 40*
2. MODERN VOR 60* TO 80 * above the horizon.

DOPPLER VOR
1. Second generation VOR.
2. Reference signal is AMPLITUDE MODULATED.
3. Variable signal is FREQUENCY MODULATED.
4. Rotation anticlockwise ( to maintain phase relationships ).
5. 51 aerials one at the centre. 50 around in a circular shape.
6. It eliminates site error.
VOR DEVIATION INDICATOR
1.It indicates deviation from VOR and where to fly.
2. 5 dot = 2*.
3. Full scale deflection = 10*.

AMAN AIRON
OBS (OMNI BEARING SELECTOR)
1. Pilot selects the OBS.
2. Desired Course.
TO/FROM INDICATOR

1.So if you are going towards a VOR it will indicate TO ( OBS inbound
track).
2. Away from the VOR it will indicate VOR (OBS is outbound).
3. Aircraft QDM is within 80* of bearing selected TO appears.
4. Aircraft QDR is within 80* of bearing FROM appears.

OFF FLAG
1. VOR transmission are faulty or aircraft is out of range.

HSI ( HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR )

1. Arrow head required course, set by pilot.
2. 1* dot = 5*.
3. Full scale deflection = 10*.

AMAN AIRON
FREQUENCY 108 - 117.975 MHZ, 160 CHANNELS
USES AIRWAYS,LET
DOWN,HOLDING,ENROUTE NAV
PRINCIPLE PHASE COMPARISON OF TWO 30HZ
SIGNAL
IDENT 3 LETTER MORSE, EVERY 10
SECOND
MONITORING AUTOMATIC SITE MONITOR +/- 1*
OPERATIONAL RANGE TRANSMITTER POWER
LINE OF SIGHT
DOC VALID DAY AND NIGHT
ACCURACY AFFECTED BY SITE ERROR
PROPAGATION ERROR
SCALLOPING(BENDING DUE TO
REFLECTION FROM TERRAIN)
AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT
CONE OF CONFUSION OFF FLAG MAY APPEAR TO / FROM
MAY FLUCTAUTE

AMAN AIRON
AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT CDI 2* DOT , MAX 10*
RMI ARROWHEAD GIVES QDM
RANGE 200 NM

AMAN AIRON
 ILS
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM
A system which helps the pilot to reach Decision height with visual
instruction in cockpit with a pre determined glide path and extended
runway centreline.

ILS components
GROUND INSTALLATION and AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT

LOCALIZER
GLIDE PATH
MARKER BEACON

1. LOCALIZER VHF BAND ( 108 -111.975)

300m from the upwind end of the runway.
2. GLIDE PATH UHF BAND (329.15 - 335)
300m in from threshold
200m runway edge abeam point.

3. MARKER BEACONS
MARKER LIGHT FREQUENCY RANGE IDENT
MODULATED
OUTER BLUE 400 HZ 6.5 - 11.1 2 DASHES/
MARKER SECOND
MIDDLE ORANGE 1300 HZ 1050 +-/ ALTERNATED
MARKER 150 M DOT AND
DASHES
INNER WHITE 3000HZ 75 - 450M 6 DOTS
MARKER

DME ILS ( 25,000FT)

AMAN AIRON
PRINCIPLE OF LOCALIZER
Antennae produces two overlaping lobes along the runway approach
direction
2. Right hand lobe (blue sector) 150 hz modulated.
3. Left hand lobe ( yellow sector) 90 hz modulated.
4. Depth of Modulation increases away from the centre line.
5. Amplitude of the modulating signal increases away from the
centre line on the runway.

Ex. - If an aircraft is approaching runway from left of centre line,

more 90 hz modulation received than 150 hz.
Difference in Depth of Modulation energises needle and indication
go right.

GLIDE SLOPE PRINCIPLE

1. Same as localizer
2. Upper lobe has 90 hz modulation (large)
3. lower lobe has 150 hz moudlation (small)
4. 3* Glide path( angle between 2* and 4*) is defined as where the
Difference Depth of modulation of the overlapping is zero and GP
indicator will indicate zero.
5. False glide slope (6*) due to man made structure and ground
reflection.
AMAN AIRON
a. Height of aerial.
b. Occurs at least twice the glide path angle.

ILS REFERENCE DATUM POINT

Point at a specified height located vertically above intersection of the
runway centre line and threshold through which the downward
section of the ILS GP extends.

VISUAL GLIDE PATH INDICATOR

PAPI

WHITE WHITE FLY ALL NIGHT

RED WHITE YOU ARE RIGHT
RED RED DEAD

COVERAGE
LOCALIZER = 25 NM (10* UP AND DOWN)
17 NM(BETWEEN 10* AND 35* CENTRE LINE)
10 NM(+/-35* IF COVERAGE IS PROVIDED)
GLIDE PATH = 10 NM (8* EITHER OF CENTRE LINE)
GLIDE PATH ANGLE =(.45θ to 1.75θ)

If GP angle is 3*
upper limit = 3 * 1.75θ
lower limit = 3 * .45θ.

AMAN AIRON
ILS CAT

CAT RVR DH

CAT I NOT LESS THAN 550M NOT LOWER THAN

60M (200FT)
CAT II NOT LESS THAN 300M LOWER THAN 60M
BUT NOT 30M
CAT IIIA NOT LESS THAN 200M LOWER THAN 15M OR
NO DH
B LESS THAN 200M BUT LOWER THAN 15M OR
NOT LESS THAN 75 NO DH

C NO RVR NO DH

ILS PROTECTED AREAS

1.ILS CRITICAL AREA

Area defined by dimensions about the localizer and GP antennae

where vehicles and aircraft are excluded during all ILS operation
otherwise unacceptable disturbance.

AMAN AIRON
2. ILS SENSITIVE AREA
It extends beyond critical area and is where parking or movement
of vehicles and aircraft is controlled to prevent possibility of
unacceptable interference to ILS during LVP.

3. HOLDING POINTS

"A designated position intended to protect a runway, an obstacle

limitation surface, or an ILS/MLS critical/sensitive area at which
taxiing aircraft and vehicles shall stop and hold, unless otherwise
authorized by the aerodrome control tower"

Height = GP angle * Range * 100

ROD = GP *GS*100/60.
So, for a 3* GP angle ( calculate using 3*)
For other ( divide answer by 3* and multiply by the GP
angle given).

AMAN AIRON
 SUMMARY

LOCALIZER 108-111.975MHZ VHF

GLIDE PATH 329.15-335MHZ UHF
MARKER 75MHZ VHF
INDICATOR CDI(.5*/dot);max 2.5*
GP (.7*)
2.5 FLY UP MAX SAFE

AMAN AIRON
 MLS
MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

It is a precision approach and landing system that provides position

and various grid data.
200 channels.

PRINCIPLE
It works on the principle of time division multiplexing.
Only one frequency is used on a channel but transmissions from
various data and ground equipments are sync.

FREQUENCY BAND
SHF (5031 - 5090.7)

BACK COURSE
A secondary system provides overshoot and departure guidance
+/-20* of runway direction and 15* elevation.

AMAN AIRON
COVERAGE
Azimuth coverage is +/-40* of the runway course line and glide slope
.9* to 20*.

RANGE
20 TO 30 NM.

PRINCIPLE TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

FREQUENCIES 5031 TO 5090.7 MHZ (SHF BAND)
APPROACH AZIMUTH COVERAGE +/- 40* UPTO 20 NM
ELEVATION COVERAGE UPTO 20* TO 20,000FT
BACK AZIMUTH +/- 15* UPTO 10 NM
BACK ELEVATION UPTO 15* AND 10,000FT
PRIMARY ADVANTAGES FLEXIBLE APPROACH DIRECTION
FLEXIBLE GLIDE PATH ANGLE
NO SITING PROBLEM
NO FM INTERFERENCE

AMAN AIRON
 DME
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT
A secondary radar system that enables an aircraft to establish it's
range from a ground station.

EMISSION CODE PON

FREQUENCY 960 AND 1215 MHZ (UHF)
CHANNELS 250

THERE IS ALWAYS A DIFFERENCE OF +/- 63MHZ BETWEEN THE

INTERROGATION AND TRANSPONDING FREQUENCIES.

PRINCIPLE PULSE TECHINQUE

An aircraft's interrogator transmits a stream of omni directional
pulses on the carrier frequency of the ground transponder.
Simultaneously the interrogator receiver starts a Range search.
At the transponder on the ground the received interrogation pulses

AMAN AIRON
are re transmitted after a delay of 50 microseconds at a frequency
that is +/-63 Mhz removed from the interrogation frequency.

ACCURACY (MODERN DME)

+/-(.2)NM.

IN THEORY 100 AIRCRAFT A DME CAN INTERROGATE.

Width of interrogation pulse is (3.5 microseconds /1050m).
Dme interrogator transmits a 150 pulse per second for 15,000 pulses
pairs.
If lock-on is not achieved, it will then reduce the rate to 60 ppps and
maintains this rate until there is a range lock-on. At lock-on the
system operates at a random PRF of 27 ppps.

AMAN AIRON
 RADAR
RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING
1.In RADAR, transmission of radio waves is not a continues wave.
2.The technique involves transmission of radio energy in a very short
burst i.e. in pulses.
3.The duration of size of the pulses is called pulse
length(pulse width).

4.Pulse technique is used by ground based radars in the control,

separation and navigation of aircraft as well as in airborne systems
for weather warning and navigation.
TYPES OF RADAR
PRIMARY SECONDARY
PULSE TECHNIQUE INTERROGATOR
AND RECEVIER

ONE FREQUENCY THROUGHOUT TRANSMITS PULSES ON

ONE FREQUENCY, BUT
RECEIVES ON A
DIFFERENT FREQUENCY

AMAN AIRON
PRIMARY RADAR

1. The pulses are concentrated into the beam dimensions designed

for the particular radar. The beam uses the ‘echo’ principle to
determine range and the ‘searchlight’ principle to indicate bearing
or height.
2. The transmitter and receiver share the same antenna. The receiver
is energized to accept ‘echoes’ from objects in the pulses’ path as
soon as the transmitter pulse exits the antenna.
The reflected pulses are very weak due to the double journey.

Factors affecting range

1. Transmission power (16 times)
2. Characteristics of reflecting objects
3. Aircraft height and the height of the radar head
Max. Theoretical range (NM) = 1.23 × (√ HTX + √ HRX)
HTX = height of radar station in feet AMSL;
HRX = height of target in feet AMSL.
4. Wavelength and attenuation by raindrops
5. Atmospheric conditions
AMAN AIRON
6. Restoration Time( design factor that affects the time taken for
a receiver to recover to normal after transmission has occurred)
7. Pulse width

AMAN AIRON
 AWR
AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR

It works on the primary radar principle and is used for weather

detection and maping.
1. AWR detects reflected energy from water droplets or terrain and
the reflected returns are displayed in the plane form on a CRT or
may be super imposed EFIS display.

2. Either of these can be made to show a selection of range scales by

means of range arc shown on the screen.

3. The normal maximum aerial seam is 180* sector which is

90* either side of aircraft heading.

4. AWR cannot detect Clear Air Turbulence.

5. Frequency 9.375 Ghz (9375 Mhz).

6. In met conditions in which severe instability is present vertical

cells can develop rapidly and this cannot be detected by radar.

AMAN AIRON
7. Weather mode

8. Return from the hail is very strong.

rain vary with water droplets
snow falling is poor
ice crystals varies from poor to medium.

COLOUR CONCENTRATION TURBULENCE

GREEN LIGHT SLIGHT
YELLOW MODERATE LIGHT
RED HEAVY MEDIUM-SEVERE
MAGENTA HEAVY WITH LARGE SEVERE
DROP/HAIL

AMAN AIRON
INDICATIONS

1. On radar screen bearing lines are drawn permanently at 15*

interval from nose of the aircraft.
2. Range circles are produced electronically according to the range
selection.
3. 150nm and 120nm range.

GROUND MAPING
1.Map mode when engaged with the use of a fan shaped cosecant
beam and has the width of 80* and a cross track width of 5*.

GROUND OPERATION
1. Always ensure AWR power is off before starting the engine.
2. Never select range until the area ahead of the aircraft is absolutely
clear.
3. On ground it should always be on stand by mode.
4. No transmission on standby mode.

AMAN AIRON
 SSR
SECONDARY SURVILLENCE RADAR

1. It works on twin pulses i.e. secondary radar principle.

2. A ground based transmitter/receiver triggers of a reply from the
aircraft receiver/transmitter.
3. The reply is on a different frequency from the interrogator.
4. Interrogator is the name of the ground.
5. Transponder for the aircraft equipment.
6. The aircraft not only identifies itself positively but gives continues
indication of height range bearing directly on the controller screen.
7. All signals are coded. The code of the interrogator signal is called
the mode.
8. There are 4 modes.
9. Mode A ( Used for identification ).
10. Mode C ( Used for height indication ).
11. Mode C is from the altimeter which is set as 1013.2mb
12. When difference more than 300 follow for altimeter.
13. Total number of codes 4096.

AMAN AIRON
7500 HIJACK
7600 RADIO COM. FAILURE
7700 FIRE ENGINE FALIURE(NOT PAN)
2000 FOR ENTERING ANY AIRSPACE
FROM AN AREA WHERE SSR
WAS NOT AVAILABLE
0000 TRANSPONDER MALFUNCTION

14. RANGE 200NM.

15. GROUND TRANSMIT ON 1030MHZ AND RECEIVES 1090MHZ.
16. AIRCRAFT TRANSMIT 1090MHZ AND RECEIVES 1030MHZ.

AMAN AIRON
 TCAS
TRAFFIC COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM

There are 3 levels

TCAS 1

It provides a traffic advisory (TA) i.e information that would advice

the pilot of a potential traffic hazard, as an aid to visually acquire the
target and avoiding i.e see and avoid action.

1. Aircraft carries a transponder and has means to interrogate other

aircraft transponders.
2. Replies from other aircraft up to 30nm( 50km) are triggered.
3. TCAS 1 alert is "TRAFFIC TRAFFIC" if the other aircraft comes
within 40 seconds of a potential collision i.e TA( which is up to 40
seconds only).

AMAN AIRON
TCAS 2
It provides vertical resolution advisory (RA).

1. Generation of TA
2. Threat Detection
3. Generation of RA
4. Co-ordination
5. MODE S signal is received and processed if the collision risk is
started. The computer will establish a link with TCAS through
computer of the other aircraft.
6. The two computers will agree and co-ordinate "RA" and each will
present a message on the display as well as give the audible
warning.
7. ("CLIMB- Increase climb")
8. (" DESCEND- Increase descend ")

AMAN AIRON
INDICATIONS
1. HOLLOW WHITE/CYAN DIAMOND
It indicates other traffic not offering threat.
2. SOLID WHITE DIAMOND
It indicates approximate traffic at 6NM range and +/-1200ft in
vertical.
3. SOLID YELLOW CIRCLE
It indicates traffic advisory (TA).
4. SOLID RED SQAURE
It indicates resolution advisory (RA)

CAPACITY
27 HIGH CLOSING SPEED TARGET WITHIN 14NM.

AMAN AIRON
ACTION TO BE TAKEN ON RECEIVING TA AND RA
1. TA - Alert the flight crew of the possibility that RA can follow which
would require change in flight path.
2. Pilot should take information and visually search of that part of the
sky.
3. RA - Pilot must initiate the required action immediately adjust
flight path of the aircraft ,power and turn accordingly.
4. Other crew member should confirm that the sky ahead is clear and
continue visual search.

DISREGARDING RA
1. Action should never be made in a direction opposite to the
direction given on RA. This is because the sense may have been
determined following the exchange of data between the two
computers.
2. RA may be disregarded only in a condition when the pilot has
visually identified the potentially conflicted traffic and then decide
that no deviation from the current flight path is required.

3. If a pilot simultaneously receive RA and ATC, follow RA.

4. When GPWS or windshear alerting system is in operation they
should have the priority over TCAS.

AMAN AIRON
 GPS
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

GPS is capable of providing information regarding

a. Position in 3D
b. Velocity Determination
c. Time

1. GPS system has a constillation of satellites orbiting the earth and

each satellite is having an extremely accurate atomic watch which
measures time in nano seconds.

2. GPS system has total 24 satellites,

21 operational,
3 spare, orbiting in 6 circular orbital planes at an inclination of 55*
to the equator.

3. TIME
The orbit time of each satellite to go around the earth once every
12 hours at an average height of 20,200km.

4. RUSSIAN SYSTEM IS CALLED GLONASS.

5. GPS works on range position line.

AMAN AIRON
6. Minimum 3 satellites are required to obtain a fix in space.
For a 3D fix minimum 4 satellites are required.

7. Pseudo Range - is the measurement range corrected for errors in

the transmission schedule propagation but not corrected for
aircraft receiver clock.

The range is dependent upon a number of different factors :

a. The accuracy of propagation speed
b. The accuracy of transmission schedule
c. The accuracy of stability of satellite clock
d. The accuracy and stability of receiver clock.

8. GPS transmits on two bands L1 1575.42MHZ,

L2 1227.6MHZ.

9. Satellite uplink frequency is 2227.5 MHZ.

10. Downlink is 1783.74MHZ.

11. L1 ( P- precision and C/A - course accqusition ).

12. L2 ( P only).

AMAN AIRON
DGPS
Differential GPS
ACARS - aircraft communication address and reporting system.
RAIM - receiver autonomus integrity monitoring.
It isolates and excludes the failed source.
5 satellites are required.

AMAN AIRON
 HOLDING PATTERN

HOLDING TRACK IS ALWAYS QDM.

TYPES OF HOLDING
1. RIGHT HAND PATTERN ( ALL TURNS TO RIGHT).

2. NON STANDARD PATTERN (LEFT).

3. HOLDING PATTERN IS ALWAYS A RACE COURSE PATTERN.

4. 3 ENTRIES

A. PARALLEL.
B. TEAR DROP(OFFSET).
C. DIRECT ENTRY (ALWAYS ON THE HOLDING TRACK SIDE) .

AMAN AIRON
AMAN AIRON