GAS TURBINE ENGINES

HANDBOOK

COMPILED BY: AKSHEY SOOD

 GAS TURBINE ENGINES INTRODUCTION

1. Jet propulsion can be described as the force which is generated in the opposite direction to
the flow of gas or liquid under pressure which is escaping
through an opening or hole.
2. It is essentially a reaction engine which operates on the
principle of the Third Law of Motion
THE PRINCIPLES OF THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE
1. The principle of the Gas Turbine Engine is basically the same as that of the piston engine
2. They both propel a mass of air backwards
3. Force=Mass x Acceleration
In a gas turbine engine the Mass is the air
delivered by the compressor. Acceleration is
the difference in the outlet velocity of the air,
to that of its inlet velocity , due to the addition
of heat energy

4. The force created by the mass of air and its velocity generates a reaction in the opposite
direction driving the aircraft forward
* Jet reaction does not result from the pressure of the Jet on the atmosphere, in all
instances the resultant reaction or thrust exerted on the engine is proportional to the mass
or weight of air expelled by the engine and the velocity change imparted to it.
THE WORKING CYCLE OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE
1. The working cycles of both the four stroke piston engine (the Otto cycle) and the gas
turbine engine (the Brayton cycle) are
very similar
2. Only one of the strokes is utilized in
producing power in piston engine, the
other three effectively absorbing power,
while in the gas turbine engine the 3
‘idle’ strokes have been eliminated, thus allowing more time for the burning of fuel
3. Gas turbine engine has greater power/ weight ratio than the piston engine

CONSTANT PRESSURE COMBUSTION

1. Combustion occurs at a constant pressure in the gas turbine engine.
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2. This is achieved partially through the continuous process of the Brayton Cycle and the fact
that the combustion chamber is not an enclosed space
3. The use of low octane fuels and light construction methods can be used
THE TEMPERATURE LIMIT OF THE ENGINE
1. The turbo-jet is a heat engine
2. The higher the temperature attained in combustion the greater the expansion of the gases
and hence the greater efficiency of the engine.
3. There is however a limit to the amount of heat that can be released into the turbine from
combustion.
4. This limit is imposed by the materials from which we manufacture the nozzle guide vanes
and the turbine blades.
BOYLE’s LAW
If a given mass of gas is compressed at a constant temperature, the absolute pressure is
inversely proportional to its volume.
P×V=K
In practice we cannot compress a gas at a constant temperature.
CHARLE’s LAW
1. If a gas is heated at a constant pressure, the change in volume will vary directly with the
change in the absolute temperature, the change being the same for all perfect gases. Thus,
the volume of a given mass of gas which remains at a constant pressure is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of that gas.
𝑉
2. = 𝐾, Volume is directly proportional to absolute temperature
𝑇

COMBINED GAS LAW

1. The product of the pressure and the volume of a quantity of gas divided by its absolute
temperature is a constant
𝑃×𝑉
=𝐾
𝑇
2. This means that the product of the pressure and volume of the air throughout each stage
of the working cycle is proportional to the absolute temperature of the air at that stage.
THE THREE MAIN STAGES WHEN THESE CONDITION CHANGES ARE
During compression
1. Work is done to increase the pressure and decrease the volume of the air.
2. There is a corresponding rise in its temperature.
3. Higher compression ratios give higher thermal efficiency and low specific fuel
consumption.

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4. A decrease in temperature will increase air density and the compressor will have to work
harder on the air; this will be indicated by a drop in engine RPM, if not compensated by
the fuel control unit.
During combustion
1. The addition of fuel to burn with the air increases the temperature and there is a
corresponding rise in its volume at an almost constant pressure.

During expansion
1. When some of the energy in the gas stream is being converted to mechanical energy by
the turbine, there is a decrease in the pressure and temperature of the gas with a
corresponding increase in its volume.

DUCT DESIGN
1. As the air passes through the engine there are various changes demanded in its velocity
and pressure.
2. Throughout the compression stage, the air must be compressed but without any
appreciable increase in its velocity.
3. At the exhaust nozzle, where the pressure of the gas is dropped to that of ambient with a
considerable increase in its velocity.
4. Divergent duct will increase the pressure of the air after it leaves the final stage of the
compressor and before it enters the combustion chamber. This air, sometimes called
‘compressor delivery air’, is the highest pressure air in the engine
ADVANTAGE
a. First an increase in pressure with no expenditure of energy in driving the compressor

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 b. A decrease in velocity which will serve in making the task of the combustion chamber
less difficult
5. Convergent duct is used to accelerate the gas as it passes through the nozzle guide vanes
on its way to the turbine blades.
a. The torque applied to the turbine blade is dependent, among other things, upon the
rate of gas flow into it
b. if we convert some of the considerable pressure energy of the gas stream into kinetic
energy
6. the design of these ducts is extremely important because the efficiency with which the
changes from velocity(Kinetic) energy to pressure energy and vice versa occur are reflected
in the overall efficiency of the engine

AIRFLOW THROUGH A PURE TURBO – JET ENGINE

When a compressor and turbine are joined on one shaft the unit is called a spool.
1. The energy required to drive the compressor is now extracted from the gases as they pass
through the turbine
2. The remaining energy is extracted to act as thrust as the gases pass to atmosphere via the
end of the jet pipe.
3. The flow follows conventional pattern from the compressor the air is fed into the
combustion chambers, fuel is now added to give the substantial increase in volume
required.

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AIRFLOW THROUGH A TURBO PROP ENGINE
1. There are two main parts of a turboprop propulsion system – The Core engine and the
Propeller
2. The output from a turbo propeller engine is the sum of the shaft power developed at the
turbine and the residual jet thrust
SHP at Turbine + Residual Jet Thrust = Equivalent shaft horse power(ESHP)
3. The core engine is very similar to a basic turbojet having a compressor, burner and turbine.
However at the unit of main turbine the hot exhaust gas is passed through an additional
turbine, before entering the nozzle, unlike a basic turbojet, most of the energy of the
exhaust is used to turn this additional turbine
4. The gas expands in the turbine as drop in the temperature, pressure and velocity is
exchanged for the mechanical energy to drive the compressor and the propeller through
its reduction gear

AIRFLOW THROUGH A TURBO SHAFT ENGINE

1. The turbo-shaft engine can be thought of as a turbo-prop engine with the propeller
replaced by a shaft.
2. This type of engine normally used as the APU
3. Turbo – shaft engines incorporate a free power turbine
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4. A free power turbine is one that is not connected to any of the compressors. This frees it
from the constraint of having to rotate at a speed that suits the compressor and this gives
it a much wider operating speed range.
5. The single spool turbo-shaft engine has a reverse flow combustion chamber system. This
allows the engine to be much shorter, stiffer and lighter than it otherwise would, but does
add the requirement for a centrifugal compressor to be used in the high pressure stage.
This allows for the air to be thrown out radially in order that it can enter the combustion
chamber in the correct direction.

AIRFLOW THROUGH A LOW RATIO BY-PASS ENGINE

1. The By-Pass Ratio of an engine is the ratio of the amount of air which is by-passed around
the hot core of the engine, to the amount of air which passes through the hot core
2. A low ratio is considered to be 2 : 1, whereas a high ratio would be around 5 : 1.
3. The engine shown in a twin spool
4. The airflow as far as the end of the low pressure compressor is identical to that of a pure
turbo-jet, but then the airflow splits into two.
5. An amount depending on the by-pass ratio will flow down the by-pass duct and the
remainder continues into the high pressure (H.P.) compressor.
6. From the H.P. compressor the air flows through the combustion chambers and into the
turbine before it rejoins the by-pass air in the mixer unit of the exhaust system.
7. Specific fuel consumption is appreciably lower for the high ratio by -pass engine

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AIRFLOW THROUGH A HIGH BY – PASS (TURBO – FAN) ENGINE
1. The triple spool front fan turbo-jet engine
2. The thrust of this type of engine is almost completely dependent on the by-pass airflow
which has a high mass and relatively low velocity
3. The air which passes through the intermediate and high pressure compressors has a great
deal of energy added in the combustion chambers, but this energy is required to drive the
compressors.
4. The rearmost, or the low pressure turbine, is responsible for extracting virtually all of the
energy that remains in the gas stream to drive the front fan.
5. There should be only residual thrust remaining when the hot gases emerge from the
turbine.

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PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY

MODULAR CONSTRUCTION METHODS

1. Engine manufacturers, in an attempt to minimise the financial burden imposed upon the
users of their equipment in the event of failure, have started to use Modular Construction
Methods which facilitate changing sections of an engine rather than the whole engine.

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 AIR INLET
1. The engine air inlet is built into the airframe or the forward part of the nacelle installation.
2. It is so designed to provide a relatively turbulent free supply of air to the face of the low
pressure compressor or fan.
3. The simplest form of intake is a single entrance circular cross section ‘pitot’ type

4. Unstable airflow in an S duct can be a common occurrence particularly during crosswind

takeoffs
5. The air inlet is usually divergent in a subsonic intake and this divergence allows a reduction
of velocity and an increase of pressure at the compressor face as the airspeed increases.
6. The pressure within the intake of a gas turbine engine while it is being run on a stationary
aircraft is below ambient pressure. This is because of the high velocity airflow through the
intake.
7. As the aircraft begins to move the pressure within the inlet starts to rise.
8. The point when inlet pressure returns to ambient is known as ram pressure recovery. This
point is usually reached at about Mach 0.1 to Mach 0.2.
9. As the aircraft speed increases even further the inlet produces more and more ram
compression which allows the engine compression ratio to increase. This in turn generates
more thrust without costing any increase in fuel flow
10.Secondary air inlet doors allow a supplementary airflow to reach the compressor face
during high power operation(RPM is high) when the aircraft is stationary or at low
airspeeds/high angles of attack.
SUPERSONIC INTAKES
1. Supersonic aircraft have to have a particular type of air intake because the engine
compressor face cannot cope with supersonic airflow.
2. Above supersonic speeds the intake must be capable of reducing the velocity of the airflow
below sonic velocity and control shock wave formation.
3. The supersonic diffuser gradually decreases in area from front to rear which has the effect
of reducing the air velocity down to below Mach 1.
4. Further reduction of velocity is achieved by a subsonic diffuser which increases in area
towards the compressor face

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5. The control of shock waves that form on the air
inlet is also important to correctly decelerate the
air through the shock waves.
6. spill doors to allow excess air to be spilled from
the inlet without having its velocity changed.
MOVABLE INTAKES
Moveable intake ramps change the cross sectional
area of the intake, moveable centre body intake
spikes .This allows the shock waves to be controlled
to control the airflow into the compressor face.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Take Off
1. Anything that disrupts the airflow and causes it to be turbulent may cause the compressor
to stall or surge.
2. The intake cannot cope with high angles of attack.
3. Any crosswind may affect the airflow into the intake
4. To avoid the possibility of stall and surge the procedure defined in the operating manual
must be followed
ICING
1. Inlet icing can occur if conditions are conducive, typically this would be if the ambient
temperature is below +10°C, there is visible moisture, standing water on the runway or
the RVR is less than 1000 metres. If these conditions exist the pilot should activate the
engine anti-icing system.
DAMAGE
1. Damage to the intake or any roughness internally in the intake may cause the incoming air
to be turbulent and may disrupt the airflow into the compressor causing stall or surge. Be
particular during intake inspection to notice damage, uneven skin panels surface
roughness etc.
FOREIGN OBJECT INGESTION
1. Damage to compressor blades is invariably caused by ingestion of foreign objects while the
aircraft is on or close to the ground
2. This is particularly important for low wing mounted engines whose intake is close to the
ground.
Ground Operations
1. After flight, intake and exhaust covers should be fitted to prevent ingress of contaminants
and wind-milling
2. During start up, taxi and reverse thrust operation debris can be sucked into the intake and
power should be kept to a minimum to avoid potential damage.

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 COMPRESSORS
1. There are basically two types of compressor in use in engines, one allows axial airflow
through the engine while the other creates centrifugal flow.
2. In both cases the compressors are driven by a turbine which is coupled to it by a shaft.
3. The centrifugal compressor is a robust as it is the easiest and cheapest.
4. Axial flow compressor can consume far more air than the centrifugal compressor
5. Axial flow compressor has much higher compression ratio
6. Centrifugal compressor engine will have less thrust than an axial compressor as amount of
thrust generated by an engine depends partial upon the mass of the air

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE CENTRIFUGAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

1. A centrifugal compressor essentially consists of 3 components
a. A stationary casing
b. A rotating impeller which imparts a high velocity to the air
c. A diffuser consisting of a number of fixed diverging passage in which the air is
decelerated with a consequent rise in static pressure

2. The action of the turbine rotates the impeller of the compressor at high speed.
3. Air is introduced continuously into the eye (centre) of the impeller by rotating guide vanes
and centrifugal force causes it to flow outwards towards the tip.
4. The divergent shape of the vanes causes the pressure of the air to increases as air flows
outwards, air velocity also increases as energy is added (Impeller is rotating at high speed)

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5. The air leaves the tip of the impeller and passes into the diffuser section, a system of
stationary divergent ducts designed to convert the kinetic energy (velocity) into potential
energy (pressure).
6. In practice approximately 50% of the pressure rise across the compressor occurs in the
impeller and the other 50% in the diffuser section.
7. The compression ratio of a single stage centrifugal compressor would be in the region of 4 :
1. That means that the outlet pressure of the compressor stage would be approximately
four times greater than the inlet pressure.
8. Using of two centrifugal compressor gives compression ratio 15 : 1, Two centrifugal
compressors can be placed in series with each other.
9. At the elbows of the compressor outlet casing cascade vanes are fitted.
10. These enable the air to be turned through large angles(90o) with the minimum of loss.
11. To maintain the efficiency of the compressor, it is necessary to prevent excessive air
leakage between the impeller and the casing; this is achieved by keeping their clearances
as small as possible
12. The major disadvantage of a centrifugal compressor is that it cannot cope with a large
mass flow of air.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

1. The principle of the axial flow compressor is
basically the same as that of the centrifugal flow
compressor, it converts kinetic energy into
pressure (potential) energy.
2. In axial flow compressor, airflow is parallel to
the axis of rotation
3. The axial flow compressor consists of
a. Rotors, connected to the central shaft and
rotated at high speed

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 b. Stators are fixed and do not rotate. The job of stators is to increase pressure and keep
the flow from spirally around the axis by bringing the flow back parallel to the axis
4. The spaces between the rotor and stator is divergent.
5. In the rotor, which is turned continuously at high speed by the turbine, mechanical energy
is added and converted into both kinetic (velocity) energy and potential (pressure) energy.
6. Within the stator, the pressure is increased by the conversion of the kinetic energy into
pressure energy.
7. The rotor stages can be seen as doing the same job as the impeller in a centrifugal
compressor, while the stator stages can be compared to the diffuser in a centrifugal
compressor.
8. The pressure rise across each stage is only quite small, the ratio being about 1.1 or 1.2 : 1.
9. Many stages are used on same spool to obtain the desired compression ratios

AIR ANNULUS
1. The space between the rotor drum and the
compressor outer casing is called the air
annulus.
2. To maintain the axial velocity of the air as it is
compressed into a smaller and smaller volume,
the air annulus must be reduced.
3. This gradual convergence is achieved by either
tapering the compressor outer casing or the
rotor drum, or in some cases a combination of
both.
AIRFLOW CONTROL
1. Increasing the compression ratio of a compressor makes it progressively more difficult to
ensure that it operates efficiently over the whole of its speed range.
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2. Compression ratio of the engine falls as the speed of rotation of the compressor falls
3. As the engine slows down, the volume which the air takes up gets greater and greater,
because it is not being compressed so much.
4. The increased volume of air at the high pressure end of the compressor makes it difficult
for it to pass through the space available and so it slows down and in some cases can
cause choking and turbulence.
5. This reduction in axial velocity happens throughout the compressor and can cause a
phenomenon called stall
STALL
1. The angle of attack of a compressor blade is the result of the axial velocity of the air
passing across it and the rotational speed of the blade.

2. The indications of compressor stall are an increase in the vibration level of the engine and
an increase in the Exhaust Gas Temperature (E.G.T.).
3. This latter effect (the increase in E.G.T.) is caused by the fact that there is less air going to
the combustion chambers, hence there is less air to cool the products of combustion, the
exhaust gases.
4. A compressor stall can be described as an imbalance between these two velocities, axial
velocity and rotational speed of the blade.
Reasons of imbalance can be:-
a. Excessive fuel flow caused by abrupt engine acceleration (the axial velocity is reduced
by increasing combustion chamber back pressure.)
b. Engine operation above or below the engine design rpm parameters (increases or
decreases the rotational speed of the compressor blade.)
c. Turbulent or disrupted airflow to the engine intake (the axial velocity is reduced.)
d. Contaminated or damaged compressor components (decreased axial velocity because
of decreased compression ratio.)
e. Contaminated or damaged turbine (loss of power to the compressor causing decreased
axial velocity because of decreased compression ratio.)

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 f. Excessively lean fuel/air mixture caused by abrupt engine deceleration (the axial velocity
is increased by the decreasing combustion chamber back pressure.)
g. Compressor stall is a progressive phenomenon

SURGE
1. The progressive deterioration of the
situation will eventually cause a complete
breakdown of airflow through the engine
called a surge.
2. Compressor surge will occur when all
stages have stalled.
3. In severe cases this could cause an
instantaneous reversal of the gases in
the engine, with air being expelled
through the engine intake with a loud
bang.
4. If surge does occur, the throttle of the affected engine must be closed slowly.
5. Apart from the loud noise that usually accompanies a surge, there is a large rise in the
E.G.T. and the resulting loss of thrust may cause the aircraft to yaw.’’
PREVENTION OF STALL AND SURGE
1. Variable Inlet Guide Vanes (V.I.G.V.s)
2. Variable Stator Vanes.
3. Compressor Bleeds.
4. Multi-spool Compressors.
5. Active Clearance Control.
VARIABLE INLET GUIDE
1. Fitted to engines which have a particular problem with inherent
compressor stall at low rpm or during engine acceleration or
deceleration.
2. The vanes are fitted just in front of the first rotor stage
3. They can be automatically pivoted around their own axis
to vary the path of the airflow going into the compressor
4. At low compressor speeds the V.I.G.V.s are angled to
impart the greatest amount of swirl to the air, thereby
correcting the relative airflow to obtain the optimum
angle of attack over the rotor blades
VARIABLE STATOR VANES
1. These vanes can be pivoted automatically.
2. As the compressor speed is reduced from the optimum
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 design value, they are progressively closed to maintain an acceptable angle of attack onto
the following rotor blades
COMPRESSOR BLEEDS
1. When the engine slows down, its compression ratio
will decrease and the volume of air in the rear of the
compressor will be greater.
2. This excess volume causes choking in the rear of the
compressor and a decrease in the mass flow.
3. This in turn causes a decrease in the velocity of the air
in the front of the compressor and increases the
tendency to stall.
4. A compressor bleed valve is introduced into the
intermediate stages of the compressor, it can be
opened at low rpm or during engine acceleration to allow some of the excess volume of
air to escape.
5. This will have the effect of increasing the velocity of the air in the earlier stages of the
compressor and reducing the choking effects in the rear of the compressor.
6. Opening compressor bleeds, whether they are stall preventive
measures or bleeds used to supply air for aircraft services,
decreases the mass flow through the engine.
7. This will cause a drop in thrust for a given throttle position
which raises the engine’s specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.) and
also raises the E.G.T. because of the drop in the amount of
cooling air available.
8. One indication that a compressor bleed valve has stuck closed
at low R.P.M. is Possible compressor stall
MULTI – SPOOL COMPRESSOR
1. The compressor is split into two or three sections.
2. Each section being driven through a shaft by its own turbine.
3. The speed of rotation of each successive compressor increases, the HP
compressor rotating faster than the LP.
4. The whole unit, compressor, shaft and turbine, forms a spool.
5. Upon closing the throttle, the speed of the low pressure spool falls off
more rapidly than the high pressure spools
ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
1. If the axial velocity can be controlled over the whole of the engine speed
range, then the chances of stall or surge happening are diminished.
2. By cooling the compressor casing we can cause it to shrink and so achieve

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 the desired clearance between it and the blade tips.
3. The cooling medium most often used at present is air, which is introduced into tubing
running through the exterior of the compressor casing.
CONSTRUCTIONS
1. The rotor shaft is supported in bearings and is
coupled to the turbine shaft
2. The centrifugal load imposed on the compressor
dictates that the rotor blades are fixed to a disc
which itself is fitted around the rotor shaft.
3. The root of the blade is shaped into a dovetail
joint and secured to the disc by a pin or locking
tab
4. Blades integral with the disc, this type of blade
and disc combination has been called the ‘blisk’.
5. The compressor casing is constructed of
aluminium alloy at the front stages with the intermediate stage casing being manufactured
from steel alloys.
6. In the high pressure section of the compressor the temperatures are so high that nickel
based alloys are the only materials capable of withstanding them.
ROTOR BLADES
1. The rotor blades are of airfoil section and are normally made from drop forged stainless
steel
2. The blades reduce in size from the front to the rear of the compressor, to accommodate
the convergent shape of the air annulus.
3. Some of the low pressure stages may have blades manufactured from titanium where the
temperatures of compression are not too high.
4. The method of fixing, usually the dovetail system does not ensure that the blade is held
immovable in the disc, in fact the blades are quite loose until firmly seated by centrifugal
force during engine operation
5. The attachment of blades to the compressor disc, allows slight movement to relieve stress
concentration.
6. when windmilling on the ground the blades rattle loosely and sound somewhat like a bag
of nails being shaken.
7. Compressor blades are designed to produce a steady velocity with a pressure rise over the
engine speed range.
STATOR VANES
1. The stator vanes are also airfoil shaped and are fixed to the compressor casing either
directly or into stator vane retaining rings, which are themselves fastened to the casing.

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2. The vanes may be assembled in segments in the
earlier stages, and the longer ones are shrouded at
their inner ends to prevent vibration which can be
induced by the velocity flow over them.
3. Steel or nickel based alloys have a high fatigue
strength and are less easily cracked or eroded by
impact.
4. Titanium is sometimes used for the vanes in the early
stages
FAN BLADES
1. A low weight fan blade is necessary because the front structure of the
engine must be able to withstand the large out of balance forces that would
result from a fan blade failure.
2. To achieve a sufficiently light solid fan blade, even with titanium, requires a
short axial length (or chord). However, with this design, the special feature
of a mid-span support ('snubber' or 'clapper') is required to prevent
aerodynamic instability
3. This design concept has the disadvantage of the snubber being situated in
the supersonic flow where pressure losses are greatest, resulting in
inefficiency and a reduction in airflow.
4. This disadvantage has been overcome with the introduction of the Rolls-
Royce designed wide chord fan blade; stability is provided by the increased
chord of the blade thus avoiding the need for snubbers
5. The weight is maintained at a low level by fabricating the blade from skins of
titanium incorporating a honeycomb core, sandwiched between two outer skins of
titanium.

COMPRESSOR (AND TURBINE) CONTAMINATION

1. Accumulation of contaminants in both the compressor and the turbine section of the
engine reduces the efficiency of the unit and can seriously affect its performance.
2. The contaminants on the compressor, which are mostly salt and pollution from industrial
areas, reduce the aerodynamic efficiency of the blades.
3. In the turbine the contamination takes the form of sulfidation, a build up of sulphur
deposits from the burning fuel which destroys the aerodynamic shape of the turbine blades
and the nozzle guide vanes and which will, over a period of time, erode their surface finish.

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 COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

The combustion chamber must contain the burning mixture of air (from the compressor) with
fuel (from the fuel spray nozzles), to allow the maximum heat release at a substantially
constant pressure, so that the turbine receives a uniformly expanded, heated and
accelerated stream of gas.
THE TEMPERATURE INCREASE ALLOWED
There is a limit to the maximum temperature of the gas from the combustion chamber, this is
imposed by the materials from which the nozzle guide vanes and the turbine are
manufactured.
THE TEMPERATURE INCREASE REQUIRED
1. Modern materials will allow a gas temperature initially in the combustion chamber of
2,000°C plus.
2. When it exits the combustion chamber the temperature must be reduced to 1,000
to1,500°C.
3. Considering that the air may already have been heated to around 600° C due to
compression, sufficient fuel must be added to raise the temperature further.
4. combustion chamber has to be capable of maintaining stable and efficient combustion
over a wide range of engine operating conditions(full power, lower power settings).

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THE FLAME RATE OF KEROSENE
1. Air enters the combustion chamber at slightly slower rate than which it enters the intake
of the engine, speeds of up to 500 feet per second are not unusual.
2. The flame rate of kerosene, the speed at which the leading edge of the flame travels
through the vapour, is approximately 30 feet per second,
3. If burning kerosene was exposed in an airstream which was travelling at 500 feet per
second it would be extinguished immediately
4. Airstream rate is reduced before it reaches the primary zone, the zone inside the
combustion chamber where it is mixed with the fuel and burnt
5. The air is slowed down and it’s pressure is increased (by using divergent duct) after it
leaves the compressor and before it enters the combustion chamber
6. In fact the pressure attained at this point is the highest in the whole of the engine.

PRIMARY AIR
1. The primary air is the 20% of the flow coming into the combustion chamber, this is
basically the air which is mixed with the fuel and burnt.
2. By being passed through the flare and the swirl vanes, the velocity of this air is reduced,
and it also starts the recirculation which is required if the flame is not to be extinguished.
3. The air entering the primary zone passes through the snout before being divided to go
through the perforated flare and the swirl vanes
SECONDARY AIR
1. The air which has not been picked up by the
snout goes into the space between the flame
tube and the air casing.
2. Some of this air is allowed into the flame
tube through secondary air holes.
3. Secondary air, about 20% of the total, reacts
with the primary air flowing through the swirl
vanes to form a toroidal vortex, a region of
low velocity airflow which resembles a
doughnut or a smoke ring.
4. This stabilises and anchors the flame and
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 prevents it being dragged down the flame tube away from the fuel nozzle area.
5. The temperature of the gases at the centre of the primary zone reaches about 2,000° C,
this is far too hot for the materials of the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades so a
further drop in temperature is required before the gases can be allowed to exit the
combustion chamber.
TERTIARY AIR
1. The remaining 60% of the total airflow,
tertiary air, is progressively introduced into
the flame tube to cool and dilute the gases
before they are allowed to go into the
turbine assembly.
2. Tertiary air is used to cool both the gas
exiting the chamber and the walls of the air
casing.
THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER COMPONENTS
1. Most gas turbine engines only have two igniters
2. Because there are only two, another means of passing the starting flame between the
combustion chambers has to be found, this is the interconnector.
3. Immediately after light up, the flame in the chamber with the igniter causes an increase in
the pressure within that chamber.
4. The pressure differential between that chamber and the one adjoining it drives the burning
gases through the inter-connector where they ignite the mixture.
5. This process is continued around the engine until the contents of all of the chambers is
burning, whereupon the pressures within them are equalised and the flow through the
inter-connectors ceases.
6. The sealing ring at the turbine end of the combustion chamber allows for elongation of the
chamber due to expansion.
7. The chamber is fixed at the compressor end by being bolted onto it, it cannot expand in
that direction.
8. The sealing ring allows the chamber to expand into the nozzle box, the portion of the
engine immediately preceding the nozzle guide vanes, while maintaining a gas tight seal.
9. The corrugated joints allow the tertiary air to bleed into the flame tube, so causing a
gradual drop in the temperature of the gases before they exit into the nozzle guide vanes.
THE MULTIPLE COMBUSTION CHAMBER SYSTEM
1. The straight through flow multiple combustion chamber system was used on some earlier
types of axial flow engine
2. It consists of eight or more of the chambers, disposed around the engine to the rear of the
compressor section, each chamber being made up of a flame tube with an individual air
casing

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3. It has well defined, the snout, the inter-
connectors and the drain tubes.
4. The drain tubes provide for the unlikely
event of a failure to start, more
commonly known as a wet start. This
happens when the mixture in the
combustion chamber fails to ignite
during a start.
A considerable amount of fuel will have
been fed into the engine and if it is not
removed before the next attempt to
start, the result will be a very long, very
hot and very dangerous jet of flame
from the rear of the engine.
THE FUEL DRAIN SYSTEM
1. Two means of getting rid of the fuel are open to us
2. First, the fuel drain system, and secondly a method of evaporating the remaining traces
from the chambers and the jet pipe.
3. The fuel drain system utilises the drain tubes which connect the lowest part of each
chamber with the next chamber below it.
4. Fuel remaining after a wet start will attempt to find its own level by flowing from the top of
the engine to the bottom chamber.
5. Once in the bottom chamber it exits via the drain valve located at the six o’clock position,
which is spring loaded towards open. During normal engine operation internal pressure
keeps the valve shut.
6. To evaporate any remaining traces of fuel from the chambers, the engine is then motored
over on a blow out cycle.
7. Compressed air will flow through the combustion chamber and assist in the evaporation of
any fuel still remaining within.
THE TUBO ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER SYSTEM
1. The tubo-annular combustion chamber system is sometimes also called the cannular or
can-annular system.
2. It differs from the multiple combustion chamber system in so far as it does not have
individual air casing for each of the flame tubes.
3. A number of flame tubes are fitted within one common air casing which provides a more
compact unit
THE ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER SYSTEM
1. The annular combustion chamber system has only one flame tube which is contained by
an inner and outer air casing.

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The annular system has several advantages over the two other systems previously mentioned
from which it was developed, they are ;-
a. For the same power output, the length of the annular chamber is only 75 % that of a
tubo-annular system of the same diameter.
b. There are no flame propagation problems.
c. Compared to a tubo-annular system, the air casing area is less, consequently less
cooling air is required.
d. The combustion efficiency is raised to the point where unburnt fuel is virtually
eliminated, allowing the oxidisation of carbon monoxide to non-toxic carbon dioxide.
e. There is a much better pressure distribution of the gases impinging on the turbine so it
has a more even load placed upon it.

THE AIR/FUEL RATIO

1. To obtain the maximum heat release, the chemically correct air/ fuel ratio of 15 : 1 must
be used.
2. The fuel and air are therefore mixed and burnt in the primary zone in the ratio of fifteen
units of air to one unit of fuel, by weight.
3. The addition of secondary and tertiary air will however dilute the mixture to the extent that
the overall ratio may vary between 45 : 1 to as weak as 130 : 1.
PRESSURE LOSSES IN THE CHAMBER
1. It has been stated that combustion theoretically occurs at a constant pressure but there is
a small loss in pressure throughout the combustion chamber.
2. This is caused by having to provide adequate turbulence and mixing.
3. Losses vary from 3% to 8% of the pressure at the entrance to the combustion chamber.
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COMBUSTION STABILITY
1. During normal engine running conditions, combustion is self-supporting.
2. Effectively the ignition system can be switched off as soon as the engine has attained self
sustaining speed, the speed at which, after start, it can accelerate without the assistance of
the starter motor.
3. There may be certain engine operating conditions which do require ignition, for instance
following a flame out, which is extinction of the flame due to various unusual occurrences,
such as
a. The ingestion of large amounts of water during take-off from contaminated runways.
b. Another condition which can cause flame extinction is when the air/fuel ratio becomes
too weak.
4. Combustion stability means smooth burning coupled with
the ability to remain alight over a large range of air/fuel
ratios and air mass flows
5. For any particular type of combustion chamber there is
both a rich and weak limit to the air/fuel ratio, beyond
which the flame is extinguished. An extinction is most
likely to occur in flight during a glide or dive with the
engine idling, when there is a high airflow and only a small
fuel flow, i.e. a very weak mixture strength.
6. The range of air/fuel ratio between the rich and weak
limits is reduced with an increase of air velocity, and if the air mass flow is increased
beyond a certain value, flame extinction occurs
7. A consequence of this is that should the engine flame out at high speed or high altitude, it
may be necessary to reduce both parameters before a successful relight can be obtained.
RELIGHTING
1. The ability of an engine to relight will vary according to the
height and forward airspeed of the aircraft.
2. Relight envelope showing the flight conditions under which a
serviceable engine would be guaranteed to relight.
3. The airflow through the engine will cause it to rotate
(windmill), so the compressor will supply sufficient air
4. All that is then required is the opening of the H.P. fuel cock
and operation of the ignition system.
5. This is achieved by selection of the relight switch, which
functions separately from the normal start circuit.
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
1. Combustion efficiency is the efficiency with which the combustor assembly extracts the
potential heat actually contained in the fuel.

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2. At high power operating conditions, combustion efficiencies as great as 99% are achievable,
and at idle the systems will still give as much as 95%.
FUEL SPRAY NOZZLES
1. The nozzles have the task of atomising or vaporising the fuel to ensure that it is completely
burnt.
Problems associated
a. Considering the velocity of the airstream from the compressor and the small distance
allowed within the chamber for combustion to occur, the atomising and vaporising of
fuel becomes a difficult job.
b. Relatively low pressures attainable by the engine driven high pressure fuel pump at
engine start. The pumps, driven by the high speed gearbox, are only rotating at a
minimal speed upon start selection and are incapable, at that speed, of providing the
high pressures (1,500 -2,000 psi) required to give a good spray pattern.

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 TURBINE ASSEMBLY

1. Initially a stator section (nozzle guide vane) directs the air axially onto a rotor section.
2. The turbine extracts energy from the hot gases that flow through it, and converts it into
mechanical energy which it uses to drive the compressor and gearboxes.
3. The energy available in the gases flowing through the turbine take the form of heat
energy, potential (pressure) energy, and kinetic (velocity) energy.
4. The conversion of all these into mechanical energy means that the value of all of them will
be reduced as they pass through the turbine.
5. However, the velocity of the gas in the combustion chamber is lower than the velocity of
the gas in the exhaust unit.
THE STRESS IN THE TURBINE
1. This tensile loading, coupled with the tremendous heat, causes a
phenomenon called creep, the stretching of the metal of the blade beyond
its ability to reform back to its original length.
2. Whatever materials have been used to produce the turbine, and however
carefully the temperature and r.p.m. limits of the engine have been
observed, creep will cause the length of the blade to increase over a period
of time and engine operational cycles. A blade will have a finite life before
failure occurs.

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THE TURBINE STAGE
1. The compressor adds energy to the air by increasing its pressure, in the turbine that
energy is extracted by reducing the pressure of the gases flowing through it.
2. This drop in pressure occurs both as it is converted to velocity in the nozzle guide vanes,
and also as it is converted into mechanical energy in the turbine blades
3. The turbine stage therefore consists of two elements, one row of stationary nozzle guide
vanes and one row of rotating turbine blades.
4. The divergent gas flow annulus affords longer blades to be fitted moving backwards in the
turbine to enable velocity to be controlled as the gas expands into the larger area.
5. The blade shroud is an attempt to minimise losses due to leakage across the turbine blade
tips and also reduces vibration.
6. The clearance between the blade tips and the turbine casing varies because of the
different rates of expansion and contraction of the materials involved.
7. An abradable lining has been used in the casing area to reduce gas leakage through this
clearance.

THE FREE (POWER) TURBINE

1. When a turbine is coupled to a compressor to form a spool, it must rotate at a speed which
conforms to the demanding requirements of the compressor, the speed of which is set at
the point of best compression.
2. A free turbine is a turbine which is not connected to the compressor, it is connected only
to the propeller or rotor reduction gearbox. This allows the turbine to seek its optimum
design speed.
3. There are further advantages to the free turbine, some of which are listed below:
a. The propeller can be held at low r.p.m. during taxying, reducing noise pollution and
wear on the brakes.
b. Less starting torque required.
c. A rotor parking brake can be fitted which eliminates the dangers inherent in having
propellers rotating in windy conditions on the ground.

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MULTI – SPOOL ENGINES
1. The power output of a turbine can be increased by increasing its diameter.
2. But this of course would increase both the drag factor, because of the larger size of the
engine, and the stresses imposed through the greater centrifugal forces created.
3. A simpler method was shown in where an increase in the number of stages allowed an
increase in power output with a reduction in turbine diameter.
4. It is a fact that the efficiency of a turbine blade increases as its rotational speed increases
(the losses reduce in proportion to the square of the mean blade speed).
5. The advent of the high ratio by-pass engine with its much greater propulsive efficiency
means that for a given thrust it can have a smaller turbine.
6. This type of engine features three spools,
a. the high pressure (H.P.) turbine driving the high pressure compressor at relatively high
speeds,
b. and to the rear of that is the intermediate pressure (I.P.) turbine, driving the
intermediate pressure compressor through a shaft inside that of the high pressure
turbine.
c. The rearmost, or the low pressure (L.P.) turbine, the illustration features one with two
stages drives the fan, which is also the low pressure (L.P.) compressor. This rotates at
the lowest speed of all.

BLADE SHAPE
1. Nozzle guide vanes are of airfoil shape and form convergent ducts where some of the
potential (pressure) energy in the gas stream is converted to kinetic (velocity) energy.
2. The turbine blades themselves can be:
a. Impulse type, like a water wheel(Used in air starter motor)
b. Reaction type, which rotate as a reaction to the lift they create.

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 c. A mixture of the two called impulse / reaction. (The inner half
is impulse and the outer half is reaction.)
3. Shape of the combination impulse / reaction blade changes from
its base to its tip.
4. The shape change is accomplished by the blade having a greater
angle at the tip than at its base.
5. This gives it a twist which ensures that the gas flow does equal
work along the length of the blade and enables the gas flow to
enter the exhaust system with a uniform axial velocity.

TURBINE BLADE FIXING

1. The fir tree fixing is most commonly used on modern engines.
2. The serrations which form the fir tree are very accurately
machined to ensure that the enormous centrifugal load is shared
equally between them.
3. The blade is free in the serrations while the engine is not
rotating, but the centrifugal force imposed during operation
holds it firmly in place.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
1. The maximum temperature that the turbine assembly can withstand limits the thrust or
power available.
2. Exceeding the maximum temperature will cause irreparable damage to the engine
therefore monitoring the turbine temperature is imperative.

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3. The temperature is measured by thermocouples placed in the gas flow somewhere in the
turbine assembly, typically after the high or low pressure turbine and termed Exhaust Gas
Temperature (EGT).
4. Other terms for gas temperature are: Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT), Turbine Gas
Temperature (TGT), Jet Pipe Temperature (JPT). So named because of the position of the
thermocouples.
5. In modern engines the thermocouple probes are fitted inside selected fixed nozzle guide
vanes to enable temperature to be sensed without the probe being battered by the high
velocity gas flow. As the engine is accelerated to produce more thrust (or more SHP) the
EGT will increase in proportion with the extra fuel flow and vice-versa.

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 THE EXHAUST SYSTEM

The Jet Pipe

1. The exhaust system is an often underrated part of the propulsion unit, its design exerts a
considerable influence on the performance of the engine.
2. The gases which discharge from the turbine must exit in the correct direction and at the
optimum velocity to provide the thrust of the turbo-jet engine, while in the turbo-prop
engine the turbine gas temperature and back pressure at the turbine are to a large extent
dictated by the design of the outlet nozzle.
3. The temperature of the gases entering the exhaust system can be between 550°C and
850°C. This can rise to as high as 1,500°C if afterburners (reheat) are used.
JET PIPE DESIGN
1. The gas velocity leaving the turbine can be between 750 - 1,250 feet per
second, this is somewhere around .5 Mach.
2. If this gas has to negotiate a long jet pipe before being ejected into the
atmosphere to provide thrust, a great deal of turbulence will be caused
within the pipe, this will lower the efficiency of the engine and reduce its
thrust.
3. Although the shape of the outer casing appears to be convergent at the
point where the gas leaves the turbine, the shape of the volume within
the casing is in fact divergent.
4. This is made possible by the insertion of the exhaust cone, a conical
shaped device positioned close up to the turbine disc rear face.
5. As well as helping to reduce the velocity of the gases leaving the turbine before they pass
down the length of the jet pipe, so minimising turbulence
6. The exhaust cone also prevents the hot gases flowing across the disc face, further reducing
disturbance, and preventing overheating of the disc.

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7. The rear turbine bearing is also supported inside the exhaust cone via turbine rear support
struts, these are streamlined by fairings which also straighten out any residual whirl which
may exist in the gas stream as it exits the turbine. This residual whirl can cause additional
losses if it is allowed to pass into the jet pipe.
8. The exhaust gases travel down the jet pipe to atmosphere via the convergent propelling
nozzle.
9. This increases the gas velocity to speeds of Mach 1 (The gas flow reaches its sonic value) in
a turbo-jet engine at virtually all throttle openings above idle. At this velocity, sonic speed,
the nozzle is said to be choked.
10. The term ‘choked’ implies that no further increase in velocity can be obtained unless the
gas stream temperature is increased, for instance with the assistance of ‘reheat'.

GAS PARAMETER CHANGES AND EXHAUST MACH NUMBERS IN BOTH A CONVERGENT AND
CONVERGENT – DIVERGENT NOZZLE
1. In the convergent exhaust duct, the shape of the duct accelerates the gas.
2. In a turbo-jet, the gas flows at sub-sonic speed at low thrust levels only, at almost all levels
above idle power the exhaust velocity reaches the speed of sound in relation to the
exhaust gas temperature, at this point the nozzle is said to be ‘choked’.
3. This means that no further increase in velocity can be obtained unless the temperature is
increased.
4. When the gas enters the convergent section of the convergent-divergent nozzle its velocity
increases with a corresponding fall in static pressure.
5. The gas velocity at this point now reaches the local speed of sound (Mach 1).
6. As the gas flows into the divergent section it progressively accelerates towards the open
exit

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THE LOW RATIO BY – PASS ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEM
1. The low ratio by-pass engine exhaust combines the by-pass air and the hot exhaust gases
in a mixer unit
2. This ensures thorough mixing of the two streams before they are ejected into the
atmosphere.
THE HIGH RATIO BY – PASS ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEM
1. There are two methods used to exhaust the cold by-pass air and the hot exhaust gases.
2. The standard method whereby the hot and cold nozzles are co-axial and the two streams
mix externally.
3. Greater efficiency can however be obtained by fitting an integrated exhaust nozzle. Within
this unit the two gas flows are partially mixed before ejection to atmosphere.

NOISE SUPPRESSION
1. Although an aircraft’s overall noise signature is the combination of sounds from many
sources, the principal agent is the engine.
2. The most significant sources of noise from the engine originate from the compressor (the
fan in high ratio by-pass engines), the turbine and the exhaust.
3. Although the noises which spring from these various sources all obey slightly different laws
and mechanisms of generation, they all increase with greater relative airflow velocity.
4. With a pure jet engine, the noise of the exhaust is of such a high level that the noise of the
compressor and the turbine is insignificant, except at very low thrust conditions.
5. In the case of a high ratio by-pass engine (5 to 1), the noise from the jet exhaust has
reduced to such a degree that the noise from the low pressure compressor (the fan) and
the turbine become predominant.
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 REVERSE THRUST

1. Modern aircraft braking systems, which incorporate anti-skid units and other sophisticated
devices are extremely efficient, bad runway conditions however can reduce the ability of
even the most refined braking systems to the point where they become a liability.
2. The difference in stopping distance in an aircraft with and without reverse thrust are quite
marked.
3. Reverse thrust is selected immediately when the weight of the aircraft is firmly on the main
wheels and coupled with ground spoilers can reduce the landing distance dramatically
without producing friction at the wheels.
There are 3 basic thrust reversal systems
1. Clamshell doors
2. Bucket doors
3. Blocker doors
They are typically operated by hydraulic or pneumatic actuators or motors driving screwshafts
and reverse the direction of the gas flow thereby reversing the thrust.

CLAMSHELL DOORS
1. The name “Clamshell” has been applied to this system of Reverse Thrust
because of the shape of the Reverse Thrust doors, which resembles that
of a clamshell.
2. The Reverser doors are usually pneumatically operated and use high
pressure compressor (P3) air as the power source.
3. Pneumatic rams move the doors from their stowed (Forward Thrust) position to their
deployed (Reverse Thrust) position.
4. In their stowed position, the clamshell doors cover Cascade Vanes which are revealed
when the doors move to the deployed state.
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5. Whilst deployed, the clamshell doors close the normal exhaust gas exit and it escapes
through the Cascade Vanes in a forward direction so that the forward motion of the
aircraft is opposed
6. The lower Cascade Vanes, while directing the Jet Thrust forward, are angled so that the
exhaust has an outboard angular component as well.
This minimises the chances of debris and hot gases being reingested into the engine
intake during the use

EXTERNAL DOOR (BUCKET) REVERSES

1. The Bucket Reverser system is normally hydraulically operated.
2. The rear of the exhaust pipe is shaped like two halves of a bottomless bucket
3. Which are hinged to enable them to swing backwards when selected to deflect the
exhaust gas forward.

COLD STREAM (BLOCKER) REVERSER

1. This system is only used on High By-Pass Ratio Fan Jet Engines.
2. The essential difference between this system and the Clamshell Door and Bucket systems
is that while the latter use the hot exhaust as the means of reverse thrust, the ‘Blocker’
system blocks and diverts the Cold By-Pass Air Stream only
3. In the case of the blocker system, the speed and direction of an Air Motor is determined
by operation of the reverse thrust lever

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4. The output of the air motor drives through flexible shafts to open or close the Blocker
Doors, which, by their movement, expose or cover Cascade Vanes to direct the By-Pass air
where it is required

INDICATION AND SAFETY SYSTEMS

1. In order that the pilot may have information regarding the position of the Reverse Thrust
doors, REVERSE THRUST WARNING LIGHTS are fitted.
2. These are usually AMBER lights positioned somewhere on the forward instrument array
within full view of the crew.
3. The light will illuminate whenever the Reverser doors are unlocked and away from their
STOWED (Forward Thrust) POSITION.
There are five safeguards built into the selection of Reverse Thrust, they are:
1. Reverse thrust cannot be selected until the throttle lever
is at idle.
2. Reverse thrust cannot be activated until the aircraft has
the weight on the mainwheels (air/ground logic interlock)
3. RPM in Reverse cannot be increased above idle until the
Reverse Thrust doors are in the deployed (Reverse Thrust)
position.
4. If, while Forward Thrust is selected, the Reverser doors
inadvertently move to the deployed (Reverse Thrust)
position, the throttle may automatically close to idle.
5. If, while Reverse Thrust is selected, the Reverser doors
inadvertently move to the stowed (Forward Thrust)
position, the reverse thrust lever will automatically go to
the reverser deploy position
RESTRICTIONS OF USE
1. While there is normally no restriction on the upper speed at which Reverse Thrust can be
selected
2. There are aircraft with systems fitted which place a restricted minimum speed of operation
on the Reverse Thrust system.

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3. Despite the angle of the Cascade Vanes, if the aircraft is only moving forwards slowly, or is
stationary, the depression in the engine air intake will overcome the deflection applied to
the exhaust gas stream (and any associated debris), and suck it into the compressor with
potentially catastrophic consequences for the engine.
4. To prevent the likelihood of this happening, Standard Operating Procedure (S.O.P.) on
some aircraft is to reduce the position of the reverse thrust lever to the reverse idle
position at typically 60 - 80 knots, usually at about 50 knots, the reverse thrust lever is
returned to the stowed position.

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 ENGINE STARTING
THE REQUIREMENTS OF A STARTING SYSTEM
In order to start a gas turbine engine there are three basic requirements:
1. The compressor/turbine assembly must be rotated to get air into the combustion
chambers.
2. Fuel must be provided in the combustion chambers.
3. Ignition must also be provided in the combustion chambers to start the air / fuel mixture
burning.
Extra requirements:-
1. Blow out or motoring over cycle: The necessity to motor over the engine with no igniters
operating.
2. The necessity to motor over the engine will usually only occur when there has been a
failure to start, sometimes called a "wet start” where the engine is dried out by motoring it
over, or after a “hot-start” where the engine is cooled down by motoring it over.
3. The need for the igniters to be operated independent of the start cycle.
STARTER MOTOR
There are several methods of obtaining engine rotation upon engine start. The most common
methods of rotating the H.P. compressor on modern civil aircraft are:
1. The Air Starter Motor.
2. The Electric Starter Motor.
Any starter system will have a ‘duty cycle’ the time limit that the starter is allowed to be
‘energised’ and may have to be followed by a cooling down period before re-energising.
THE AIR STARTER MOTOR
1. It is light, simple to use and very economical utilizing low pressure air.
2. The air starter motor fastened to the accessory gearbox of the engine.
3. The sources of air available for engine start, in order of preference they are:-
a. The Aircraft A.P.U.
b. The Ground Power Unit.
c. A Cross-Bleed Start, where air from an already started engine is used.
4. Air from one of these sources is fed through an electrically controlled start valve to the air
inlet to rotate the turbine rotor and is then exhausted.
5. The turbine turns the reduction gear to rotate the engine drive shaft through the sprag
clutch ratchet.
6. At a predetermined engine speed, greater than self sustaining, the start valve is closed. The
sprag clutch automatically disengages as the engine accelerates up to idling speed and the
starter motor ceases to rotate.
7. The sprag clutch ratchet is designed to prevent the starter motor being driven by the
engine after engine start. The danger, should this happen, is that the starter motor will
rotate at a speed sufficient to cause it to break up due to centrifugal force.

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8. Flyweight cutout switch: this is used to shut off the starting air supply by removing the
electricity energising the starter air valve. This device will automatically terminate the
engine start cycle when the engine has reached a speed slightly in excess of self sustaining
speed.
9. At a predetermined engine speed, greater than self sustaining, the start valve is closed

THE ELECTRIC START MOTOR

1. Used in smaller executive jets and helicopters, however it has fallen out of favour in
modern larger engines because of its weight.
2. Becoming more popular on smaller engines is the starter / generator combination which
because of its dual purpose has a greater usefulness / weight ratio.
3. The starter motor is attached to the engine accessory gearbox and drives the compressor
when it rotates.
4. This consists of a pawl and ratchet type mechanism, very similar to that employed in the
air starter motor, which actually performs three functions
a. It prevents excessive starting torque being applied to the engine
b. It acts as an overrunning clutch when the engine accelerates up to idle speed
c. It performs the previously mentioned task of disengaging the starter from the
engine.
NORMAL START CYCLE
1. Each engine has an air turbine starter motor which is supplied with low pressure high
volume air from the APU, Ground Cart or other engine.
2. The normal bleed air ducting is utilised and the flow of air reversed to the starter motor.
3. The air supply will not reverse into the engine compressor because of a non return valve at
the at the LP outlet and a non return valve facility in the HP Shut Off Valve.

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4. During the engine start sequence the instruments which
require the most attention are the E.G.T. (Exhaust gas
temperature) gauge, and the H.P. compressor rotational
speed gauge (N2), These two parameters must be
monitored closely to ascertain whether or not the start
cycle is proceeding safely. Other instruments that require
to be monitored are Fuel Flow, LP rotation N1, duct
pressure and start valve warning light
5. Upon start selection, the starter motor is powered.
Initially fuel and ignition is not supplied, the compressor
begins to accelerate under the influence of the starter
motor and starts to force air through the combustion
chambers.
6. When the compressor has achieved the RPM stated for
that engine the fuel and ignition is activated by selection
of the switch, the switch is then held until the start is
successful.
7. Light up is indicated by an increase in E.G.T. and must
occur within a specified time (20 secs typically).
8. The initial increase is quite sharp, there being an excess
of fuel in the combustion chamber, once this is burnt off
however, the rise steadies
9. The Fuel Control Unit (FCU) progressively increases the
fuel flow as the compressor accelerates towards idle. This
means that the air/fuel ratio becomes biased towards
being very rich, the evidence of this is the second steep rise in the E.G.T.
10. Continued acceleration of the engine brings the compressor to self sustaining speed, the
speed at which the engine can accelerate without the help of the starter motor. However,
the starter motor is not de-selected at this point, it is kept supplying power until the engine
has accelerated a little more. This gives the engine a better chance of smoothly reaching
idle R.P.M. Self sustaining speed is approximately 30% N2 (High Pressure Compressor).
11.Idle RPM is approximately 60% N2 and 25% N1.
OPERATION OF THE BLOWOUT CYCLE
1. A blowout or motoring over cycle may be required if fuel had been put into an engine
during an unsuccessful attempt to start.
2. To prevent “torching”, the fuel has to be allowed to drain away or evaporated (blown out)
before another attempt can be made to start the engine.
3. To do this, the starting circuit has the facility whereby the starter motor can be activated
without the use of fuel or ignition.
4. In most modern turbofan engines the air turbine starter motor will have a ‘duty cycle’ of 3-
5 minutes. If the engine fails to light up within the specified time limit then the fuel and
AKSHEY SOOD
 ignition switch may be selected off but the starter motor will continue to turn the
compressor and ‘blow out’ the unburnt fuel until a second attempt to start is carried out.
This of course must be within the ‘duty cycle’ of the starter.
THE RELIGHT SYSTEM
1. In the event of an engine flaming out, it may be required to activate the fuel and ignition
without operating the starter motor to achieve an airborne windmill air start.
2. Evidence that an attempt to relight has been successful will be obtained from the E.G.T.
and rpm. gauges, a rise in the value of either of these shows that a light up has occurred.
THE HOT START
1. The E.G.T. can initially rise as normal, the rapid acceleration towards the E.G.T. limit only
becoming apparent a few seconds into the start.
2. The reasons for a hot start lie almost entirely in having too much fuel and not enough air
to cool the gases through the turbine.
3. This can be caused by a variety of reasons, such as the throttles either not being set to idle
during the preflight check or being knocked away from the idle position, or alternatively the
engine not rotating fast enough or partial seizure because of ice. This is a very common
fault and is most likely to be caused by a tailwind.
THE WET START
1. The E.G.T not rising and the engine r.p.m. stabilising at the maximum that the starter
motor can achieve.
2. It may be some time before it is realised that the problem is a wet start, this long period,
during which fuel is being pumped into the engine, means that the engine is becoming
saturated with it.
3. This is confirmed by the fuel flow meter indication.
4. The danger exists that this fuel, if ignited, will cause a very large jet of flame to issue from
the exhaust system, the phenomenon called ‘torching’.
5. To prevent this happening, before attempting a second start a “motoring over” or “blow
out” cycle must be carried out
THE HUNG START
1. Indications of a ‘hung start’ are the E.G.T. being higher than would be expected for the
r.p.m. at which the engine has stabilised, which is lower than self sustaining speed.
2. This high E.G.T. is not greater than the limit, however, maintaining the engine in this state
will do it no good at all, and could do it a great deal of harm.
3. The H.P. cock must be closed and the problem investigated, the usual answer being the fact
that there is not sufficient airflow through the engine to support efficient combustion
ENGINE RUNDOWN TIME
Engine Rundown Time or Spool down Time is the time taken for the engine to stop after the
H.P. fuel cock is closed.

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 THE AUXILIARY POWER UNIT (APU)
1. The use of an APU on an aircraft meant that the aircraft is not dependant on ground
support equipment at an airfield.
2. It can provide the necessary power for operation of the aircraft’s Electrical, Hydraulic and
Pneumatic systems.
3. The APU can use the same fuel system as the man engines so reducing the need for
additional systems.
4. The type of engine layout normally used is that of the Free Turbine, Turbo Shaft Engine.
5. A turbo shaft engine is both small and light weight yet produce around 600 HP.
6. The free turbine arrangement makes the engine very flexible, as the compressor is not
affected by changes of load on the free turbine which drives the accessories via a gearbox.
7. The free turbine is usually designed to run at constant speed, this ensures that a generator
run by the APU maintains a constant frequency without the need for an additional
constant speed drive unit.
8. Some aircraft use air bled from the compressor of the APU to power aircraft’s pneumatic
system, but it is more common for the free turbine to drive a separate Load Compressor to
supply these services.
APU OPERATIONS IN FLIGHT
1. The APU was further developed so that it could also be operated in the air, providing a
back-up source of power to the systems in the event of an engine failure. This requirement
has become more important with the introduction of twin engine aircraft now flying long
haul routes under Extended Twin Operation’s (ETOPS) regulations
2. APU is to keep it simple, rugged and reliable. It must however be able to be started in flight
at high altitudes, and continue to operate under load at even higher altitudes
APU CONTROL AND OPERATION
1. Indications of Turbine Temperature, Compressor speed and system fault indicating lights
may be displayed.
2. Extensive use is made of Automatic Sensors which will Shut the APU Down in the event of
an APU fire, system malfunctions or operating limits being exceeded.
3. Like all engines using air as its working fluid, power output is reduced at higher altitudes
where air density is reduced.
4. The Automatic Shut Down acts as a governor device protecting the APU against over
loading.
The pilot’s manual controls for the APU are very few. They consist of:
a. A Power on start switch. (PWR ON)
b. A normal stop switch.
c. A Manual Emergency Shut down and Fire Suppression control.

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1. The APU is normally positioned in part of the airframe where its operation will not cause
harm to personnel working around the aircraft whilst it is on the ground. This is normally
the tail of the aircraft.
2. The APU’s turbo shaft engine can easily be started by an electric starter motor powered
from the aircraft’s battery.
3. When started the APU is usually allowed to stabilise in RPM and temperature before it is
used to power the aircraft’s systems.
4. The APU may not be able to power all the aircraft’s systems, but it will provide sufficient
services that the aircraft can be operated safely.
RAM AIR TURBINES
1. In addition to an APU some aircraft may be fitted with a Ram Air Turbine (RAT) to provide
power to aircraft systems in Emergency situations.
2. The RAT consists of a turbine wheel which is driven by air flow due to the aircraft’s forward
speed (Ram Air). The design is normally fail safe. If power is lost on the aircraft, the RAT will
automatically be selected to run.
3. The turbine drives a gearbox to which can be fitted a Generator or a Hydraulic Pump.
These will power essential electrical supplies or flying controls in an emergency.

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