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Physics - Ch-1 TB

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956 views13 pages

Physics - Ch-1 TB

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Anish Kantheti
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ee 41 Making measurements 1.1 Measuring length and volume In physics, we make measurements of many different lengths, for example, the length of a piece of wire, the height of liquid in a tube, the distance moved by an object, the diameter of a planet or the radius of its orbit. In the laboratory, lengths are often measured using a ruler (such as a metre ruler). Measuring lengths with a ruler is a familiar task. But when you use a ruler, itis worth thinking about the task and Jjust how reliable your measurements may be. Consider ‘measuring the length of a piece of wire (Figure | 4) ‘+ The wire must be straight, and laid closely alongside the ruler. (This may be tricky with a bent piece of wire) + Look at the ends of the wire. Are they cut neatly, or are they ragged? Isit difficult to judge where the wire begins and ends? * Look at the markings on the ruler. They are probably | mm apart, but they may be quite wide. Line one end of the wire up against the zero on the scale, Because of the width of the mark, this may be awkward to judge. © Look at the other end of the wire and read the scale. Again, this may be tricky to judge. Now you have a measurement, with an idea of how precise it is. You can probably determine the length of the wire to within a millimetre. But there is something else to think about ~ the ruler itself: How sure can you be that itis correctly calibrated? Are the marks atthe ends of a metre ruler separated by exactly one metre? Any error in this will lead to an inaccuracy (probably small) in your result. Figure 1.5: Making multiple measurements. Jit here is to recognise that itis always important zo that relly about the measurements you make, however straightforward they may seem. You have (0 consider the method you use, as well as the instrument (this case, the ruler). eS 8 aay Figure 1.4: Simple measurements still require careful technique, for example, finding the length of a wire. standard: is an absolute or primary reference or measurement precise: when several readings are close together when measuring the same value calibrated: should agree closely with a standard cor agrees when a correction has been applied More measurement techniques If you have to measure a small length, such as the thickness of a wie, it may be better to measure several thicknesses and then calculate the average. You can use the same approach when measuring something very thin, such as.a sheet of paper. Take a stack of $00 sheets and ‘measure its thiekness with a ruler (Figure 1.5). Then divide by $00 to find the thickness of one sheet. 500 sheets, 3 2 " > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK a a A For some measurements of length, sucl as curved Ii it can help to lay a thread along the tine, Mark the thread at either end of the line and then lay it along u ruler to find the length. This technique can also be used for measuring the circumference of « cylindrical object such asa wooden rod or a measuring cylinder, Measuring volumes There are two approaches to measuring volumes, > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK kilogram, kg cubic metre, m? kilograms per cubic metre 1000 kg/m? [Ielogram, kg cubie decimetre, dm? _| kilograms per cubic decimetre _| 10kg/dm™ [oram, 9 cubic centimetre, cm? _| grams per cubic centimetre 1.0g/em? ‘Table 1 Inits of density. a Values of density ‘Some values of density are shown in Table 1.3. Gases have much lower densities than solids or liquids. ‘An object that is less dense than water will float. Ice is Jess dense than water which explains why icebergs float in the sea, rather than sinking to the bottom. Only about ‘one tenth of an iceberg is above the water surface. If any Part of an object is above the water surface, then itis less dense than water. Gases air 1.29 hydrogen 0.09 helium 0.18 carbon dioxide | 1.98 Liquids [water 1000 alcohol (ethanol) | 790 mercury 13600 Solids 920 wood 400-1200 polyethene 910-970 [glass 2500-4200 steel 7500-8100 lead 11340 silver 10500 gold 19300 ‘Table 1.3: Densities of some substances. For gases, these are siven ata temperature of 0°C and a pressure of 1.0 x 10*Pa, Many materials have a range of densities. Some types ‘of wood, for example, are less dense than water and yi float. Other types of wood (such as mahogany) are more dense and will sink. The density depends on the ature of the wood (its composition). Gold is denser than silver. Pure gold is a soft meta, so Jewellers add silver to make it harder. The amount of silver added can be judged by measuring the density, Itis useful to remember that the density of waters 1000 kg/m’, 1.0 kg/dm or 1.0 g/cm’ Calculating density To calculate the density of a material, we need to know the mass and volume of a sample of the material. ‘A sample of ethanol has a volume of 240 cm’. Its mass is found to be 190.0 g. What is the density ofethanol? Step 1: Write down what you know and what you~ want to know. mass m = 190.08 volume V=240cm? density p=? Step2: Write down the equation for density, substitute values and calculate p. 1908 240cm? = 0.79 glem? Answer Density of ethanol = 0.79 gem? 4 Making measurements 5 The Earth has amass of 6 * 10% kg and a radius of about 6400 km. What is the density of the Earth Measuring density flume of a sphere is given by the The easiest way to determine the density of a substa e density of a substance (in kg/m’)? The ve re 6 40.drawing pins (thumb tacks) like those shown ‘ Fora solid with a regular shape, find its volume by in Figure 1.10 have a mass of 17.55g. What is the measurement (see Section 1.1), Find its mass using a ‘volume (in mm?) of one pin when they are made of metal with a density of 8.7 g/cm’? balance. Then calculate the density. Questions 3A brick is shown in Figure 1.9. It has a mass of | 28kg. 7 Ayyoung git from the Kayan people in northern ‘Thailand wears a neck ring made of brass (Figure LID) Telooks as if there are 21 individual rings but the ring is actually one continuous length of brass fashioned (bent) into col. The height of the brass coll is 12cm and its average circumference is 40cm. ‘Neck rings are usually only removed to be replaced with a bigger one as the gil grows. However, we can estimate the mass ofthis neck ring without removing it. Abi labelled with its dimensions. Figure 1.5 a Give the dimensions of the brick in metres. b Calculate the volume of the brick ¢ Calculate the density of the brick. 4 A box full of 35 matches has a mass of 6.778. The box itself has a mass of 3.37 . a What is the mass of one match in grams? b What is the volume (in em?) of each match. ‘A:match has dimensions of 42mm x 2.3mm % 2.3mm? ‘What is the density of the matches? > d- Howdo you know if these matches will float? Figure 1.11: A Kayan gitl wearing a neck ring, EE ee > camringe iscse™ PHYSIC: What looks like 21 individual rings around the gies neck is actually 21 turns of a coil of brass, Each turn has a circumference of 40cm. Caleutate (in em) the total length of brass used to make the girl's neck ring, b The coil has a height of 12cm and the coil has 21 tums Calculate the radius of the brass in em, € If the brass coil is unwound from the girl's neck and straightened out, it would be a long, thin, cylinder. Caleulate the volume of this cylinder in em. The volume of a cylinder is given by the equation = nh, where = radius and ht = height. Calculate the mass of brass used to make the neck ring and express your answer in kg, ‘The density of brass = 8.73 giem’, Finding the density of a liquid Figure 1.12 shows one way to find the density of a liquid. Place a measuring cylinder on a balance, Set the balance to zero, Now pour liquid into the cylinder. Read the volume from the scale on the cylinder, The balance shows the mass. Figure 1.12: Measuring the mass of a liquid. ‘When liquids with different densities are poured into the same container, they will arrange themselves so that the liquid with the lowest density will be at the top and the ones with the highest density will be at the bottom. This is because the denser liquids displace the less dense liquids. This is easier to see when each liquid is given a different colour. In Figure 1.13, the green liquid is less dense than the red liquid and so on. When a distinct layer forms in a mixed solution, the liquids are said to be immiscible, which means they do not mix. This is why oil floats on water. However, not all liquids stay separated so you would be disappointed if you tried this at home with squash and water, for example. When liquids mix, itis usually because in the other. For example, orange squash is syrup that is diluted by dissolving it in wate Ore laid dsc A.concentraey Apart from making colourful liquid density towers, do variations in the density of liquids have practical consequence? In Chapter 11, you will learn about convection currents in fluids (liquids and gases), which are driven by differences in density. These convection ‘currents include the thermohaline circulation in the ‘oceans, Colder and saltier water sinks, displacing (pushing up) warmer and less salty water. XeiviNaed Finding the density of a regularly shaped solid In pairs, create a worksheet on the computer for finding the density of a regularly shaped solid object (for example, a rectangular block) using a ruler and a mass balance. Your worksheet should include: ‘+ amethod for measuring the mass and working out the volume + the equation for calculating density * a table to record the data. You could include an optional task to work out the density of a liquid After your allotted time, another pair is going to test a copy of your worksheet (perhaps by doing the experiment). They are going to add any steps that are missing or make suggestions to make your ‘worksheot clearer. When you get your worksheet returned, edit and save a new version of it. RT 8 > RUS Finding the density of an irregularly shaped solid Before you start, make a copy of your previous worksheet and save it under a new name, Some of what you included in the previous worksheet can be kept and some will need to be edited. In pairs, create a worksheet for finding the density of an iegularly shaped solid object using a mass balance, a measuring cylinder, some thread, a pair of scissors and a eureka can (f you have access to ‘one). Your method explaining how to measure the ‘mass and how to calculate the density should be the same. However, you should: + explain how to measure volume by displacement + say something about choosing a suitably sized measuring cylinder + change your previous table You could include an optional task to work out the density of an irregularly shaped solid object that is less dense than water. Finding its mass and calculating the density is straightforward. The challenging partis explaining how to work out the volume of an object that floats Design a flowchart or decision-tree (optional) Design a flowchart or decision-tree for use by anyone who wants to work out the density of ‘any liquid or any solid object. Ensure that your flowchart includes enough information so that ‘someone could take the measurements. Ask your ner or someone else who has completed the fist wo parts to check and correct your flowchart. 1. Making measurements in ‘Write down one thing that you did really well this activity Write down one thing that you will ry to do better next time, How will you do this? 1.3 Measuring time “The athlties coach in Figure 1.14 is using his stopwatch to time a sprinter. For a sprinter, a fraction of & second (perhaps just 0.01 s) can make all the difference ‘between winning and coming second or third, It is different in a marathon, where the race lasts for more than two hours and the runners are timed to the nearest second, Figure 1.14: An athletics coach uses a stopwatch to time @ hurdler, who can then learn whether she has improved. How dense can you be? In groups of three, write a younger sibling, Alternatively, plan out your least two methods: a You will need to include: measurement should be taken) * any calculations ‘+ what you expect your answer to be. ‘a method showing how you could work out your own density, or that of a friend or of strategy and be prepared to share it with the class. There are at dry method and a wet method. Discuss one or both of them. + amethod that is detailed enough for someone to follow (this should include advice about how a + possible sources of uncertainty in the measurements Ifyou actually carried out the experiment, comment on how close your measurement was to what you expected. > CAMBRIDGE 1GcsE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK An the laboratory, you might need to record the temperature of a container of water every minut find out how long an electric current is flowing. For ‘measurements like these, stopelocks and stopwatches can bbe used. You may come across twvo types of timing device. An analogue clock (Figure 1.15) is like a traditional clock whose hands move round the elock’s face. You find the time by looking at where the hands are pointing on the scale. It can be used to measure time intervals to no better than the nearest second Figure 1.15: An analogue clock A digital clock (Figure 1.16) or stopwatch is one that ives a direct reading of the time in numerals. For example, a digital clock might show a time of 9.585. A digital clock records time toa precision of at least one hundredth of a second. You would never see an analogue watch recording times in the Olympic Games. Figure 1.16: A digital clock started when the gun fred and stopped 9.585 later when Usain Bolt crossed the finishing line to win the 100m at the 2009 World Championships in world record time, 10 > analogue: display has hands (or a needle ) ands often not very precise digital: display shows numbers and is often precise When studying motion, you may need to measure the time taken for a rapidly moving object to move between two points In this case, you might use a device called ¢ light gate connected to an electronic timer. This is simila to the way in which runners are timed in major athletics events. An electronic timer starts when the marshal’ gyn, is fired, and stops as the runner crosses the finishing line You will earn more about how to use electronic timing instruments in Chapter 2 Measuring short intervals of time Figure 1.17 shows atypical lab pendulum. A mass called 4 plumb bob, hangs on the end of a string. The string is clamped tightly atthe top between two wooden jaws. If you pull the bob gently to one side and release it, the pendulum will swing from side to side. ‘The time for one oscillation of a pendulum (when it swings from left to right and back again) is called its period. A single period is usually too short a time to ‘measure accurately. However, because a pendulum swings ata steady rate, you can use a stopwatch to ‘measure the time for a jarge number of oscillations (Perhaps 20 or 50), and calculate the average time per oscillation, Any inaccuracy in the time at which the stopwatch is started and stopped will be much less significant if you measure the total time for a large number of oscillations. Reaves plumb bob: a mass (usually lead) hanging from a string to define a vertical line oscillation: a repetitive motion or vibration period: the time for one complete oscillation or wave; the time it takes an object to return to its original position 4 Making measurements 9 Asstudent was investigating how the period of a pendulum varied with the length of the string and “obtained the results in Table 1.4 1.40 479 Table 14 a Why di the student record the time for 20 simple pendulum. swings? 2 bb Make a copy of Table 1.6 and, foreach length of the pendulum, calculate the time for one oscillation and record the value in the third Figure 1.17: Questions Sted a a column ofthe table. igh-speed video can record sporting events ata Plot a graph of the period of the pendul « e pendulum frame rate of 60 frames pe second (ramels). ‘against its length (that is, plot the length of the ‘a Whats the time interval between one frame pendulum on the x-axis) and the next? Use the graph to work out the length of the b If wecan see 24 framels as continuous motion, pendulum when the period is 2 seconds. This is bby what factor can the action recorded at the length of pendulum used in a grandfather 60 frame/s be slowed down and still look clock. continuous? 2 pendulum as a clock In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens invented a clock based on a swinging pendulum. Clocks like these were the most precise in the world until the 1930s. One oscilation of a pendulum is defined as the time it takes fora plumb bob at the Bottom of the string to return to its original position (Figure 1.18). You need to develop @ worksheet so that students can plot a graph of how the period of oscillation of a pendulum varies with the length of the string. They then need to use the graph to find the length the pendulum needs to be to give a period of one second (useful for a clock). Your worksheet needs to: Figure 1.18: One osciltion is when the plumb bob swings one way and then the ‘ther and rtuns back to its original postion. 2 CAMBRIDGE Igese™ puysics: couRSEBOOK Length can be measured using a ruler Tina period OP One osclaion can bemeasured by measuring the time for 20 oscillations and then diva time by 20, ies Nolen GaSb oreubeta ean be oun by measuring the length of the thee sides and malapin measurements together, deh ne Gh elisielean be mensured singe meesuring linger where the bottom of Sn the seale when looked at horizontally, A objects that sinkiin water displace theicown volume of water The volime of a irregularly shaped object ean be Tound rom the cha

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