PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

HANDBOOK

COMPILED BY: AKSHEY SOOD

 THE ATMOSPHERE

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR

1. Air has mass.

2. Air is a compressible fluid and is able to flow or change its shape when subjected to even
a minute pressure difference.
3. Viscosity of air is too low that very small forces are able to move the molecules in
relation to each other.

VISCOSITY: The state of being thick and sticky due to internal friction of a fluid .
Example - Water flows easily comparing to honey because honey has more viscosity.

STATIC PRESSURE

1. Unit of static pressure is Newton per meter square.

2. Static Pressure = Force / Area
3. Static pressure is the result of the weight of the atmosphere pressing down on the air
beneath.
4. SP will exert the same force per square meter on all surface at an aeroplane. The
lower the altitude the greater the force per square meter.
5. It is called static because air is stationary.
6. Airplane always has static pressure acting upon it.
SI UNIT - Newton per meter square
1 Newton per meter square = 1 Pascal
100 Pascal = 1 Hectopascal

• Pressure falls steadily with increasing altitude , but temperature falls steadily only to
about 36,000ft where it then remains constant through the stratosphere.

TEMPERATURE

The unit of temperature is degree Celsius when measured relative to the freezing point of
water, Absolute zero : It is the lowest
Kelvin when measured relative to absolute zero. possible temperature where nothing
CELSIUS SCALE could be colder and no heat energy
 00C = 2730K. remains in a substance.

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 1000C = Boiling Point.
FAHRENHEIT SCALE
 00C = 32 0F.
 2120 F = Boiling point.

DENSITY

1. Unit of density = kilogram per meter

cube.
Symbol of density is Greek letter p (rho).
2. Density is "Mass per unit Volume".
3. Density varies with static pressure , temperature and humidity.
4. Density decreases with increasing altitude because of decreasing static pressure.
5. Density is directly proportional to static pressure.
6. Density is inversely proportional to temperature and humidity.

D S T H D S T H
DYNAMIC PRESSURE

 Dynamic pressure is the Kinetic energy of the fluid particle per unit volume.

 TOTAL PRESSURE = STATIC PRESSURE + DYNAMIC PRESSURE.

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Measuring dynamic pressure

1. Static pressure vent : A hole(vent) in an

surface parallel to the airflow, will
sense static pressure.
2. Pitot Tube: Senses Total Pressure.
3. The instrument is calibrated at ISA
density.
4. The instrument will only give a “true”
indication of the speed of the aircraft
through the air when the air density is
1.225kg/m3.
5. The instrument is made in such a way that it indicates the square root of the dynamic
pressure in nautical miles per hour.

AIR SPEED RELATIONSHIP

1. Indicated Air Speed(IAS) = Speed on Air Speed Indicator(ASI)
2. Calibrated Air Spped(CAS) = When IAS is corrected for the position error or Pressure
error.
3. Equivalent Air Speed(EAS)= When IAS is correted for position & compressibility error,
we get EAS.
4. True Air Speed(TAS) = When IAS is corrected for postion, compressibility and density
error, we get TAS. The only speed there is all the other speeds are pressure.
5. Ground Speed(GS) = When TAS corrected for Winds, we get GS.

I C E T
P C D

The ICAO standard atmosphere assumes the following mean sea level values:

Temperature 15°C

Pressure 1013.25 hPa

Density 1.225 kg/m3

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 BASIC AERODYNAMIC THEORY

1. UNIVERSAL LAW OR LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND MASS :

Energy and mass can neither be created nor be destroyed only can changed from one form
to another.

2. THE PRINCIPLE OF CONITNUITY :

i. The air mass flow or mass per unit time will be constant at all points along the tube.
Equation of continuity,
Area(A) . velocity(V) . density(p) = Constant

ii. Because air is compressible fluid , any pressure change in the flow will affect the air
density.However, at low subsonic speeds (below 0.4 M or 300kts) density chnages
will be insignificant.
Velocity(V) = Constant/Area(A)
iii. It can be seen from the equation of continuity that the reduction in the tube cross
sectional area results in an increase in velocity.

3. BERNOULLI'S THEOREM.
i. In the steady flow of an ideal fluid the sum of pressure and kinetic energy per unit
volume remains constant.
ii. An ideal fluid is both incompressible and has no viscosity .
Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = Constant.

iii. Total pressure is also called Pitot pressure.

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 iv. Flow velocity is dependent on the shape of the object
v. Bernoulli's Theorem is evident that an increase in velocity will cause a decrease in
static pressure.

AEROFOIL

1. An aerodynamic force to oppose the weight of an aircraft can be generated by using

specially shaped body called aerofoil.

2. The airflow velocity over the top surface of a lifting aerofoil will be greater than that
beneath,so the pressure difference results the production of a force per unit area acting
upwards.
3. STREAM LINES - A streamline is the path traced by a particle of air in a steady airflow.
4. STREAM TUBE - Is an imaginary tube made up of stream lines.
There is no flow into or out of the streamtube through the "walls" , only a flow along the
tube.

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 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW
.

1. Aerofoil - The aerofoil can be defined as a shape

capable of producing lift with relatively high
efficiency.

2. Chord line - A straight line joining the centre of

curvature of a leading and trailing edges of an
aerofoil.

3. Chord - The distance between the leading and

trailing edges measured along the chord line.

4. Angle of incidence - The angle between the wing

root chord line and the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft. ( This angle is fixed for the wing but may be
variable for the aircraft)

5. Maximum Camber - Maximum camber is the

greatest distance of the mean camber line from the
chord line and is expressed as a percentage of the
chord.
 When camber line lies above the chord line
the aerofoil is said to have positive camber
and if the camber line is below the chord line
it is said to have negative camber.
 Symmetrical aerofoil has no camber because
the chord line and camber line are coincided.

6. Thickness / chord ratio - Is the maximum thickness

or depth of an aerofoil section expressed as a
percentage of the chord from the leading edge.
 The thickness and thickness distribution of the
aerofoil section have a great influence on its
airflow characteristics.

7. Leading edge radius - Is the radius of the curvature

of the leading edge , which can significantly affect
the initial airflow characteristics of the aerofoil.
 Smaller the radius, sharper the leading edge.

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8. Relative Air Flow -

I. Direction : Air is parallel and in opposite

direction to the flight path of a aircraft.
II. Condition : Air close to , but unaffected by the
presence of the aircraft , its pressure,
temperature and velocity are not affected by the
passage of the air.
III. Magnitude : The magnitude of the relative air
flow is TAS.

9. Total reaction - The resultant of all the

aerodynamics forces acting on the aerofoil section.

10. Centre of pressure - The point on the chord line,

through which lift is considered to act.

11. Lift - The aerodynamic force which acts

perpendicular to relative airflow.

12. Drag - The aerodynamic force which acts parallel

and in the same direction to the relative air flow (Or
opposite to the flight path).

13. Angle of attack (alpha, Aerodynamic incidence) -

The angle between the chord line and the relative
air flow.

Relative velocity is an important factor.

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 Two Dimensional Airflow.

Assumes a wing with the same aerofoil section along the entire span with no span wise
pressure difference or flow.

 Upwash : As air flows towards an aerofoil it will be turned towards the lower
pressure as the upper surface , this is kemed as upwash.
 Downwash : After passing over the aerofoil the air of low pressure returns to its
original position and state.

INFLUENCE OF DYNAMIC PRESSURE

1. If the static pressure on one side

of a body is reduced more than
the other side , a pressure
differential will exist.
2. If the dynamic pressure(IAS) is
increased the pressure differential
will increase
3. The pressure differential acting on
the surface area will produce an upward acting force.
4. If the dynamic pressure increases the upward force will increase.

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Influence of Angle of Attack (A0A)

1. At a constant dynamic
pressure (IAS) , increasing the
AOA(up to 16 degrees) will
likewise increase pressure
differential , but also change
the pattern of pressure
distribution.
2. The aerofoil profile
determine the distribution of
velocity and hence the
distribution of pressure on
the surface.
3. The profile is determined by
the aerofoil geometry ie thickness and distribution.
4. The aerofoil profile determine the distribution of velocity and hence the distribution of
pressure on the surface.
5. The profile is determined by the aerofoil geometry i.e thickness and
distribution(fixed),camber and distribution and by angle of attack ( variable).
6. The greatest positive pressure occurs at the stagnation point where the relative flow
velocity is zero.
As the AOA increases from -4 degrees the leading edge stagnation point moves
from the upper surface around the leading edge to the lower surface.
Stagnation point = Static pressure + dynamic pressure

Stagnation point is the point where the flow divides to pass over and under section.
7. AOA -4 : The decrease in pressure above and below the section are equal and no
differential exists. Thus, no lift, zero lift AOA for asymmetrical aerofoil.
8. AOA 0 : The decrease in pressure above and below the section are equal and no
differential exists. Thus, no lift, zero lift AOA for symmetrical aerofoil.
9. The greatest contribution to overall lift comes from the upper surface.

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CENTER OF PRESSURE(CP)

The whole surface of aerofoil contributes to lift , but the point along the chord where the
distributed lift is effectively concentrated is termed as center of pressure.

Movement of CP
As the AOA increase from 0 degree to 16 degrees the upper junction peak moves forward
so the point at which the lift is effectively
concentrated , the CP will move forward ,
Also the magnitude of lift force increases
with increase in AOA.
The CP is at its most forward location
just before stall.

AERODYNAMIC FORCE COEFFICIENT

1) A coefficient is dimension less number expressing degree of magnitude.
2) An aerodynamic force coefficient is a common denominator for all aircrafts of whatever
weight , size and speed
3) Ratio between average aerodynamic pressure and the airstream dynamic pressure

𝑳𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕 =
𝑫𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

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 LIFT
The aerodynamic forces of both lift and drag depend upon the combined effect of many
variables.

i Airstream velocity
ii Air density
iii Shape or profile of the surface
iv Angle of attack
v Surface area
vi Condition of surface
vii Compressibility effect

Lift - Lift is defined as the aerodynamic force which acts 90 degrees to the relative airflow.

Lift results from - The pressure differential between the top and bottom surface of the
wing.

TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT LIFT.

As altitude increases , air density decreases.

1. Air density at 40,000 ft is one quarter of the

sea level value.
2. To keep lift constant at 40,000ft TAS must be
doubled.

As speed is changed , AOA must be adjusted to keep lift constant.

1. If IAS is doubled, TAS will doubled, and the

square function would increase dynamic
pressure by a factor of 4 . As the aircraft is
accelerated the AOA must be decreased so
the CL reduces to one quarter of its initial
value to maintain a constant lift.

IAS is directly proportional to Square root of

dynamic pressure.

Below MO.4 we can say if IAS doubles TAS doubles.

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Air density is a product of Pressure , Temperature and humidity.

Humidity reduces density as water vapor is about 5/8 the density of dry air.

D S T H
LIFT CURVE

Is a convenient way to illustrate the

properties of various configuration.

1. Lift coefficient increases with AOA up to a

maximum CLMAX , which corresponds the
"Critical" angle of attack.

2. To generate a constant lift force , any

adjustment in dynamic pressure must be
accompanied by a change in AOA.

3. For a constant lift force , each dynamic

pressure requires a specific AOA.

4. Minimum dynamic pressure is determined by

the maximum lift coefficient(CL MAX).

5. The AOA for CLMAX is constant.

6. If more lift is required due to greater operating

weight , a greater dynamic pressure is required
to maintain a given AOA.

7. The greater the operating weight , the higher

the minimum dynamic pressure.

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LIFT CURVE OF DIFFERENT SECTIONS DRAW LIFT CURVE
FOR AEROFOIL OF
DIFFERENT
THICKNESSES

1. An increase in the thickness of a symmetrical aerofoil gives a higher CLMAX.

2. The introduction of camber also has a beneficial effect or CLMAX

The importance of maximum lift coefficient - The greater the CLMAX the lower the minimum
flight speed(STALL SPEED).

Demerit of thickness and camber - Produces increased form drag and large twisting
moments at high speeds.

DRAG

Is the aerodynamic force parallel to the relative airflow and opposite in direction to the
flight path.

Write down the Drag

formula

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Coefficient of drag (Cd) - Is the ratio of drag
per unit wing area to dynamic pressure.

 At low AOA CD is low and small changes

in AOA create only small changes in CD.

 But at higher AOA , the rate of change in

CD per degree of AOA increases.

LIFT/DRAG RATIO

1. Efficiency of lift production is DRAW L/D

gained from studying the ratio CURVE
between lift and drag , a high L/D
ratio more efficient.

2. The L/D ratio increases with AOA

up to a maximum at about 4
degrees this is called the
"Optimum angle of attack".

3. The L/D ratio then decreases with

increasing AOA until CLMAX is
reached.

4. The maximum L/D ratio of a given aerofoil section will occur at one specific AOA.

5. Any AOA lower or higher than that of L/D max reduces the L/D ratio and consequently
increases drag for the required lift.

6. If aircraft weight increases or decreases , L/D max will be the same only IAS will vary.

7. For a given configuration ( flaps, gear, spoiler and airframe contamination) and at
speeds less than 0.4 m , changes in weight will not change L/D max.

Typical L/Dmax Values

HIGH PERFORMANCE SAILPLANE 25 TO 60

MODERN JET TRANSPORT 12 TO 20
PROPELLER POWERED TRAINER 10 TO 15

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 3 - DIMENSIONAL AIRFLOW

WING TERMINOLOGY

1. Wing area (S) - The plan surface area of the wing. It

is deemed to include any point of the wing covered
by engine nacelle & part of the fuselage in lined
with the wing.
2. Wing span (b) - Distance from tip to tip.
3. Average chord (c) - The geometric average distance
from leading edge to trailing edge
4. Aspect Ratio (AR) - The AR of the wing determines
the aerodynamic characteristics and structured
weight.
AR = b/c
If the plan form has curvature and the average chord is
not easily determined , an alternative expression is
AR = b2/S
Aspect Ratio of different purpose Aircrafts
HIGH PREFERANCE SAIL PLANE - 35
FIGHTER JET - 3
JET TRANSPORT - 12

5. Root chord : The chord length at the wing

centerline.

6.Tip chord : The chord length at the wing tip.

7.Taper ratio : The ratio at the tip chord to the root

chord. The taper ratio affects the lift distribution and
the structural weight of the wing.
TAPER RATIO = CT /CR
A rectangular wing has taper ratio 1 and a Delta wing
has taper ratio 0

7.Sweep angle : Measured as the angle between the

line of 25% chord and a line perpendicular to the root
chord.

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8.Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) : The average distance from the leading edge to the
trailing edge of the wing.

I. The chord drawn through the geographic centre at the plane area.

II. A rectangular wing of this chord and the same span would have similar pitching moment
characteristics.

WING TIP VORTICES.

1. Air flowing over the top surface of the wing is at a

lower pressure than that beneath.
2. The tendency of the air is to equalize any pressure
difference so that particles of air tend to move from
the lower wing surface around the wing tip to the
upper surface.
3. Span wise vector towards the root on the upper surface and generally towards the tip
on the down surface.

AT HIGHER AOA (LOWER IAS) THE DEACREASED CHORDWISE VECTOR WILL INCREASE THE
EFFECT OF THE RESULTANT SPANWISE FLOW,MAKING THE VORTICES STRONGER.

INDUCED DOWNWASH.

1. All the air within the vortex system is moving downwards whereas all the air outside the
vortex system is moving upwards.(Refer next page for diagram)
2. This causes reduction in the effective AOA.
3. The stronger the vortices, the greater the reduction in effective AOA.

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4. Because of this local reduction in effective AOA, the overall lift generated by the wing
will be below the value that would be generated if there were no span wise pressure
differential.
5. It is the production of lift itself which reduces the magnitude of the lift being generated.
 The stronger the vortices the greater the induced drag.

Wake Turbulence

1. Maximum tangential airspeed in the vortex system may be as high as 90m/s

immediately behind the large aircraft.
2. Wake vortex generation begins when the nose wheel lifts off the runway on takeoff and
continues until nosewheel touches down on landing

3. They present the greatest danger during takeoff , initial climb , final approach , and
while landing phase of flight.

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Why it is a hazard : Due to potential loss of control and possible structural damage .

The characteristics of trailing vortices are determined by the Generating aircraft.

Gross weight : The higher the weight the stronger the vortices.
Wingspan : Has an influence upon the two trailing vortices.
Airspeed : The lower the speed , the stronger the vortices and vice versa.
Configuration : Vortex strength is greatest with aircraft in a clean configuration ( for a given
speed and weight ).
Attitude : The higher the AOA , the stronger the vortices.

Distribution of trailing vortices.

1. The two trailing vortices remain separated by about 3/4

of the aircrafts wing span.
2. In still air they tend to drift slowly downwards and level
off , usually between 500 and 1000 ft below the flight
path of the aircraft.
3. Behind a large aircraft the trailing vortices can extended
as much as 9nm.

Vortex movement near the Ground

1. Generating aircraft is within 1000ft.

2. The two vortices will touch down and move
outwards at about 5kts from the track
3. In crosswind the wake vortex system in
contact with the ground will drift with the
wind
4. With parallel runway wake turbulence from
the aircraft can be a potential hazard to
aircraft operating from the others.

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 DRAG
Drag is the force which resists the forward motion of the aircraft .Acts parallel to and in the
same direction as the relative airflow.

PARASITE DRAG
If an aircraft were flying at zero lift AOA the only drag present would be parasite drag.
SKIN FRICTION DRAG

Boundary layer : The layer of air extending from

the surface to the point where viscous effect is
detected is known as boundary layer.
The velocity is higher away from the boundary layer
due to retardation of each layer of fluid from the
boundary. This create a thin layer of fluid near
surface in which velocity changes from zero at
boundary surface to free stream velocity away from
the surface. This is called as Boundary layer .
Boundary layer has two flows
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
Less Skin Friction More Skin Friction
Less K.E More K.E
Less Depth More Depth

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Transition point : The point at which the flow
ceases to be laminar and becomes turbulent is
called the transition point.

The position of the transition point is

dependent upon

Surface condition : The thin layer is extremely sensitive to the surface irregularities .
Adverse Pressure gradient : A laminar
layer cannot exist when pressure rising Explain Adverse pressure gradient

in the direction of flow.

On a curved surface , such as an
aerofoil , the transition point is usually
at, or near to the point of maximum
thickness and lowest pressure.
The transition point will be further
forward to curves surface than if the
surface was flat.

FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG

1. Results from the pressure at the leading edge of a

body greater than the pressure at the trailing
edge.
2. If the boundary layer does not have sufficient
Kinetic energy in the presence of the adverse
pressure gradient , the lower levels of the
boundary layer stop moving (Stagnate ) The upper
levels of the boundary layers will overrun at this
point and the boundary layer will separate from the surface at the separation point.
3. Due to this a flow reversal take place and that is from low to high in other words because of
separation there will be a lower pressure at the trailing edge than the leading edge . An
aerodynamic force will act in the direction of the lower pressure.
4. Separation will occur when the boundary layer does not have sufficient Kinetic energy in
the presence of a adverse pressure gradient.

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LOSS OF KINETIC ENERGY IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER

1. As AOA increases the transition point moves closer to the leading edge and the adverse
pressure gradient becomes stronger. This causes the separation to move forward.

2.Turbulent boundary layer is more resistant to

separation than a laminar one when meeting the
same pressure gradient. In this respect the
turbulent boundary layer is preferable to the
laminar one, but from the point of view of drag
the laminar flow is preferable.

Streamlining : Streamlining increases the ratio

between the length and depth of a body, reducing
the curvature of the surface and that the adverse
pressure gradient.

Fineness ratio : Is the measure of streamlining

Ideal FR is 3:1
FAIRING : A secondary structure added to any part to
reduce its drag.

FILLET : A fairing at the junction of two surface to

improve the airflow.

PROFILE DRAG : The combination of skin friction and

form drag is known as profile drag. It can be considered
that these drags result from the " PROFILE" ( cross
sectional area ) of the aircraft presented to the relative
airflow .

INTERFERENCE DRAG

1. When considering a complete aircraft parasite drag

will be greater than sum of the parts.
2. Additional drag results from the boundary layer
'interference' at wing ( fuselage , wing , engine nacelle and other such junctions.
3. Filleting is necessary to minimize interference drag.
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EFFECTS OF LIFT ON PARASITE DRAG

While parasite drag is not directly associated with the production of lift , in reality it does vary
with lift .
Summary
EFFECT OF CONFIGURATION

Parasite drag is variable with dynamic pressure and area. If

all other factors are held constant, parasite drag varies
significantly with frontal area.

Eg: Lowering the landing gear and flaps might increase the
parasite area by as much as 80%.

EFFECT OF ALTITUDE

In most phases of flight the aircraft will be flown at a

constant IAS , the dynamic pressure and thus parasite drag
will not vary. The IAS would be higher at altitude to provide
the same IAS

EFFECT OF SPEED (most imp)

Doubling the speed will give 4 times the dynamic pressure

and hence 4 times the parasite drag.

THE PARASITE DRAG FORMULA

INDUCED DRAG (Refer to lift chapter for diagrams)

1. Induced drag is an undesirable by product of lift. Wingtip vortices modify upwash and
downwash in the vicinity of the wing which produces a rearward component to the lift
vector known as Induced drag
2. The lower the IAS, the higher the AOA, the stronger the vortices OR the stronger the
vortices the greater the induced drag.
3. Spanwise vector towards the root on the upper surface and towards the tip on the lower
surface.
4. At Higher AOA the decreased chordwise vector will increase the resultant spanwise flow,
making the reduction in effective AOA.
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5. It is the production of lift itself which reduces the magnitude of the life force being
generated,
6. To replace the lift lost by the increased upwash and downwash the wing must be flown at a
higher AOA.
7. This increased drag is called Induced drag.
8. Increased downwash and upwash reduces effective AOA.
9. Angular deflection of effective airflow is a function of both vortex strength and True Air
speed
Summary
FACTORS THAT AFFECT INDUCED DRAG

1. The size of the lift force

a) As induced drag is a component of the lift force, the
greater the lift, the greater will be induced drag.
b) Lift must be equal to weight in level flight so induced
drag will depend on the weight of the aircraft.
c) Certain maneuvers require the lift force to be greater
than the aircraft weight, lift is greater than weight
during a steady turn so induced drag will be higher
during a steady turn
d) Induced drag will increase in proportion to the
square of the lift force
2. Load Factor:
The relationship of lift to weight. L.F=L/W
a) Therefore, Induced drag also increases as the Load
Factor increases..
3. The speed of the aircraft :-Induced drag decreases
a) This is because as speed increases the downwash
caused by the tip vortices becomes less significant.
b) Induced Drag varies inversely as the square of the
speed
5. The Aspect Ratio of the wing:- The tip vortices of a high
aspect ratio wing affect a small proportion of the span so
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the overall change in downwash will be less.
a) The induced drag coefficient is inversely proportional to the Aspect Ratio.

Very high Aspect Ratio wings will experience the following

1. Excessive Wing Bending Moments:- Which can be reduced by carrying fuel in the wings &
mounting the engines beneath the wing.
2. Reduced Rate of Roll:- Aerodynamic damping, particularly at low speed.
a) This is caused by the down going wing experiencing an increased effective AOA.
b) The higher the AR, the greater the vertical TAS of the tip for a given roll rate, leading to
a greater increase in effective AOA.
c) The higher the effective AOA at the tip, the greater the resistance to roll.
3. Reduced Ground Clearance in Roll During Take-off and Landing

INFINITE AR

If we could imagine a wing of infinite AR, the air would flow over it without any inward or
outward deflection, there would be no wingtip vortices, no induced drag.

Angle of no lift is unaffected by AR.

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FORMULA FOR INDUCED DRAG

This equation would seem to imply that

Induced drag increases with speed

but the Induced drag coefficient(CDI) is proportional to CL and inversely proportional to wing
aspect ratio.

LET'S PROVE INDUCED DRAG IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO SPEED SQUARE

Methods of Reducing Drag

Induced Drag is low at high speeds, but at low speeds it comprises over half of the total drag

1. Wing End-plates
2. Tip Tanks
3. Winglets
4. Wing tip shape

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Total Drag

Total drag = Induced drag + Parasite drag

1. Predominance of Induced drag at low speed and parasite drag at high speed.
2. The speed at which total drag is a minimum(Vmd) occurs when the induced & parasite
drag are equal.
3. Range, endurance, climb, glide, maneuver, landing and take-off performance are all
based on some relationship involving the airplane Total Drag Curve.
4. Flying at Vmd incurs the least total drag for lift equal weight flight, the aeroplane will also
be at L/dmax AOA(40)

5. L/D ratio is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency.

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 The Effect of Aircraft Gross weight on total Drag

EXPLAIN WITH THE HELP OF TOTAL DRAG CURVE THE EFFECT

OF GROSS WEIGHT ON AIRCRAFT.

The Effect of Configuration on Total Drag

EXPLAIN WITH THE HELP OF TOTAL DRAG CURVE THE EFFECT

OF CONFIGURATION ON AIRCRAFT

The Effect Of Altitude on Total Drag.

If the aircraft is flown at a constant IAS, drag will not vary with altitude because dynamic
pressure would be constant
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SPEED STABILITY

IMPORTANT POINTS

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 STALLING

Stalling is a potentially hazardous manoeuvre involving loss of height and loss of control.

CAUSE OF STALL

1. CL increases with increase in AOA up to CLmax.

2. Any further increase above this stalling or critical
AOA will make it impossible for the airflow to
smoothly follow the upper wing contour. The flow will separate from the surface,
causing CL to decrease and drag to increase rapidly.
3. A stall is caused by
a. Airflow Separation
b. Insufficient K.E
c. Adverse Pressure Gradient
4. If the AOA is increased up to or beyond the critical
angle, an aircraft can be stalled at any speed or flight
altitude.

STALLING ANGLE OR ANGLE OF ATTACK(AOA): That angle when

lift reaches a maximum and begins to decrease.

LIFT CURVE:-

1. The curve is linear over a considerable range.

2. As the effect of separation begins to be felt, the slope
of the curve begins to fall off.

ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT

AIRCRAFT BEHAVIOUR CLOSE TO STALL STALL RECOGNITION

1. Flight controls less effective than usual. 1. Wing Drop
2. Speed low and decreasing. 2. Nose Drop
3. Nose attitude higher than normal. 3. Heavy Aerodynamic Buffet
4. High Aerodynamic Buffet. 4. Loss of Height
5. Operation of a stall warning or stall
prevention device
AKSHEY SOOD
STALL RECOVERY
1. Reduce the effective AOA below critical angle to reduce adverse pressure gradient while
applying maximum authorized power to minimize height loss.
2. Secondary Stall: Rapid pitch-up in order to prevent height loss before the aircraft has
regained sufficient flying speed will lead to entering stall again.
3. On Straight Wing A/C: The rudder should be used to prevent wing drop during stall. It is
because as an aircraft yaws, this increases the speed of a dropping wing to maintain a
wing level attitude.
4. On Sweptback Wing A/C: It is recommended that the ailerons be used to prevent wing
drop, with a small amount of smoothly applied co-ordinated rudder.
5. At low speeds, normally associated with stalling dynamic pressure is at a low value
and greater deflection will be required to achieve the same response as that found at

a higher speed.
USE OF FLIGHT CONTROLS CLOSE TO STALL:-
1. Trying to lift a dropping wing with ailerons will increase its
AOA and may cause the wing to stall completely, resulting
in that wing dropping at an increased rate. Changes in AOA at time of roll

STALL SPEED

It is necessary to fly at slow speeds[High AOA] during Take-off and Landing in order to keep
the required runway lengths to a reasonable minimum.
There must be adequate safety margin between the minimum speed allowed for normal
operation and the stall speed.
1. Small Aircraft: VSO and VS1.
2. Large Aircraft: A reference stall speed VSR. The reference stall speed is a calibrated
airspeed defined by the aircraft manufacturer. VSR may not be less than a 1G stall speed.
Density Altitude does not affect indicated stall speed.
3. Aircraft Without Stick pusher VSR can be considered to be the same as the 1g stall speed
(VS1g )

AKSHEY SOOD
4. Aircraft Fitted with Stick Pusher VSR will be 2kts or 2% greater than the speed at which
the stick pusher activates.

ARTIFICIAL STALL WARNING DEVICES:-

1. Stick Shaker. A stick shaker is a mechanical device to rapidly

and noisily vibrate the control yoke (the "stick") of an aircraft
to warn the pilot of an imminent stall.
2. Flapper Switch: Activated by movement of stagnation
point.
3. Angle of Attack Vane or Angle of Attack Probe:-
a. Mounted on the side of the Fuselage..
b. They compute the rate of change of AOA.
c. There are sensors on both sides to counteract any sideslip
effect.
THE EFFECT OF AEROFOIL SECTION:-
1. Leading Edge radius.
2. Thickness-Chord Ratio.
3. Camber and particularly the amount of camber near the leading edge.
4. Chord-wise Location of the point of maximum thickness and maximum camber.

The Effect Of Aerofoil Section

AKSHEY SOOD
THE EFFECT OF WING PLANFORM:-
The Rectangular Wing
Rectangular Wing Stall Characteristics

Strong Tip vortices decrease effective AOA at wing tip thus delaying tip stall.
1. If the separation occurs on one wing before the other, there is little tendency for the
aircraft to roll.
2. Loss of lift is felt ahead of the CG of the A/C and the CP moves rearwards, so the nose
drops and AOA is reduced.
3. The separated airflow from the root immerse the rear fuselage and tail area and
aerodynamic buffet is felt.
4. Demerits of Rectangular wing are wing bending characteristics and are not very
aerodynamically efficient at high speeds.
The Tapered Wing
The Tapered Wing Stall Characteristics

1. Separation tends to occur first in the region of the wing tips, reducing lift in these areas.
2. In such wings, tip stalls first thus resulting in wing drop.
3. There would be no buffet on the tail, no strong nose down pitching moment, no
aileron effectiveness.
THE TAPERED WING MUST BE MODIFIED
1. Geometric Twist: Wash Out – A decrease in incidence
from root to tip

AKSHEY SOOD
 The aerofoil section may be varied throughout the span such that sections with greater
thickness and camber are located near the tip.
2. Leading Edge Slots
Towards the tip, re-energizes the boundary
layer. Hence, delays separation at the tip and
retaining aileron effectiveness.
3. Stall Strips This makes the leading edge radius
small.
At higher AOA, stall strips promote separation, but will not
affect the efficiency of the wing in the cruise.
1
4. Vortex Generators Projects vertically(2 cm high) into the
2
airstream, they generate small vortex which causes the
free stream flow of high energy air to mix with and add Kinetic Energy.

SWEPTBACK WING Sweptback Stall Characteristics

Outboard suction pressure tend to draw boundary layer towards tip. CP moves forward
and creates an unstable nose up pitching moment.
1. Swept wing has an increased tendency to stall first near the tips.
2. Effective lift production is concentrated inboard and the maximum downwash now
impacts the tailplan, adding to the nose-up pitching moment. This phenomenon is
known as pitching-up, and is a very dangerous characteristic of many high speed Swept
wing Aircraft.
3. The tendency of a sweptback wing to tip stall is due to the induced span wise flow of
the boundary layer from root to tip.

AKSHEY SOOD
 METHODS TO ELIMINATE SPANWISE FLOW FROM ROOT TO TIP

1. Wing Fences These are thin metal fences which

generally extend from the leading edge to the trailing
edge on the top surface.
2. Vortilons Situated on the underside of the wing leading
edge. The support pylons of pods mounted engines on
the wing also act in the same way. They give
aerodynamic wing fence.

3. Saw-Tooth: will also generate a strong vortex over the wing

upper surface at high AOA, minimizing span wise flow of the
boundary layer.
FACTORS THAT EFFECT STALL SPEED:-
1. Changes in Weight
2. Manoeuvring the A/C
3. Configuration Change
4. Engine Thrust and Propeller Slipstream
5. Mach no.
6. Wing Contamination
7. Heavy Rain

THE 1G STALLING SPEED FORMULA:-

𝐿
VS1g = √1
𝜌𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆
2
Density altitude does not affect the indicated stall speed.

𝐿 = (1/2)𝜌𝑣2𝐶𝐿𝑆 Write Stalling Speed Formula in terms of Lift,

Multiplying and Dividing LHS Weight and Load Factor.
with Weight(w)
𝑤 1
×𝐿 = ρv 2 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 . S
𝑤 2 𝐿
1 n = Load Factor= 𝑊
𝑛𝑤 = ρv2 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 . S
2
𝒏𝑾
𝒗=√
𝟏
( )𝝆𝑪𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺
𝟐

AKSHEY SOOD
EFFECT OF WEIGHT CHANGE ON STALL SPEED

1. A change in weight requires a change in lift and it can be seen from the V S1g formula
that, for instance, an increase in weight(lift) will increase V S1g.
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
VS1g(new) = VS1g(old) x √
𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

The AOA at which the stall occurs will not be affected by the weight.

2. It should be noted that a 20% reduction in weight has resulted in an approximate 10%
reduction in stall speed(Rule Of Thumb).

RESOLUTIONS OF FORCES is the process of breaking a force into

two components, basically horizontal and vertical.

COMPONENT when you break a vector into its parts, those parts
are called its components

LIFT INCREASE IN A LEVEL TURN

Resolution of Lift force

1. Weight always acts vertically downwards.

2. For the aircraft to maintain altitude, the up force must be the same as the down force.
3. Lift is inclined from the horizontal by the bank angle of θ (Theta).
4. Lift must be increased in order to produce an upwards force vector equal to weight.
LcosΘ = W

EFFECT OF LOAD FACTOR ON STALL SPEED

1. To bank an aircraft and maintain altitude, lift has to be greater than weight. Additional
Lift in a turn is obtained by increasing the AOA.

AKSHEY SOOD
Relationship between Lift and Weight Explanation
𝐿𝐼𝐹𝑇
Load Factor or ‘g’ =
𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇

a. Increasing Lift in a turn, increases the

Load Factor.
b. As bank angle increases, load factor
increases.
The upward component of lift i.e. LcosΘ is
taking care of Weight.
LcosΘ = W
We can express Load Factor as
𝐿𝐼𝐹𝑇
LF = , We know now weight is LcosΘ
𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇
𝐿𝐼𝐹𝑇
LF = , Lift gets cancels out as it is common, Hence we have,
𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠Θ
𝟏
LF = , This means as Bank angle Increases our Load factor increases that is for same
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝚯
weight we need more lift to maintain level flight.
2. In straight and level flight at CLmax, it would be impossible to turn and maintain altitude,
trying to increase lift would stall the aircraft.
3. If a turn was started at an IAS above the stall speed, at some bank angle C L would reach
its maximum and the aircraft would stall at a speed higher than the 1g stall speed.
4. The increase of lift in a level turn is a function of the bank angle only.
1
VST = VS x √
𝑐𝑜𝑠Θ

5. As bank angle is increased, the stall speed will increase at an increasing rate.
EFFECT ON STALL SPEED ON DIFFERENT BANK ANGLE
30o 45o 60o 70o
Total Lift 1.15 1.41 2 3
Percentage Increases in Lift 15% 41% 100% 200%
Percentage increase in stall speed 7% 19% 41% 73%
Let's Do Some Maths!!

AKSHEY SOOD
EFFECT OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES ON STALL SPEED

𝐿
Effect of Leading Edge and Trailing Edge flaps on Stall Speed
VS1g↓ = √ 1
( )𝜌𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ↑ .𝑆
2

1. In order to reduce the landing and

takeoff speeds, various devices are used to
increase the usable value of CLmax.
2. High Lift Devices decrease stall speed,
hence minimum flight speed, so provide a
shorter takeoff and landing run. This is
their sole purpose.
EFFECT OF CG POSITION ON STALL SPEED

1. VCLmax is determined with the CG position that

results in the highest value of reference stall speed.
2. If CG is in front of the CP: Nose Down Pitching
Moment.
The tail plane must provide a down load to maintain
equilibrium. Lift must be increased to maintain an
upward force equal to the increased downwards force.

𝐿↑
↑VS1g = √ 1
( )𝜌𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 .𝑆
2

EFFECT OF LANDING GEAR ON STALL SPEED:-

1. With the undercarriage down, profile drag
below the CG is increased. This will give a nose
down pitching moment which must be balanced
by increasing the tail down-load. Lift must be
increased to balance the increased downwards
force.

AKSHEY SOOD
EFFECT OF ENGINE POWER ON STALL SPEED
1. CLmax is determined with zero thrust at the
stall speed.

Propeller The slipstream velocity behind the

propeller is greater than the free stream flow
depending on the thrust developed.

Dynamic Pressure within the propeller slipstream

is much greater than that outside and this
generates much more lift than at zero thrust.

The lift of the aeroplane at a given AOA and airspeed will be greatly affected.

Jet The vertical component contributes to supporting the weight of the aircraft, less
aerodynamic lift is required to hold the aeroplane in flight.

Power-On stall speed is less than Power-Off.

EFFECT OF WING CONTAMINATION ON STALL SPEED

𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑡↑
V↑ = √ 1
( )𝜌𝐶𝐿 𝑆
2

The formation of ice on the leading

edge of the wing will produce
a) Large changes in the local contour, leading to severe local adverse pressure gradients.
b) High surface friction and a considerable reduction of boundary layer kinetic energy.

Therefore, Stall Speed Increases.

EFFECT OF MACH NUMBER (COMPRESSIBILITY) ON STALL SPEED

1. Phenomena is known as compressibility come into play
by which reduction in up wash and down wash takes
place.

AKSHEY SOOD
2. The change in the streamline pattern accentuates the adverse pressure
gradient near the leading edge and flow separation occurs at a reduced
angle of attack
3. To maintain a constant EAS as altitude increases, TAS is increased. Also, outside air
temperature decreases with increasing altitude, causing the local speed of sound to
decrease. Mach number is proportional to TAS and inversely
proportional to the local speed of sound (a):

4. As altitude increases, stall speed is initially constant then increases,

due to compressibility

SUPER STALL (DEEP STALL)

1. A swept-back wing tends to stall first

near the tips, the loss of lift at the tips
causes the pitch attitude to increase
rapidly & further increase the AOA.
2. The aircraft start to sink at a constant nose high pitch attitude. This increase in a rapid
additional increase in AOA.
3. Separated airflow from the stalled wing will immense a high -set tailplane in low energy
turbulent air, Elevator effectiveness is greatly reduced making it impossible for pilot to
decrease the AOA.
4. The aeroplane will become stabilized in what is known as the "Super stall" or "Deep
Stall" condition
5. The Swept back wing is the major contributing factor
6. The Combination of a Swept-back wing & a high mounted tailplane( T=Tail) are the
factors involved in the "Super or Deep stall".

SUPER STALL PREVENTION- STICK PUSHER

Stick Pusher- is a device attached to the elevator control system which physically pushes
the control column forward, reducing the AOA before super stall can occur.

AKSHEY SOOD
Provision is made to dump the stick pusher system in the event of a malfunction, once
dumped the system cannot normally be reset in flight.
SPIN

AKSHEY SOOD
 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Purpose

Aircrafts are equipped with high lift devices to reduce take-off and landing distance.

Take-off and LANDING SPEEDS

The stalling speed is determined by the CLMAX of the wing.

1. One of the main factors which determine the CLMAX of an aerofoil section is the
chamber.
2. For take-off and landing a cambered section is desirable, but this would give high
drag at cruising speeds and require a very nose down attitude (to increase speed).

FLAPS
A flap is a hinged portion of the trailing edge or leading edge which can be deflected
downwards and so produce an increase of camber.

TRAILING EDGE FLAP

1. PLAIN FLAPS
a) Simple Construction.
b) Good increase in CLMAX.
c) Used mainly on low speed a/c where very short
T/O and landing is not required.
2. SPLIT FLAP
1. This flap forms part of the lower surface of the
wing trailing edge, the upper surface contour
being unaffected when flap is lowered.
2. The split flap gives about the same increase in lift
as the plain flap.
3. Lift is slightly more as separation is delayed on
wing to upper contour is maintained.
4. High drag than plain flap.

AKSHEY SOOD
3. SLOTTED FLAP
1. When the slotted flap is lowered a slot or gap is
opened between the flap and the wing.
2. Purpose of slot is to direct high pressure air from
the lower surface over the flap and re-energise
the boundary layer.
3. Complex construction.
4. The slotted flap gives a bigger increase in Clmax than the plain or split flap and less
drag.

4. THE FOWLER FLAP

1. The fowler flap moves rearwards and then

down, initially giving an increase in wing area
and then an increase in chamber. Can also be
slotted.
2. Because of the combined effects of increased area
and chamber, the fowler flap gives the greatest
increase in lift of all the flaps.
3. Gives least drag because of the slot and reduction
of thickness : chord ratio

COMPARISON OF TRAILING EDGE FLAPS

AKSHEY SOOD
CLMAX AND STALLING ANGLE

1. With the flap lowered CLMAX is increased

but the stalling angle is reduced. This is
because lowering the flap increases the
effective AOA.

DRAG
1. Split flap gives the highest drag
2. Fowler flap the least
3. During take-off, drag reduces the acceleration and so the flap should give a little drag
as possible.
4. For landing drag add to the breaking force and so the flap drag is beneficial.
5. The drag increments with increasing flap angle are not constant, the increments in
drag is larger as the flap angle increases.
LIFT/DRAG RATIO
1. Lowering the flap increases both the lift and drag
2. Lift is the larger force, the proportional increase in the drag is greater so the
maximum obtainable lift/drag ratio decreases.
3. L/D ratio is a measure of aerodynamics efficiency and affects the aircraft
performance in aspects such as range, climb angle and glide angle.
4. With flaps downwards, range will be decreases, climb angle
reduced and glide angle increased.(Detail explanation in
Performance notes)
PITCHING MOMENT
1. Flap movement, up or down, will usually cause a change of
pitching moment. This is due to CP movement and
downwash at the tail plane.
CENTRE OF PRESSURE MOVEMENT
1. When flaps is lowered, the CP will move rearwards giving a
nose down pitch moment
2. In the case of a fowler flap will also cause the CP to move aft
resulting in an even greater increase in the nose down
pitching moment.

AKSHEY SOOD
CHANGE OF DOWNWASH

1. Tail plane effective AOA is determined by the downwash from

the wing.
2. When flaps are lowered the downwash will increase and the
tailplane AOA will decrease, causing nose up pitching moment

OVERALL PITCH CHANGE

1. The resultant aircraft pitching moment will depend upon which

of the two effect is dominant
2. Pitching moment will be influenced by the type of flaps, the
position of the and wing and relative position at the tail plane

AIRCRAFT ATTITUDE WITH FLAPS LOWERED

1. If the flaps are lowered but the speed kept constant, lift will
increase to maintain it at its original value. The AOA must be
decreased.
2. Aircraft fly in a more nose down attitude if the flaps are down

LEADING EDGE HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Leading Edge Flaps Leading Edge Slot & Slats

LEADING EDGE FLAPS

1. On a high speed aerofoil section the leading

edge may have very little camber and have a
small radius.
2. This gives slow separation just aft of the
leading edge at quite low AOA
3. This can be improved by utilizing a leading edge flap which increases the leading edge
chamber.
4. Leading edge devices are either fully extended (deployed) or retracted (stowed).

KRUEGER FLAPS

1. Is part of the lower surface of the leading edge

2. To promote root stall on a swept wing,
Krueger flaps are used on the inboard section.

AKSHEY SOOD
Effect of leading edge flaps on lift

1. The main effect of the leading edge flap is to delay separation, so increase the
stalling angle and the corresponding CLMAX.
DRAW COMPARISON BETWEEN LEADING EDGE FLAPS
AND TRAILING EDGE FLAPS

SLATS/SLOTS
A leading edge slot is a gap from the lower surface of the leading edge and may be created
by moving of the leading edge (slat) forward.
SLAT
When deployed, the slat forms a slot which allows
passage of air from the high pressure region below
the wing to the low pressure region above it
1. SLAT forms convergent duct
2. If KE is added to the boundary layer, the boundary layer separation will be delayed to
much higher AOA

1.
2.
3. The suction part does not move forward, so the effect of the slot on pitching
movement is insignificant

AKSHEY SOOD
DISADVANTAGES OF THE SLOT
1. The trailing edge flap gives its CLMAX at slightly less than the normal stalling angle, the
slot requires a much increased AOA to give its CLMAX
2. In flight this means that the A/c will have a very nose up attitude at low speeds and
on approach to land, visibility of the landing area could be restricted.
ASYMMETRY OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES
1. If the movement of the device is not symmetrical on the two wings, the unbalanced
forces could cause severe roll control problem
2. The difference in lift will cause a rolling moment which must be opposed by the
aileron
3. The difference in drag will cause a yawing moment which must be opposed by the
rudder
FLAP LOAD RELEIF SYSTEM
1. A device which prevents flap deployment at high speeds
2. The pilot can select the flaps, but they will not enter until the airspeed is below the
flap extend speed VFE
CHOICE OF FLAP SETTING FOR T/O, CLIMB AND LANDING
UNSTICK SPEED
TAKE OFF It is the calibrated
Takeoff distance depends upon unstick speed and rate of airspeed at and above
acceleration to that speed. which an airplane can
safely climb off the
a) Lowest unstick speed will be possible at the highest CLMAX and
ground and continue
this will be achieved at
take off.
a large flap angle.
b) But large flap angles also give high drag which will reduce
acceleration and increase the distance required to accelerate to unstick speed.
c) A lower flap angle will give a higher unstick speed, but better acceleration, and so give a
shorter distance to unstick.
Thus there will be some optimum setting which will give the shortest possible take-off
distance.
If leading edge devices are fitted they will be used for take-off.

CLIMB (Performance)
A minimum climb gradient is required in the take-off configuration. Climb gradient is
reduced by flap, so if climb gradient is limiting, a lesser flap angle may be selected even
though it gives a longer take-off distance.
LANDING
The lowest touchdown speed will be given by the highest CLMAX.

AKSHEY SOOD
 STABILITY
Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to a steady state of flight without any help
from the pilot after being disturbed by an external force.

STABILITY

STATIC DYNAMIC

The initial reaction of What happens after

the aircraft after the Initial reaction.
removal of a
disturbing force

Positive Neutral Negative

Non-Oscillating Oscillating

Subsidence Divergence Neutral Damped Undamped Divergent

oscillation oscillation oscillation

AKSHEY SOOD
Equilibrium
An aircraft is in a state of equilibrium when the sum of all forces is zero and the sum of all
moments is zero. There is no acceleration and the aircraft will continue in steady flight
The term static is applied to this form of stability since any resulting motion is not
considered.
AEROPLANE REFERENCE AXES
1. Set of reference axes passing through the CG

STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

1. Longitudinal stability is motion about the lateral axis
2. Does not interact with motion about the other 2 axes
3. An aircraft will exhibit static longitudinal stability if it tends to adjust towards the trim
AOA when displayed by a gust or control input
AKSHEY SOOD
AERODYNAMIC CENTRE(AC)
1. Location of aircraft 25% chord
2. Pitching moment about the aircraft is negative(Nose
down)
3. Negative(Nose down) pitching moment about the
aircraft does not change in AOA
4. Change in lift acts at the aerodynamic center.

The pitching moment about aircraft remains constant as the AOA is increase because the
magnitude of the lift force increases but acts through a smaller arm due to CP moving
forward.
Prove Negative pitching moment does not change in AOA

5. AC is a stationary point located at the 25% chord only when the airflow is subsonic

WINGS- Exhibits Stable or Unstable Characteristics

1. A wing considered alone is statically unstable, because the Aerodynamic center is in

front of CG

A vertical gust will momentarily increase the AOA and

when multiplied by X will generate a position (nose
up) pitching moment about CG

AKSHEY SOOD
2. WING TOGETHER WITH A TAILPLANE
1. The tailplane is positioned to generate a stabilizing pitching moment about the a/c cg

2. The same vertical gust will increase in AOA of the tailplane and increase tailplane lift ,
which when multiplied by arm ‘y’ will generate a negative pitching moment about the
aircraft CG
3. If the tail moment is greater than the wing moment the sum of moments will not be
zero and the resultant nose down moment will give an angular acceleration about the
CG
4. The great the tail moment relative to the wing moment, the greater the rate of
acceleration towards the original equilibrium position
5. Length of both arms is dependent upon CG position.
6. It is nose down tail moment is greater than nose up wing moment, the A/c will have
static longitudinal stability.

NEUTRAL POINT
The sum of the moment will be zero
1. Because there is no resultant moment,
either nose up or nose down, the aircraft
will remain in its new position of
equilibrium, the aircraft will have neutral
static longitudinal stability

AKSHEY SOOD
STATIC MARGIN

1. The distance the CG is forward of the

neutral point will give a measure of
the static longitudinal stability, this
distance is called the static margin.
The greater the static margin, the
greater the static longitudinal
stability.
2. The aft CG limit will be positioned some distance forward of the neutral point, the
distance b/w the neutral point and the aft CG limit gives the required minimum static
stability margin

Contribution of each component of the aircraft on pitching moment

1. Wing
2. Fuselage and nacelles
3. Horizontal tail
4. Power effect
5. Effect of CG position
6. High lift devices
WING
The degree of positive camber of the wing has no effect on longitudinal stability
FUSELAGE AND NACELLES
1. A symmetrical body in an airflow develops an unstable pitching moment when given
an AOA
HORIZONTAL TAIL
1. An increase in lift at the horizontal tail produces a negative stability moment about
the aircraft CG
2. The wing moment is essentially determined by the CG position, but the tail moment
is determined by the CG position and the effectiveness of the tailplane.

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TAILPLANE IS DEPENDENT ON

1. Downwash from the wing
2. Dynamic pressure at the tailplane
3. Longitudinal dihedral

AKSHEY SOOD
LONGITUDINAL DIHEDRAL
1. The difference between
tailplane and wing incidence
2. For longitudinal static stability
the tailplane incidence is
smaller, this will generate a
greater percentage increase
in tailplane lift than wing lift
for a given vertical gust
DOWNWASH
1. When the airplane is given a change in AOA, the horizontal tail does not experience
the change in AOA on the wing
2. Because of the increase in downwash behind the wing, the horizontal tail will
experience a smaller change in AOA

Effect of downwash on stability

The downwash at the horizontal tail reduces the contribution to stability

POWER EFFECTS

Drag Thrust

Thrust UNSTABLE STABLE Drag

1. The magnitude of the unstable contribution depends on the distance from the CG to
the propeller and is largest at high power and slow dynamic pressure

DYNAMIC PRESSURE
1. Increase in dynamic pressure at the tail tends to increase the effectiveness of the tail

AKSHEY SOOD
HIGH LIFT DEVICES Effect of High Lift Devices on stability

1. High lift devices tend to increase downwash at the

tail and reduce the dynamic pressure at the tail, both
of which are destabilising
EFFECT OF CG POSITION

1. As the CG is gradually moved aft, the

airplane static stability decreases then
unstable
LONGITUDINAL CONTROL

MIN STABILITY – MAX CONTROLLABILITY

MAX STABILITY – MIN CONTROLLABILITY Longitudinal Control

MANOEUVRE STABILITY
1. Aerodynamic damping :- When the pilot pitches the
aircraft, it rotates about the CG and the tailplane is
subject to a pitching velocity

2. The pitching moment from aerodynamic damping will give greater stability in maneuvers
than in steady flight
3. With increase in TAS, effect of aerodynamic damping reduces i.e same IAS, altitude
increased

MANOEUVRE POINT : The CG position when the tail moment would be the same as the
wing moment during maneuvering
Maneuvering point is aft of neutral point
TAILORING CONTROL FORCES
1. Stick centering spring 2. Down spring 3. Bob weight

AKSHEY SOOD
 SUMMARY

Draw and Explain Aerodynamic Center

COMPONENTS STABLE/UNSTABLE
Wings
Fuselage
Horizontal Tail
Power Effect
Effect of CG
High Lift Devices

Draw and explain in one diagram Neutral Point, Static Margin, Maneuver Point, Forward and Aft limits.

Explain the effect of longitudinal control on stability Explain Longitudinal Dihedral?

AKSHEY SOOD
 DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

1. An aircraft which has static directional stability will tend to return to equilibrium when
subjected to some disturbance
2. The directional stability of an aeroplane is essentially the ‘weathercock’ stability and
involves moments about the normal axis

SIDESLIP ANGLE

1. The sideslip angle relates the

displacement of the aircraft
centerline from the relative
airflow
2. Sideslip angle is positive when
the relative wind is displaced to
the right of the aircraft centerline
3. Static directional stability of the
aircraft Is appreciated by
response to sideslip

CONTRIBUTION OF THE AEROPLANE COMPONENTS

Contribution of fuselage on Directional
1. FUSELAGE if the AC of the fuselage is ahead of Stability(Diagram Of Keel Surface)

aircraft CG, as is usually the case. The effect is de –

stabilizing

2. DORSAL AND VENTRAL FINES

1. A dorsal fin is a smaller aerofoil of very low aspect

ratio, mounted on top of the fuselage neat the rear
2. Ventral fin is mounted below
3. Stabilizing effect

DRAW VENTRAL FIN

ON THE AIRCRAFT
AKSHEY SOOD
LOW ASPECT RATIO

a. Gives unstable effect at low AOA

b. Tend to stall late
c. Stable at large sideslip angle

3. FIN

1. Major source of directional stability.

2. Fin moment arm is powerful factor
3. The contribution of the fin is a
direct function of its arm
4. It is desirable to have a high lift
curve slope for the fin, a high AR
structure is not practical or
desirable – low stalling angle,
bending, hangar roof clearance
5. Dynamic pressure at the fin could
depend on the slipstream of a
propeller, wing wake, direction of slipstream from a propeller
6. The side force on the fin may still be relatively small compared to that on the
fuselage, which is destabilizing, but because its line of action is for aft of the CG, the
yawing moment it creates is relatively large and gives overall stability to the fuselage
– fin combination
7. With addition of dorsal Fin the effective aspect ratio of the fin is reduced which
increases the stall angle for the surface

WING

1. The contribution of the wing to static

directional stability is usually small.
2. Sweepback produces a stabilizing effect,
depending upon the amount of sweepback
3. The inclination of the forward, right, wing to
the relative airflow is greater than that of the
rearward wing, so there is more lift, and hence
more induced drag on the right side. The result
of this discrepancy in drag on the two sides of
the wing is a yawing moment to the right.

AKSHEY SOOD
POWER EFFECT

1. the general effect of power is destabilizing and

the greatest contribution will occur at high power
and low dynamic pressure

2. The air in the slipstream behind a propeller

spirals around the fuselage, and this results in a
sidewash at the fin (from the left with a clockwise
rotating propeller).

CENTER OF GRAVITY POSITION

1. Static directional stability is essentially unaffected

by the variation of CG position within the longitudinal
limits

LATERAL STABILITY

1. The static lateral stability of an aeroplane involves

consideration of rolling moments due to sideslip
2. When the aeroplane is subject to a positive sideslip
angle, lateral stability will be evident if a negative
rolling moment results

CONTRIBUTION OF THE AEROPLANE COMPONENTS

WING

1. The principal surface contributing to the lateral stability of an aeroplane is the wing

WING POSITON

Low wing position

a. Gives an unstable contribution.

b. The direction of relative airflow decreases
the effective AOA of the wing into wind
and increases the effective AOA of the
wing out of wing. Tending to increase the rolling moment

AKSHEY SOOD
High wing position

1. Give a stable contribution

2. The direction of relative airflow increases the effective AOA of the wing into wind
and decreases the effective AOA of the wing out of wind, tending to decrease the
rolling moment

GEOMETRIC DIHEDRAL

1. If the relative wind comes from the side, the

wing into the wind is subject to an increase
in angle of attack and develops an increase
in lift.
2. The wing away from the wind is subject to a
decrease in angle of attack and develops a
decrease in lift.
3. The changes in lift gives a rolling moment
tending to raise the into-wind wing, hence
geometric dihedral contributes a stable roll
also known as ‘Dihedral effect’

ANHEDRAL Reduces lateral stability

HOW?

Increased
effective sweep
SWEEPBACK angle, Less Lift.
1. A negative rolling moment
will be generated
2. the swept back wing contributes a
positive “dihedral effect”.
3. An aircraft with a swept back wing
requires less geometric dihedral than a Reduced
straight wing Effective Sweep
angle, More Lift

AKSHEY SOOD
FIN Fin Contribution to Lateral Stability

1. Contributes to Lateral Stability

2. Above the CG

VENTRAL FIN
1. Below the CG
2. Does not contribute to lateral static stability

FLAPS/Power Effect

1. The deflection of flaps causes the inboard

sections of the wing to become relatively more
effective and these section have a small spanwise
moment arm.
2. Therefore, the changes in wing lift due to sideslip
occur closer inboard and the dihedral effect is
reduced.
3. The propeller slipstream at high power and low
airspeed makes the inboard wing sections much
more effective and reduces the dihedral effect.
4. When an aircraft is placed in a sideslip, the lateral
and directional response will be coupled, i.e.
sideslip will simultaneously produce a rolling and a
yawing moment.

SPIRAL DIVERGENCE

1. Spiral divergence will exist when static directional stability is

very large when compared to the “dihedral effect”.

2.when a wind gust makes an airplane with spiral instability to

side-slip, powerful directional stability tends to yaw the
airplane back into alignment with the relative wind.

3. In this case the outside wing will generate more lift as it

travels faster. this tends to roll the airplane in the direction of
the yaw. the rolling force overcomes the weak dihedral effect, allowing further roll.

AKSHEY SOOD
DUTCH ROLL

1. Dutch roll will occur when the “dihedral effect” is large

when compared to static directional stability.
2. It is the combination of continuous yawing and rolling
oscillation
3. When a yaw is introduced, the strong “dihedral effect”
will roll the aircraft due to the lift increase on the wing
into wind. The increased induced drag on the rising
wing will yaw the aircraft in the opposite direction,
reversing the coupled oscillations.
4. Aircraft with a tendency to Dutch Roll are fitted
with a Yaw Damper.
5. If the Yaw Damper fails in flight, it is recommended
that the ailerons be used by the pilot to damp-out
Dutch Roll.

SUMMARY

AKSHEY SOOD
 DYNAMIC STABILITY

1. Dynamic stability is defined by the resulting motion with time.

2. If an aircraft is disturbed from equilibrium, the time history of the resulting motion
indicates its dynamic stability
3. An aircraft will demonstrate positive dynamic stability if the amplitude of motion
decreases with time.

SUBSIDENCE
1. An initial disturbance and motion simply subsides
without oscillation, it is termed ‘subsidence’ or
‘deadbeat return’.
Positive Static Initial action to come
back to original place
Positive Dynamic Amplitude decreasing

DIVERGENCE
1. Non – cyclic increase of amplitude with time
Static Instable Initial tendency to continue
in displaced direction
Dynamic Instable Increasing Amplitude

NEUTRAL

1. Original disturbance creates a displacement which then

remains constant
Neutral Static Lack of initial action
Neutral Dynamic Constant Amplitude

DAMPED OSCILLATION Positive Static

Positive Dynamic
1. Cyclic motion
2. Static stability : Initial tendency to return to equilibrium
condition
3. Amplitude decreases with time
4. Resistance of motion and energy is being dissipated
5. Dissipation of energy or damping is necessary to provide dynamic stability

AKSHEY SOOD
UNDAMPED OSCILLATION

1. Cyclic motion Positive Static

Neutral Dynamic
2. Static stability
3. Without damping, the oscillation continues with
no reduction of amplitude with time
4. An aircraft must have sufficient damping to rapidly
dissipate any oscillatory motion which would affect the safe operation of the aircraft.

DIVERGENT OSCILLATION

1. Cyclic motion Positive Static

Negative Dynamic
2. Static stability
3. Each subsequent return to equilibrium is increasing
velocity such that amplitude continues to increase
with him
4. Divergent oscillation results when energy is
supplied in the motion rather than dissipated by positive damping
5. Divergent oscillation occurs if a pilot unknowingly makes control inputs, energy is
added to the system, negative damping exists and pilot induced oscillation results

The existence of static stability does not guarantee the existence of dynamic
stability. However, the existence of dynamic stability implies the existence of
static stability
LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STABILITY

1. Longitudinal dynamic stability are connected with the time history response of the
airplane to disturbances.
2. Aircraft must demonstrate a certain degree of longitudinal stability of motion at a
certain rate.
3. The required degree of dynamic stability is usually specified by the time necessary for
the amplitude to reduce one – half the original value; the time to damp to half –
amplitude.

PRINCIPAL VARIABLE IN THE LONGITUDINAL MOTION OF AN AEROPLANE WILL BE

1. The pitch attitude of the aircraft.

2. The angle of attack.
3. True airspeed (TAS).

AKSHEY SOOD
The longitudinal dynamic stability of an aeroplane generally consists of 2 basic modes of
oscillation.

1. Long period oscillation (phugoid)

2. Short period motion
Longitudinal motion of the aeroplane may consist of a combination of these 2 modes

LONG PERIOD OSCILLATION (PHUGOID)

1. Involves noticeable variations

a. Pitch attitude
b. Altitude
c. Airspeed
d. Nearly constant AOA
2. The period of oscillation in the Phugoid is between 1
and 2 minutes.
3. Damping of the Phugoid is weak due to less change
in AOA
4. Long period oscillation is easily controlled by the
pilot.

SHORT PERIOD OSCILATION

1. Involves noticeable variation in AOA

2. Constant speed, height and pitch attitude
3. Consists of rapid pitch oscillations
4. The amplitude of the short period oscillation
being decreased by pitch damping
5. Short period oscillation is not easily
controlled by the pilot
6. Modern large high speed jet transport a/c are settled with pitch dampness, which
automatically compensate for any dynamic longitudinal instability
7. Adversely affected by pilot and response

Dynamic stability is reduced at high altitude due to reduced aerodynamic damping

AKSHEY SOOD
 CONTROLS
1. All aircrafts fitted with a control system to enable the pilot to maneuver and trim the
aircraft in flight about each of its 3 axes.
2. ‘Flap’ type control surfaces positioned at the extremities of the aircraft so that they have
the longest possible moment arm about the CG

3. Separate control systems and

3 sets of control surfaces
a. Rudder for control of yaw
about the normal axes
(directional control)
b. Elevator for control in pitch
about the lateral axis
(longitudinal control)
c. Aileron for control in roll
about the longitudinal axis
(lateral control)

4. The moment around the axis is produced by changing the aerodynamic force on the
appropriate aerofoil
5. The magnitude of the force is a product of the dynamic pressure and the angular
displacement of the control surface

AERODYNAMIC FORCE CAN BE CHANGED BY

1. Adjusting the camber of the aerofoil

2. Changing the incidence of the aerofoil
3. Decreasing lift and increasing drag by ‘spoiling’ the
airflow
Control Surface Changes Camber and Lift
CHANGING THE INCIDENCE OF THE AEROFOIL

1. Changing the incidence of an aerofoil will change its

lift.
2. For pitch control.
3. All moving tailplane or stabilizer.

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DECREASING LIFT AND INCREASING DRAG BY SPOILING THE AIRFLOW – SPOILERS

1. Disturbing the airflow over the upper surface

HINGE MOMENTS

1. If an aerodynamic force acts on the control surface, it

will try to rotate the control around its hinge in the
direction of the force

MOMENT = Force x Distance ; F x D

2. The force is due to the surface area, the angular

displacement of the control surface and the Explain Hinge Moment?
dynamic pressure
3. To move the control surface to the required
angular displacement and maintain it in that
position the pilot has to overcome the hinge
moment by applying a force (stick force)
4. STICK FORCE will therefore depend on the size of
the hinge moment

CONTROL BALANCING

Aerodynamic force on the controls will depend on the area of the control surface, its
angular displacement and the IAS (dynamic pressure)

1. For large and fast aircraft the resulting aerodynamic force can give hinge moments/ stick
forces which are too high for easy operation of the controls

Solution: Use hydraulic powered flying controls or aerodynamic balance

AERODYNAMIC BALANCE
1. Using the aerodynamic forces on the control surface to
reduce the hinge moment/ stick force
INSET HINGE
Merits
1. If the distance is reduced the hinge moment will be
reduced, M = F × D
2. No loss in effectiveness

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Demerits

1. Over balancing :- if the aerodynamic force were to move forward of the hinge
2. Reversal of the stick force would occur.

HORN BALANCE M= F×D

1. Part of the surface is forward of the hinge line

2. Forces on this part of the surface give hinge
moment line moment which are in the
opposite direction to the moment of the main part of the surface
3. No loss in effectiveness

INTERNAL BALANCE

1. Aerodynamic balance area is inside the wing

2. Movement of the control causes pressure changes
on the aerofoil
3. The pressure difference on the balance therefore
gives a hinge moment which is the opposite to
the hinge moment on the main control surface and overall hinge moment is reduced
4. No loss in effectiveness

BALANCE TABS

1. Provides a force acting on the control surface

trailing edge opposite to the force on the main
control surface
2. Balance tabs moves in the opposite direction of
the control surface.
3. The pilot moves the surface, the surface moves the tab.
4. Reduction in control effectiveness, as the tab force is
opposite to the control force

ANTI – BALANCE TAB

1. Moves in the same direction as the control surface

2. Increases the control effectiveness
3. Increases hinge moment and give heavier stick forces
4. The pilot moves the surface, the surface moves the tab

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SERVO TABS

1. Servo tabs are connected directly

to the pilot flying controls.
2. If external control locks are fitted
to the control surface on ground, the cockpit control will be free to move.
3. Reduced control effectiveness at low IAS

SPRING TABS

1. The spring tab is a modification of the

servo tab.
2. Maximum tab assistance is obtained at
high speed when the stick forces are
greatest
3. High dynamic pressure will prevent the surface from moving, so the spring is
compressed by the pilot input and the tab moves the surface
4. The spring is not compressed at low IAS, so the pilot input deflects the control surface
and the tab, increasing the surface area and control effectiveness at low speed

(HYDRAULIC) POWERED FLYING CONTROLS

If the required assistance for the pilot to move the controls

cannot be provided by the preceding types of aerodynamic
balance, then power assisted or fully powered controls have
to be used.

MASS BALANCE

1. Flutter : is an oscillation of the control surface which can

occur due to the bending and twisting at the structure
under load
2. Flutter may be prevented by adding weight to the control
surface in front of the hinge line

LONGITUDINAL CONTROL

1. Elevator are displacement control

2. If the elevator is deflected upwards, the tail will
develop a download which will begin to pitch the
aircraft nose upwards.

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LATERAL CONTROL

1. The main requirement for lateral control is to achieve an adequate rate of roll
2. Control in roll is usually obtained by aileron or by spoilers, Ailerons are rate control
3. Drooped : hinged tailing edge flap type ailerons so rigged that both right and left
ailerons have a positive downward deflection with the control column in the neutral
position

EFFECT OF AILERON DEFLECTION

1. If control wheel is turned to the left, the left

aileron will move up and the right aileron down.

AERODYNAMIC DAMPING
1. Which opposed the roll, how?
2. The up aileron will decrease the lift of the left wing
which will begin to ‘drop’
3. The downward movement of the wing creates a relative
airflow upwards which increases it’s effective AOA
4. The increased effective AOA of the down going wing
increases its lift, which opposes the roll
5. The greater the rate of roll, the greater the damping The greater the TAS, the smaller the
increase in effective AOA for a given roll?
6. The greater the TAS, the smaller the increase in
effective AOA for a given roll
7. The changes in wing lift for a given aileron deflection
depends on the IAS, but the change of effective AOA
due to roll velocity depends on TAS
8. High rate of roll to achieve you need higher TAS
9. Aerodynamic damping will be greater if the span is
greater. ( a short span wing will have a greater rate of
roll than a large span wing

ADVERSE AILERONS YAW

1. The difference in drag on the two wings

produces a yawing moment which is
opposite to the rolling moment.

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REDUCING ADVERSE AILERON YAW

1. Differential ailerons
Reduces the difference in drag between the 2 wings
2. Fries ailerons
a. Have an asymmetric leading edge of ailerons
b. Leading edge of the up – going aileron protrudes below the lower surface of wing casing
high drag
3. Aileron – rudder coupling
a. Aileron and rudder controls are interconnected
b. When the ailerons are deflected the rudder automatically moves to counter the adverse
yaw
4. Roll control spoilers
a. Down going wing will have an increase in drag due to the raised spoiler

INBOARD AILERONS

1. Ailerons are normally situated at the wing tips to give the

greatest rolling moment for the forced produced
2. Twisting loads on the wing :- a down going aileron will
twist the wing tip and decrease wing tip incidence
3. As IAS increases, a down going aileron will give more wing
twist

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4. Eventually an IAS will be reached at which the decrease in tip incidence will give a large
down force than the up force produced by the aileron
5. Aileron reversal : the wing will go down, rather than up as
the pilot intended

To reduce wing twist, the ailerons are mounted inboard

FLAPERONS

1. When ailerons function as flaps

2. Ailerons new deflected position is new neutral
position hence from that new neutral position they
deflect up or down and give lateral control

ROLL CONTROL SPOILERS

1. Spoilers consist of movable panels on the upper wing

surface
2. Revised hydraulically
3. Spoilers cannot give an increase of lift
4. Spoilers disturb the airflow over the wing and
reduce lift
5. There is no adverse yaw
6. Cannot develop flutter
7. Spoilers do not occupy the trailing edge
8. Wing twisting is reduced

SPEED BRAKES

1. Speed brakes are devices to increase the drag of an aircraft when it is required to
decelerate quickly as to descend rapidly

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TYPE OF SPEED BRAKE

1. Speed brakes should produce an increase in drag with no

loss of lift or change in pitching moment. The fuselage
mounted speed brake is best suited to meet these
requirements
2. Speed brakes are controlled by a separate lever in the
cockpit and activate symmetrically
3. Speed brakes are normally cleared for operation up to
VMO/MMO Show the effect of spoilers on Total Drag
4. Spoilers will still function as a roll control while being Curve.
used as speed brakes, by moving asymmetrically
from the selected speed brake position
5. The drag resulting from the operation of speed
brakes is profile drag
a. Vmd decreasing
b. Speed stability increases at low speed

GROUND SPOILERS

1. Decelerating force is given by aerodynamic drag reverse thrust and the wheel brakes
2. Extra drag generated by ground spoilers
3. Ground spoiler are made inoperative in flight by a switch on the under carriage leg

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL

Control in yaw is obtained by the rudder. The rudder is required to

a. Maintain directional control with asymmetric power

b. Correct for crosswinds on take-off and landing
c. Correct for adverse yaw
d. Recover from a spin
e. Correction for slipstream effect on single engine aircraft.
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EFFECT OF RUDDER DEFLECTION

EFFECT OF RUDDER DEFLECTION

1. If the rudder is deflected to the left, the aircraft will begin to yaw to the left
2. The sideslip airflow from the right acting on the fixed part of the fin will cause a side load
to the left, opposing the effect of the rudder, its yawing will stop until two forces
balances each other out.
3. When rudder is returned to the neutral point, both the fin and the rudder will give a
force to the left which will return the aircraft to its original position.

FIN STALL

1. The sideslip angle is effectively the angle of attack of the fin.

2. There will be a critical angle at which it will stall.
3. The stalling angle of an aerofoil is affected by its aspect ratio
4. Stalling angle of the fin could be increased by decreasing its aspect
ratio
5. Done by fitting a dorsal fin

RUDDER RATIO CHANGES

Gear change system: This gives smaller rudder

deflection for full pedal movement above a
certain speed.

Progressive gear change: This gives a decreasing rudder

deflection with full pedal movement as speed increases

ASYMMETRIC THRUST

1. For a twin engine aircraft, if engine failure occurs, the thrust from the operating engine
will cause a yawing moment.
2. This is counteracted by the rudder.
3. The rudder force will vary with dynamic pressure (IAS).
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4. Hence, there will be minimum speed at which the force will be sufficient to balance the
engine yawing moment.
5. Minimum control speed (VMC).

SECONDARY EFFECS OF CONTROL

1. This coupling occurs particularly with the rolling and yawing moment.

YAWING MOMENT DUE TO ROLL

Adverse yawing moment (Refer to Adverse aileron Yaw)

ROLLING MOMENT DUE TO YAW

More Circumference
Hence, More distance
Time- constant
Velocity More
MORE LIFT

Less Circumference
Hence, Less distance
Time- constant YAWING TO LEFT
Velocity Less AIRCRAFT ROLLS TO THE LEFT
LESS LIFT

FIN ABOVE CG

Left defection, left yaw

Roll to right
This effect is usually very small,
but a high fin may give an adverse roll

TRIMMING

1. An aeroplane is trimmed when it will maintain its attitude and speed without the pilot
having to apply any load to the cockpit control.
2. Control column deflection force may be reduced to zero by operation of the trim
controls.

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THE AIRCRAFT MAY NEED TO BE TRIMMED IN PITCH AS A RESULT OF

a. Changes of speed
b. Changes of power
c. Varying CG position

Trimming in yaw will be needed

1. On a multi – engine aircraft if there is asymmetric power

2. As a result of changes in propeller torque

TRIM TAB

1. A trim tab is a small adjustable surface set into the trailing edge of a main control
surface
2. Deflection is controlled by a trim wheel or electrical switch.
3. The tab is moved in the opposite direction of the control surface, until the tab moment
balances the control surface hinge moment
4. If the two moments are equal the control will be trimmed, i.e. stick force will be zero

FIXED TABS

Some trim tabs are not adjustable in flight, but can be adjusted on the ground, to correct a
permanent out of trim condition

VARIABLE INCIDENCE (TRIMMING) TAILPLANE

1. The tailplane incidence is adjusted by the trim wheel until the tailplane load is equal to
the previous elevator balancing load required

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ADVANTAGES OF A VARIABLLE INCIDENCE TAILPLANE

1. Drag is less in the trimmed state

2. Trimming does not reduce the effective
range of pitch control
3. It is very powerful and gives an
increased ability to trim for larger CG
4. Disadvantage – it is complex and heavy

Disadvantage of a conventional elevator

ad trim

a. The aircraft nose up pitch authority reduces with forward CG movement

SUMMARY

Akshey Sood
 FLIGHT MECHANICS

Flight mechanics is the study of the forces acting on an aircraft in flight and the response of
the aircraft to those forces.

For an aircraft to be in steady (unaccelerated) flight, the following conditions must exist

1.
Upward force = downward force
forward force = backward force Condition is known
The sum of all moments must be zero. as Equilibrium
This condition is known as equilibrium

2. Weight acts through the aircraft CG, vertically downwards towards the centre of the
earth.
3. Lift acts through the CP, normal ( 900) to the flight path
4. Thrust acts forward, parallel to the flight path and drag acts backward parallel to the
flight path
 For level flight the opposing forces must be equal
 CP is forward of the CG at low speed, giving nose up pitching moment and behind the
CG at high speed giving a nose down pitching moment
5. The function of the tailplane is to maintain equilibrium by supplying the force necessary
to counter any pitching moments arising from CP and CG movement

BALANCE OF FORCES

1. If the tailplane is producing a balancing force, this will

add to or subtract from the lift force

For download  WEIGHT + TAILFORCE = LIFT

For upload  WEIGHT – TAILPLANE FORCE = LIFT

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2. For steady level flight at a constant speed, the
thrust must be equal the drag. Drag increases
with speed (above VMD) and so to maintain a
higher speed, the thrust must be increased by
opening the throttle

STRAIGHT STEADY CLIMB

1. An aircraft in a straight steady climb along a

straight flight path inclined at an angle gamma
to the horizontal
2. Weight is resolved into two components one
opposite lift wCos(gamma) and other acting
in the same direction as drag wSin(gamma)
3. The requirements for equilibrium are : thrust
must equal the sum of drag plus the backwards component of weight and lift must equal
its opposing component of weight
4. For equilibrium at a greater angle of climb, the lift required will be less and the
backwards component of weight will be greater
(Since Sin component is being added to the drag, as angle increases SinỴ value
increases)

L = wCosỴ (Lift will take care of wCosỴ component)

T = D+wSinỴ

5. In a straight steady climb, lift is less than weight because lift only has to support a
proportion of the weight, this proportion decreases as the climb angle increases.
6. In a vertical climb, no lift is required
7. In straight steady climb, the thrust required is greater than drag
8. The ability of an aircraft to climb depends upon excess thrust
9. The smaller the drag for a given thrust, the greater the ability to climb
10. Drag will be less with flaps up, giving a larger climb angle (improved climb gradient)
STRAIGHT STEADY CLIMB

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CLIMB ANGLE

1. Angle of climb is the ratio between distance

travelled over the ground and altitude gained
2. Climb angle depends on ‘Excess thrust’ and weight
3. Excess thrust will be greatest at one particular
speed
4. VX = maximum angle of climb, It allows one to climb to altitude within the shortest
horizontal distance.
5. VX for jet engine will be near VMD
6. VX for propeller engine aircraft is below V MD.

EFFECT OF WEIGHT, ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE

1. Drag of an aircraft at a given IAS is not affected by altitude or temperature

2. But higher weight will increase drag and reduce excess thrust and consequently the
climb angle
3. Thrust available from the engine decreases with increasing altitude and increasing
temperature
4. Climb angle therefore decreases with increasing height, altitude and temperature.

RATE OF CLIMB
1. Power is the RATE of doing work.
Work = FORCE X DISTANCE
𝐹𝑂𝑅𝐶𝐸 𝑋 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸
POWER = , 𝑆𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐷 =
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸
POWER = FORCE X SPEED, and we have only one speed
i.e. TAS
POWER = FORCE X TAS
POWER REQUIRED = DRAG X TAS
2. For any given weight, the greater the excess power
available, the greater the RATE of CLIMB.
3. In order to maximize the aircraft's rate of climb we need
to maximize excess power.
4. TAS and Angle of Climb are important factor when
considering rate of climb.
5. VY It allows one to climb to altitude in the shortest time.

VX and VY
At absolute ceiling VY decrease to become the same speed
as VX.
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POWER ON DESCENT

1. The force of weight is split into two

components
2. One component wCosỴ acts
perpendicular to the flight path and
is balanced by lift
3. Other component wSinỴ acts
forward along the flight path and
adds to the thrust to balance drag
4. If the nose of the aircraft is lowered
with a constant thrust setting the increased component of weight acting forward along
the flight path will cause an increase in IAS
5. The increased IAS will result in an increase in drag which will eventually balance the
increased forward force of weight and equilibrium will be re-established.
6. In a descent, lift is less than weight, this is because lift only has to balance the
component of weight. i.e. wCosỴ
7. In a descent thrust is less than drag. This is because weight is giving a forward
component in the same direction as thrust, i.e. wSinỴ

GLIDE
Forces acting on the Aircraft, in glide.
1. In a glide without thrust, the weight
component along the flight path must supply
the propulsive force and balance drag.
2. In a glide, there are only 3 forces acting on
the aircraft, lift, weight and drag.
3. The forward component of weight wSinỴ is a
product of descent angle gamma.
4. The greater the descent angle, the greater
the forward component of weight.
5. The forward component of weight must
balance drag for the aircraft to be in a steady glide.

ANGLE OF DESCENT IN THE GLIDE

1. Glide angle is a function only of the L/D ratio

2. The descent angle will be least when the L/D ratio is the greatest.
3. L/D ratio is a maximum at the optimum AOA and this also corresponds to the minimum
drag speed (VMD)

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4. At speeds above or below VMD the glide angle will be steeper.
5. Maximum distance in a glide can be achieved when the aircraft is flown at L/D max.

EFFECT OF WEIGHT

1. L/Dmax is independent of weight.

2. Glide angle and glide distance will be the same
whatever the weight.
3. VMD increases as weight increases
4. A higher weight will give an increased forward
component of weight and the aircraft will accelerate
towards the resultant higher VMD
5. At a higher weight the aircraft will glide the same
distance, but at a higher speed and consequently have
an increased rate of descent

EFFECT OF WIND

1. Distance achieved in still air

𝐋𝐈𝐅𝐓
𝐃𝐈𝐒𝐓𝐀𝐍𝐂𝐄 = 𝐇𝐄𝐈𝐆𝐇𝐓 𝐋𝐎𝐒𝐒 ×
𝐃𝐑𝐀𝐆
2. If there is a wind, the ground speed will change and so
the distance over the ground will change
3. In a head wind, the ground distance will be decreased
and in a tailwind it will be increased

EFFECT OF CONFIGURATION

1. The maximum L/D ratio of an aircraft will be obtained in

the clean configuration
2. Extension of flaps, spoilers, speed brakes or landing gear
etc will reduce L/D max and give a steeper glide angle,
thus reducing glide range.

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TURNING

Important Points

1. Banking the aircraft inclines the lift.

2. It’s the horizontal component of lift which causes the aircraft to turn.
3. If the aircraft is banked and the AOA is kept constant, the vertical component of lift will
be too small to balance the weight and the aircraft will start to descend
4. As the angle of bank increases, the AOA must be increased, the vertical component
must be large enough to maintain level flight

The weight will be taken care by LCosθ where LSinθ will take care of centrifugal force

𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠θ = mg

mv 2
𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛θ =
r
𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑚𝑣 2
=
𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑟 × 𝑚𝑔
v2
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ =
rg

𝑣2
𝑅=
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ.𝑔

If the same TAS and angle of bank can be obtained, the radius of turn is
basically independent of weight or aircraft type.

Note : not all aircraft can reach the same angle of bank at the same TAS

Rate of Turn
The number of degrees of heading change per unit of time is referred to as the rate of turn

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 𝑇𝐴𝑆
𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝑇𝑈𝑅𝑁 = (radians/sec)
𝑅𝐴𝐷𝐼𝑈𝑆

𝑻𝑨𝑺
Hence, x 57.3 will give you degrees per
𝑹𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑼𝑺
second
𝑇𝐴𝑆
As we know Rate of turn = ------------1 RATE OF TURN
𝑅𝐴𝐷𝐼𝑈𝑆

----------2

Substituting 1 and 2, we get

𝑣
𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝑇𝑈𝑅𝑁 = × 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ. g
𝑣2
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝛉. 𝐠
𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑬 𝑶𝑭 𝑻𝑼𝑹𝑵 =
𝒗
TURN FACTS AND FACTORS
USING FORMULAS
1. At a constant TAS, increasing the angle of
bank decreases the turn radius and
increases the rate of turn
a. Increasing BA will increase tan0 value,
hence radius will decrease, keeping v2 ,
ie, TAS constant.
b. Increasing BA will increase ROT
2. To maintain a constant ROT, increasing
speed requires an increased bank angle.
a. Any increase in denominator has to be
canceled out be increasing numerator

3. At a constant BA, increasing speed

increases the turn radius and decreases
the rate of turn
a. Increasing speed will increase the turn
radius
b. Increasing speed will reduce the rate of
turn
4. In a constant rate turn, the angle of bank
is dependent upon TAS
5. A steeper BA reduces radius and increases

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 rate of turn, but a higher load factor
a. Tanθ and radius are inversely
proportional
b. As secθ value increases, LF increases
6. Load factor is directly related to BA, so
load factor for a given angle is the same at
any speed

7. Reducing TAS reduces turn radius and

increases rate of turn without increasing the
load factor

a. No change in BA, hence LF remains the

same

8. A given TAS will give a specific rate and

radius of turn in any aeroplae.
9. If TAS is doubled at constant bank, radius is quadrupled
10.If TAS is doubled at constant bank, rate of turn is halved

LOAD FACTOR IN THE TURN

RESOLUTION OF FORCES

1. LCosθ will take care of weight

Shows the relationship

between load factor and
bank angle.

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TURNING LIMITS

STALL LIMIT ON TURNING

1. If speed is kept constant, but the bank angle increased, the AOA must also be increased
to provide the increased lift required

THRUST LIMIT ON TURNING

1. During a turn lift must be greater than during level flight and this will result in increased
induced drag.
2. To balance this additional drag, more thrust is required in a turn than for level flight at
the same speed.
3. The greater the bank angle the greater will be the thrust required.

MINIMUM TURN RADIUS

1. The minimum radius of turn occurs at the intersection of the stall limit and the strength
limit
2. The speed at this point is VA the maximum manoeurving speed.

FLIGHT WITH ASYMMETRIC THRUST

1. Immediate yawing moment towards the failed engine

Vital action when an engine fails is to stop the

yaw
Alive
Yawing moment Engine

1. M = F x D plus (drag from failed engine x

arm)
2. Product of thrust from the operating engine
and distance between the thrust line and the
CG (thrust arm)

Strength of the yawing moment will depend

on
1. Thrust from alive engine.
2. Distance between the thrust line and the CG.
3. How much drag is being produced by the failed engine.
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The Rudder moment

1. Which balances the yawing moment

2. Is the product of the rudder force and the distance between the fin CP and CG ( rudder
arm); Moment = rudder force x rudder arm

The ability of the pilot to counteract the yawing moment due to asymmetric thrust will
depend on

1. Rudder displacement (affecting rudder force)

2. CG position (affecting rudder arm)
3. The IAS ( affecting rudder force)

MINIMUM IAS at which directional control can be maintained

= VMC

CRITICAL ENGINE

1. The critical engine is the engine, the failure of which would

give the biggest yawing moment
2. A higher IAS (VMC) would be necessary to maintain
directional control.

SUMMARY

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 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
When an aircraft moves through the air small pressure disturbances or waves are
propagated outward from the aircraft in all directions, but only the waves travelling ahead
to the aircraft are significant for the study of high speed flight

1. The speed of propagation of small pressure waves depends upon the temperature of the
air only.
 The lower the temperature, the lower the speed of propagation
2. The speed of sound at 150C is 340m/s or 661kt
𝑎 ∝ √𝑇 , where a is Speed of sound and T, temperature in Kelvin.
The Speed of sound changes with temperature only.

MACH NUMBER

1. Speed at which an aircraft is travelling in relation to the speed

of sound.
 If pressure wave was propagated at point A
 Pressure wave travelled 10 miles in time t whereas, aircraft
travelled 3 miles in same time t
3
 Mach number = = .3 M
10
2. Mach number is a measure of
compressibility.

EFFECT ON MACH NUMBER OF CLIMBING AT A CONSTANT IAS

1. It is known the temp decreases with increasing altitude, so the speed

of sound will decrease as altitude is increased, 𝑎 ∝ √𝑇
2. It is also known that if altitude is increased at constant IAS, the TAS
increases

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Therefore, the mach number will increase if altitude is increased at a
constant TAS

Change over altitude Flight crew stop flying at a constant IAS and fly at a constant mach
number to avoid accidentally exceeding M MO
The lower the outside temp, the lower the change over altitude

VARIATION OF TAS WITH ALTITUDE AT A CONSTANT MACH NUMBER

1. As altitude decreases the temperature will rise, local speed of sound will increase and
TAS will increase

2. As altitude increases the temperature will drop, local speed of sound will decrease and
TAS will decrease

3. When descending at a constant mach number IAS will be increasing.

4. When climbing at constant TAS, mach number will be increasing, up to the tropopause
and then remain constant

INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON MACH NUMBER AT A CONSTANT FLIGHT LEVEL AND IAS

1. Mach number is independent of temp for a constant IAS,

2. This is because the speed of sound & TAS for a given IAS, both change as √𝑇

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CRITICAL MACH NUMBER

MFS = free stream mach number, this is the mach number shown on the
aircraft mach meter.

ML = local mach number, when an aircraft flies at a certain MFS, there is an

increase in the speed of airflow over certain parts of the aerofoil that
speed is ML

MCRIT = Critical mach number, the free

stream Mach number at which the
local velocity first reaches Mach 1.0
(sonic) is called the critical mach
number

Critical Mach number will decrease with increasing Thickness/Chord ratio or AOA.

EFFECT OF THICKNESS/CHORD OR AOA ON MCRIT

SUBDIVISIONS OF AERODYNAMIC FLOW

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AERODYNAMIC HEATING

1. Air is heated when it is compressed or when it is subjected to friction

2. An aircraft will have compression at the stagnation point, compression through a shock
wave and friction in the boundary layer

SHOCK WAVES

1. An airplane flying well below the speed of sound creates a disturbance in the air and
sends out pressure pulses in all direction
2. Air ahead of airplane receives these ‘messages’ before the airplane arrives and the flow
separates around the airplane.
3. As the aircraft approaches the speed of sound, the pressure pulses merge closer and
closer together in front of the airplane and little time elapses between the time the air
gets a warning of the airplane approach and the airplane’s actual arrive time
4. At the speed of sound the pressure pulses move at
the same speed as the aircraft. they merge together
ahead of the aircraft into a ‘shock wave’ which is an
almost instantaneous line of change in pressure,
temperature and density.
5. A shock wave forms at the rare of an area of
supersonic flow.
6. At MCRIT there is no shockwave because there is no
supersonic flow.

ACCELERATING BEYOND MCRIT

1. At speeds just above the critical mach number there

will be a small region of supersonic airflow on the
upper surface, terminated by a shock wave.
2. As the aircraft speed is further increased the region of
supersonic flow on the upper surface extends and
the shockwave marking the end of the supersonic
region moves rearward
3. On the lower surface same thing will happen although
the shockwave will usually form at a higher aircraft
speed because the lower surface usually has less
curvature so the air is not accelerated so much
4. When the aircraft speed reaches Mach 1.0 the airflow

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 is supersonic over the whole of both upper and lower surfaces and both the upper and
lower shock waves will have reached the trailing edge

EFFECT OF SHOCKWAVES ON LIFT

1. At speed above MCRIT a shockwave will
have forward on the upper surface.
2. This may cause boundary layer separation
aft of the shockwave, causing loss of lift

EFFECT OF SHOCKWAVES ON DRAG

1. As speed increases above MCRIT shock waves begin to form and drag increases more
rapidly
2. The additional drag is called wave drag and is due to energy drag and boundary layer
separation.

ENERGY DRAG :- Energy has to be used to provide the temperature rise across the shock
wave and this energy loss is drag on aircraft.

Boundary layer separation : In certain stages of shockwave movement there is a

considerable flow separation

 As MFS increases through the transonic range the shockwaves move to the trailing
edge and the separation decreases, hence drag decreases.

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EFFECT OF SHOCKWAVES ON THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE

1. Rearward movement of the CP however is irregular as the

pressure distribution on the lower surface also changes
2. The wing root usually has a thicker section than the wing tip so
will have lower Mcrit and shock induced separation will occur
at the root first
3. The CP will move towards the tip and if the wing is swept the
CP movement will also be rearward

MACH TUCK

1. Rearward CP movement with increasing Mach number in the transonic region produces
a nose down pitching moment. This is known as ‘Mach Tuck’, ‘High Speed Tuck’ or
‘Tuck under’
2. A further factor contributing to the nose down pitching moment is decreased
downwash at the tail resulting from reduced lift at the wing root.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE BUFFET BOUNDARIES

STALL SPEED
As altitude is increased at a constant EAS(Dynamic pressure),TAS will increase and outside
air temperature will decrease, causing the local speed of sound to decrease.

Therefore, if altitude is increased at a constant EAS, Mach number will increase.

At low speed CLMAX is fairly constant, but above M 0.4 CLMAX decreases

From the 1g stall speed formula:

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Aerodynamic Ceiling or Coffin Corner

1. An altitude is eventually reached when

there is only one speed at which the
aircraft can fly.
2. Increasing or decreasing speed or
banking the aircraft will result in a stall.
3. In the case of a 1 g manoeuvre, this
altitude is called the ‘Aerodynamic
Ceiling’.
4. This state of difficulty is also called
‘coffin corner’.

DELAYING OR REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF

COMPRESSIBILITY

1. THIN WING

DISADVANTAGE OF THIN
WING
a. The lift produced by a thin wing will be less, giving higher Take-off and landing speeds
and increased distance.
b. Increased structural weight.
c. Reduced fuel capacity.

2. SWEEP BACK
a. The swept back wing shown has the free stream velocity
broken down to a component of velocity perpendicular to the
leading edge and a component parallel to the leading edge
b. The component of velocity perpendicular to the leading edge is
less than the free stream velocity and it is this velocity
component which determines the magnitude of the pressure
distribution
c. MCRIT will increase since the velocity component affecting the
pressure distribution is less than the free stream velocity

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OTHER APPROACH TO LOOK AT SWEPT BACK WING

1. It can be considered that compared to a straight

wing, a swept back wing of the same aerofoil
section has a smaller effective thickness chord
ratio.
2. Sweeping the wing back increases the effective
aerodynamic chord for the same dimensional
thickness
3. This eliminates thin wing disadvantages

Lift curve of sweptback in comparison with straight

wing
Advantages of sweptback

1. Increases MCRIT
2. Makes the wing less sensitive to
changes in AOA due to a gust or
turbulence

Disadvantages

1. Reduced CLMAX – higher stall speed,

increase Take-off and landing
distance
2. Tendency to tip stall
3. Reduced effectiveness of trailing edge control surface and high lift devices because their
hinge line is swept

3. VORTEX GENERATORS
1. Increasing the KE of the boundary layer will reduce flow separation. A very simple device
called vortex generators are used to add KE to the boundary layer

Akshey Sood
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE PRINCIPAL WAVE FORMS ENCOUNTERED WITH SUPERSONIC FLOW.

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 PROPELLERS

BLADE ANGLE

1. The angle between the blade chord & the Plane of

rotation.
2. Blade angle decreases from the root to the tip of
the blade(twist) because rotational velocity of the
blade increases from Root to tip.

GEOMETRIC PITCH

1. The geometric pitch is the distance the propeller would travel forward in one complete
revolution if it were moving through the air at the Blade angle.

BLADE TWIST

1. Tip speed is greater

2. therefore, blade angle must be decreased
towards the tip to give a constant geometric
pitch along the length of the blade.
3. A small blade angle is called FINE PITCH
A large blade angle is called COARSE PITCH
The blade angle determines the geometric
pitch of the propeller.
EFFECTIVE PITCH
1. The distance propeller actually moves forward in each revolution is called the "effective
pitch" or "advance per revolution".

PROPLLER SLIP

1. The difference between the Geometric &

the effective pitch is called the Slip.
Geometric Pitch - Effective Pitch = Slip

HELIX ANGLE
1. The angle that the actual path of the propeller makes to the plane of
rotation.

ANGLE OF ATTACK

1. The AOA is the result of propeller rotational velocity(RPM) and aircraft

forward velocity(TAS).
AKSHEY SOOD
2. The angle between the blade chord and the relative airflow is the AOA.

TAS & RPM INFLUENCE ON AOA(FIXED PITCH)

TAS & RPM INFLUENCE ON AOA

AERODYNAMIC FORCES ON THE PROPELLER

1. A propeller blade has an aerofoil section

2. when moving through the air at an angle of
attack will generate aerodynamic forces in the
same was as a wing
3. The surface which has the greater pressure is
called the " Pressure face" or "Thrust Face".

THRUST

1. A component at right angles to the plane of rotation.

2. The thrust force will vary along the length of each blade
3. Thrust will cause a bending moment on each blade, tending to bend the tip forward.

TORQUE

1. The equal & opposite reaction to being rotated, which generates a turning moment
about the aircraft longitudinal axis.

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2. Propeller torque also gives a bending moment to the blades in, but in the opposite
direction to plane of rotation.

CENTRIFUGAL TWISTING MOMENT (CTM)

1. Components A & B of the centrifugal force acting on the

blade
2. Produces a moment around the pitch change axis which
tends to "FINE" the blade off.

AERODYNAMIC TWISITING MOMENT (ATM)

1. Because the blade CP is in front of the pitch axis,

aerodynamic force generates a moment around the Pitch
change axis acting in the direction of Coarse Pitch.

PROPELLER EFFICIENCY
𝑷𝑶𝑾𝑬𝑹 𝑶𝑼𝑻
1.
𝑷𝑶𝑾𝑬𝑹 𝑰𝑵

2. 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐫 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = 𝐓𝐇𝐑𝐔𝐒𝐓 𝐏𝐎𝐖𝐄𝐑

𝐒𝐇𝐀𝐅𝐓 𝐏𝐎𝐖𝐄𝐑

VARIATION OF THE PROPLLER EFFICIENCY WITH SPEED FOR A FIXED PITCH PROPELLER

1. Increasing TAS, at a constant RPM, reduces the blade AOA, This will decrease Thrust.
The effect of this on Propeller efficiency is as follow
a) At some high forward speed the blade will be close to ZERO lift AOA, Thrust and
therefore thrust power will be zero.
0
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = =0
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
2. There will be only one speed at which a fixed pitch propeller is operating at its most
efficient AOA & where the propeller efficiency will be maximum.
3. As TAS is decreased, thrust will increase because blade AOA is increased
a) Thrust is very large, but the TAS is low (𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑇𝐴𝑆),
so the Propeller efficiency will be low.
b) Thus no useful work is being done when the aircraft is for instance held against the
brakes at full power prior to take off.
c) The efficiency of a fixed pitch propeller varies with forward speed.

AKSHEY SOOD
4. If blade angle can be varied as TAS/RPM
changed, the propeller will remain efficient over
a much wider range of aircraft operating
conditions.

VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS

1. ADJUSTABLE PITCH PROPELLERS :- These are propellers which can have their pitch
adjusted on the ground by mechanically re-setting the blades in the hub. In-flight they
act as a fixed pitch propeller.
2. TWO PITCH PROPELLERS :- These are propellers which have a fine & coarse pitch setting
which can be selected in flight.
a) Fine pitch can be selected for take-off, climb, & landing.
b) Coarse pitch for cruise
c) They will usually also have a Feathered Position

3. (VARIABLE PITCH) CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER :-

a) Propellers which are controlled automatically to vary their pitch (Blade angle) so as to
maintain a selected RPM
b) A variable pitch-propeller permits high efficiency to be obtained over a wide range of
IAS.

FINE PITCH

1. RPM set to maximum, TAS is low

2. The AOA is optimum & maximum available efficiency is
obtained.
3. As the aircraft continues to accelerate the TAS will increase
which decreases the AOA of the blades.
4. RPM would tend to increase, the constant speed unit senses
RPM increase & increases pitch to maintain the blade angle of attack constant.

WINDMILLING

1. If a loss of engine torque occurs, the pro will fine off in an attempt to maintain the set
RPM.
2. The relative airflow will impinge on the front surface of the blade & generate drag &
"negative propeller torque"

AKSHEY SOOD
3. The propeller will now drive the engine. The drag
generated by a windmilling propeller is very high.

FEATHERING

Twin Engine

Increased drag from the windmilling propeller will degrade

1. Climb Performance
2. Limit range
3. add to the yawing moment caused by the failed engine.

To reduce drag, Solution :- Feathering

1. By turning the blades to their, zero lift AOA, no propeller

torque is generated & the propeller will stop, reducing drag

to a minimum.

Single Engine

A single engine aeroplane fitted with a constant speed propeller

does not have a "feathering" capability.

1. however, drag can be reduced to a minimum by pulling the RPM

control to the fully coarse pitch
2. The aircraft 𝐿⁄𝐷 ratio will increase.
3. Rate of descent will decrease.
4. RPM would decrease because of the reduction in negative
torque.

SOLIDITY

To increase power absorption Solidity method is used

 Propeller Solidity is the ratio of the total frontal area of the blade
to the area of the propeller disc.
Increase in solidity can be achieved by
1. Increasing the Chord of each blade
AR reduces, making the propeller less efficient.
2. Increasing the number of Blades
Increasing the blades beyond a certain number (Five or six) reduces
overall efficiency.

AKSHEY SOOD
MOMENTS & FORCES GENERATED BY A PROPELLER
TORQUE REACTION
1. Torque reaction will be greatest during high power, low airspeed(IAS) flight conditions.
2. Because the propeller rotates clockwise, the equal & opposite reaction(Torque) will give
the aircraft an anti-clockwise rolling moment about the longitudinal axis.

3. During take-off this will apply a greater download to the

left wheel, causing more rolling resistance on the left
wheel making the aircraft want to yaw to the left.
4. In flight torque reaction will also make the aircraft want to
roll to the left.
5. Torque reaction can be eliminated by fitting contra-
rotating propellers.

GYROSCOPIC EFFECT

1. A rotating propeller has the properties of a gyroscope- Rigidity in space & precession.
2. Gyroscopic precession is the reaction that occurs when a force is applied to the rim of a
rotating disc.
3. When a force is applied to rim of a propeller the reaction occurs 900 ahead in the
direction of rotation, and in the same direction or the applied force.
4. Gyroscopic effect only occurs when the aircraft pitches &yaw
a) PITCH DOWN - Forward force on the top, force emerges 900 clockwise, left yaw
b) LEFT YAW - Forward force on the right, force emerges 900 clockwise, Pitch up
c) RIGHT YAW - Forward force on the left, force emerges 900 clockwise, pitch down
5. Gyroscopic effect will be cancelled if the propellers are contra rotating

SPIRAL SLIPSTREAM EFFECT

1. As the propeller rotates it produces a

backward flow of air, or slipstream, which
rotates around the aircraft
2. This spiral slipstream causes a change in
airflow around the fin(vertical stabiliser)

AKSHEY SOOD
3. Due to the direction of propeller rotation(clockwise) the spiral slipstream meets the fin
at an angle from the left.
4. Spiral slipstream effect gives the aircraft a yawing moment to the left.

SPIRAL EFFECT CAN BE REDUCED BY

1. The use of contra or counter rotating propellers

2. a small fixed tab on the rudder
3. the engine thrust line inclined slightly to the right
4. offsetting the fin slightly

ASYMMETRIC BLADE EFFECT

1. The down going(right) blade will generate more thrust.

2. the difference in thrust on the two sides of the propeller disc will give a yawing moment
to the left with a clockwise rotating propeller in a nose up attitude.
3. Asymmetric effect will be greatest at full power and & low airspeed(high AOA)

EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS

1. Changes of atmospheric pressure or temperature will cause a change of air density

2. An increase in air density will increase both the engine power and the propeller drag
3. The change in engine power is more significant than the change in propeller drag

ENGINE AND PROPELLER COMBINED

If the combined effect of an engine and propeller is being considered, it is the engine
power change which will determine the result. For an engine driving a fixed pitch propeller:

if density increases, RPM will increase. if density decreases, RPM will decrease.

ENGINE ALONE If the shaft power required to drive the propeller is being considered, then
it is only the propeller torque which needs to be taken into account. To maintain the RPM
of a fixed pitch propeller:

if density increases, power required will increase, if density decreases, power required will decrease.

AKSHEY SOOD
AKSHEY SOOD