SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Stealth technology is considered modern and sophisticated, but there are several examples of
stealth found in nature. Visual stealth is demonstrated in nature by camouflage. One of the
simplest and best examples is the change in color of insects as they blend into their
backgrounds. Without a doubt, humans were inspired to use stealth in order to deal with
dangers found in nature from defeating wild animals while hunting, to fighting in wars,
evolving this capability into the combat arena.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, rapid advancements in aviation made it possible to
use aircraft in combat. There were several advantages to this but aircraft were vulnerable to
attack from the ground, sea and air. Many technologies were introduced to overcome this
vulnerability. One of the most promising focused on reducing the visibility of aircraft and
was referred to as visual stealth. Germany pioneered the construction of less visible (ideally
invisible) planes before and during World War I (WWI). They developed a synthetic material,
called cellon, which was used to make aircraft transparent however, this resulted in limited
success because in some cases the aircraft were more visible than desired. During World War
II (WWII), visual stealth was employed by the United States on Project Yehudi. In this case,
bright lights were deployed along the leading surfaces of the TBM-3D Avenger aircraft. The
brightness of these lights could be adjusted to deceive an opponent by disguising an aircraft
against the background sky, thus reducing the aircraft’s visual detection range from twelve to
two miles. Later during the war, the B-24 Liberator bomber was adapted with “Yehudi
lights” for submarine attack missions. During the Vietnam War, counter illumination
technology was again employed in the Compass Ghost project, where F-4 Phantom fighters
were modified with lights, apparently resulting in some success.

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 1

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

FIGURE 1.1 F117A Stealth Fighter

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 2

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

Chapter 2
Literature survey

International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, June 2018

“Stealth Aircraft Technology” Sameer Suraj Salunkhe, Mayur Shivaji Naikwade MITAOE
Pune, Maharashtra, India
From this paper I got to know the concept of stealth and how they are used in military. This
also gave a brief idea about Radar and the types of reducing the visibility to the radar using
the aerodynamic shape and the radar absorbing materials.

Journal of Computations & Modelling, vol.4, no.1, 2014, 129-165 ISSN: 1792-7625 (print),
1792-8850 (online) Scienpress Ltd, 2014
Low Observable Principles, Stealth Aircraft and Anti-Stealth Technologies
Konstantinos Zikidis, Alexios Skondras , Charisios Tokas
This paper Gave a brief idea about how the radar works and how the radar is used to detect
the aircraft flying in the sky.

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 3

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

Chapter 3
Technology

To understand how this technology works it is necessary to decipher the principles of radars.

3.1 Radar Principles

Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such
as aircraft, ships, spacecraft, vehicles, people, and the natural environment.
The word RADAR came from using the capitalized letters of the phrase Radio Detection and
Ranging. The wide spread military use of it during WWII changed the progress of the war. It
later became an indispensable navigation and traffic control system for civilian purposes.

Radar uses the principle of sending a radar wave, which is a form of electromagnetic
radiation, in a desired direction with a transmitter, and then collecting the reflected signals
from a target with a receiver. Once reflected signals are received, the range to a target can be
calculated by evaluating the interval of the radar signal’s travel the half time of total interval
gives the distance of the target while the radar signal propagates from the transmitter and
returns to the receiver after reflection from the target.
Combining this information with the direction from which the signal is received, the radar
determines the location of the object. Additionally, modern radars such as Irbis or Zhuk,
developed by KRET, can identify targets by type, whether a helicopter, cruise missile, or
fighter jet.

Thus, the more a plane reflects radio waves, the better it can be detected over a long distance.
Engineers are striving to reduce this reflective capacity, also called a radar signature.

Stealth technology, the principle of reducing radar visibility, strives to use a plane’s body
structure to direct signals away from the radar receiver

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 4

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

The goal of stealth technology is to make an airplane invisible to radar. There are two
different ways to create invisibility:

 The airplane can be shaped so that any radar signals it reflects are reflected away
from the radar equipment.

 The airplane can be covered in materials that absorb radar signals.

In addition, the thermal signature of an aircraft is often reduced by placing the nozzle motor
on the upper surface of the aircraft, or by installing cooling systems around heated areas. All
of this facilitates maximum invisibility from enemy radar.
Most conventional aircraft have a rounded shape. This shape makes them aerodynamic, but it
also creates a very efficient radar reflector. The round shape means that no matter where the
radar signal hits the plane, some of the signal gets reflected back:

A stealth aircraft, on the other hand, is made up of completely flat surfaces and very sharp
edges. When a radar signal hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away at an angle, like this:

FIGURE 3.1 Reflection of Signal from Stealth Aircraft

In addition, surfaces on a stealth aircraft can be treated so they absorb radar energy as well.
The overall result is that a stealth aircraft like an F-117A can have the radar signature of a
small bird rather than an airplane. The only exception is when the plane banks -- there will
often be a moment when one of the panels of the plane will perfectly reflect a burst of radar
energy back to the antenna.

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 5

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

3.2 Shaping the Airframe

Before studying the shaping factor, the first RCS reduction principle, analyzing the major
RCS contributors of an aircraft, can be useful in gaining a better understanding of the subject.
The complex shape of an ordinary aircraft reveals many surfaces that can reflect incoming
signals back to the radar, including air inlets, compressor blades, vertical stabilizers, external
payloads, all cockpit instruments, all 44 cavities (discontinuities) and corners. Figure 2.2
shows these contributors. All these contributors must be worked on very precisely to get
desired reductions in RCS values.

FIGURE 3.2 RCS of a Aircraft

Other than these contributors, the angle of the incoming radar signals is also very important.
This is because, as the normal of a surface to a signal changes, total reflected energy and the
RCS also change. For example, an aircraft with a 25 m2 head on RCS,
may have a 400 m2 broadside RCS. Figure 2.3 illustrates a RCS pattern of a target
reflecting a radar echo that is of relatively low frequency. The amplitude values for the
pattern are relative basis, so don’t represent a real aircraft. The target is located in a plane
where 0 degrees represents the nose on position. To understand RCS value variation of an
aircraft, in level flight, against radars at the same altitude but at different angles, the
target is rotated in the yaw axis. Such patterns are used to analyze the ability of an aircraft
to penetrate air defenses[15].

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 6

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

FIGURE 3.3 RCS Pattern of a Aircraft

Some features of an airframe design present dramatically large RCS values. A flat panel,
which is a good reflector, is one of these, since it is normal to the radar beam. If this surface
is rotated, this will result in reflecting the incoming beams to other angles and will create a
smaller RCS for a monostatic receiver. Bill Sweetman, a former editor for Jane’s, and a well-
known Stealth advocate, quotes a stealth designer: A flat panel is the brightest target, and
also the dimmest. If the panel is at right angles to an incoming beam, it is a perfect reflecting
target. Rotate it along one axis and most of the energy is deflected away from the radar.
Rotate it along two axes and the RCS becomes infinitesimal[15].

Compressor blades are large signal reflector. Along with increasing the RCS of a target,
some identification systems, such as radars using non cooperative target recognition (NCTR)
techniques, or one of the measurement and signature intelligence systems (MASINT)
technologies, can be used to collect and process the strong radar returns from the engine
compressor movements or periodic rotation of the blades of a turbine to discriminate between
enemy and friendly assets[15]. Thus, an aircraft engine (with all possible components) should
be kept out of reach of radar signals for low observable designs.
Using wire mesh (as in the F-117 and RPV Q-2C), specially curved air inlet nacelles that
prevent the direct reach of RF signals to compressor blades (such as the B-1 B) and carefully
chosen engine (inlet) locations will also help to reduce RCS. However, placing engines at
their most optimum location to reduce RCS raises another important problem, determining

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 7

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

the direction of expected RF signals. For example, if a radar threat is expected from
below,putting the engine inlets at the top of the wing or airframe would be an effective
measure. This is the more likely situation for high altitude bombers, reconnaissance and
maritime patrol aircrafts. B-2 and F-117 bomber aircraft are good examples of this kind of
design. However, for an air-superiority fighter, estimating the threat direction is a much more
complex issue and there is no satisfying solution to this problem. So, the use of serpentine
ducts and inlet wire meshes are more effective solutions to conceal the engines from radar
signals.
Cockpits and their interior instruments, such as pilot’s helmet, seat, control components and
displays, reflect RF signals and increase the RCS, as the canopies and windshields are
normally transparent to the radar beams. Some special absorbent (or reflecting) layers and
coatings are used on the canopies of the stealth aircrafts to decrease the RCS of the cockpit as
well as their unique external shapes. Along with the stealth aircrafts, some other fighters and
EW assets such as F-16 Fighting Falcon and EA-6B Prowler also use such coatings either to
reduce RCS or to shield the powerful signal emitted by the jammers from reaching the
cockpit and crew. Controlled cockpit canopy shape, with “transparent conductor thin film
(vapor-deposited gold or indium tin oxide)[14].” on it, block the incoming radar signals to
reach the inner components and diminishes the amount of reflected radar waves back to the
radar.[7],[14].

Other RCS reduction methods concerned with shaping include avoiding gaps and holes in the
design and using covert gun ports, to hinder discontinuities on the airframe surface.
Performing high precision maintenance also helps to obtain and sustain these low RCS levels.
In one case, a single screw not tightened as required was discovered to be the reason for an
unexpected RCS increase in the F-117 prototype[14] .

The RCS of the airframe can be reduced by geometrically controlling the incoming signals’
reflection (directionally) and scattering. The first way to accomplish this is to use flat
surfaces and rectilinear surfaces all around the aircraft fuselage, which are oblique to the
radar signals. The F-117 Nighthawk, is a very good example of this kind of RCS reduction

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 8

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

technique with shaping. F-117 Nighthawk uses careful faceting technique to reduce RCS by
scattering the signals in nearly every direction[14].
The Second reduction method is similar and involves reflecting the incoming signals in a
limited number of directions rather than scattering them in all directions. So a monostatic
receiver never gets the transmitted signal back, unless the radar signal reflects with two 90
degree angles from a surface, which is improbable when extreme look-down angles are not
present. If a bi static system is considered, its receiver can only get the radiated beam when
the spatial geometry is perfect. In this technique, every straight line on the entire airframe
should be designed carefully, shape of the aircraft, from main aircraft components such as
wings, vertical and horizontal stabilizers, engine inlets, rudders, to all other moving parts
such as rudders, elevators, ailerons, weapon bays, landing gear doors, canopy fasteners, etc.,
should be aligned in the direction of the few selected spikes (to reflect the incoming signal
towards only these specific directions), Using serrated (saw tooth shape) parts on surfaces
may also help achieve the desired results[14].

The third method is modeling the aircraft with a compact, smoothly blended external
geometry which has changing curves. These curves do not have regular reflection
characteristics and they usually diminish the radar signal’s energy by capturing them inside
the curvature. The B-2 Spirit, especially its engine nacelles, was 51 made with this kind of
RCS technology. However, this method requires very precise calculations, thus only the
latest (after 1980s) low observable aircraft have had the chance to use it in their computer
based designs. As mentioned, the main purpose of shaping is reducing or, ideally, eliminating
the major RCS contributors. However, shaping measures for low RCS has some tradeoffs,
such as poor aerodynamic performance, increased costs more maintenance requirements or
less ordnance capacity. Despite these drawbacks, which will be discussed in the following
sections, the gains in RCS reduction compensate for the diminished qualities for the purpose
of improving aircraft survivability during operations.

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 9

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

3.3 Non-Metallic Airframe, Radar Absorbent Material (RAM)

and Radar Absorbent Structure (RAS) :

Stealth aircrafts should have extremely low RCS levels, however achieving such a goal is not
possible by shaping alone. Some material designs, such as radar absorbent material (RAM)
and radar absorbent structure (RAS) applications are also necessary.
Modern aircraft are generally made of composites, which consist of two or more different
materials that have dissimilar physical, chemical or electromagnetic properties. Generally,
composites are not metal and their RF signal reflection properties are very poor, thus
nonmetallic airframes are considered to not show up on radar. However, the non-reflected RF
signals penetrate the non-metallic airframe and this time the reflection occurs from inside
which results from the radar images of engines, fuel pumps, electrical wiring and all other
components. Coating or painting the surfaces of airframes with special metallic finishing is
the preferred way to prevent the penetration of RF signals through composites. On the other
hand, composites are still important. Forms of composites, which consist of some poor
conductors of electricity, such as carbon products, and insulators, such as epoxy resin, are
used in the airframes to cancel the forms of creeping and travelling waves, by resisting
electrical and magnetic currents which reradiate[14].
Though RAM’s performance to decrease the RCS has been enhanced by a factor of ten, since
the mid-1980s, an expert still indicates “shape and material[14] ” as the most important
factors to design a stealth aircraft. It is clear that RAM is not an alternative for the airframe
design, and it cannot transform a conventional aircraft into a stealthy one, however for better
RCS values, some parts of the asset, especially edge reflections and cavities (such as inlets),
should be healed using RAM, where no other solution is likely[15]. One of the special RAM
coatings is made of reinforced carbon carbon (RCC)[7]. For the most part, RAMs, such as
RCC, reduce RCS by absorbing (an amount of) the incoming signal and converting RF
energy into heat or by destructive interference. With their appropriate dielectric or magnetic
properties, different RAMs are used to get desired RCS results over the maximum possible
frequency range. RAM technology is based on the idea of establishing desirable impedance
which poses good matching and absorbing qualities, so that the RAM can accept and then
Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 10
SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

attenuate the incident wave. Dielectric qualities of RAM can also be explained as naturally
occurring, electromagnetic waves of radar bouncing from conductive objects. However, the
molecular structure of the lossy materials causes RF energy to expend its energy by
producing heat. Then the heat is transferred to the aircraft and dissipated while the residual
RF energy loses its effectiveness, basically with help of friction and inertia or molecular
oscillations. Finally, this results in less reflection back to the radar receiver[14].

Together with absorption, another way of RCS reduction, by using RAM, is destructive
interference. However, there is an important distinction between the phenomenon of
absorption and destructive interference applications. As mentioned above, the absorption
process, which covers ohmic loss (based on the motion of free charges in an imperfect
conductor), dielectric loss (based on permittivity), and magnetic loss (based on permeability),
is possible by transferring the incident RF wave’s energy to the airframe material as it passes
through. On the other hand, the destructive interference (also known as “resonant RAM” or
“impedance loading”) principal is based on coatings, or the “Salisbury Screen” method,
which are used to reduce RCS by 53 cancellations of multiple reflections. This method is
considered both a RAM and a passive cancellation method. This study will discuss
destructive interference in the passive cancellation technique section.

FIGURE 3.4 RADAR Absorbing Material Structure

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 11

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

RAM includes many types of materials. Five RAM examples,Iron ball paint absorber,Foam
absorber, Jaumann absorber, Split-ring resonator absorber, Carbon nanotube, Silicon carbide
can be seen in Figure 2.5 in the order of clockwise from upper left . Another example, a
ferrite-based paint, which is called “iron ball”, was used on the U-2 and SR- 71 to reduce the
RCS.

FIGURE 3.5 RADAR Absorbing Material

RAM has some limitations. Although the use of RAM is strengthening for low observability,
it never gives perfect results and can never be assumed to decrease an aircraft’s RCS values
to a large extent. It can absorb a portion of the incident energy, with the rest being reflected.
Moreover, certain kinds of RAM can give expected results only for certain frequencies and
angles of the incident radar wave. Using different kinds of RAM to broaden the RF spectral
coverage, along with thicker and heavier amounts, increases the effectiveness. However, the
optimum RAM weight and depth should be evaluated while considering the impact of the
application of bulky coatings, which may demolish other flight and mission characteristics of
the asset. Inconvenient weather conditions, such as rain, may also decrease the performance
of most RAM. Furthermore, aircraft shelters should be constructed with special qualities to
provide required RAM protection and maintenance. This is the reason that early B-2 planes
were not deployed at US bases abroad where these kind of special shelters were not
available[14].

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 12

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

Because thick and solid RAM coatings or paintings, which are heavy and bulky, are required
but not feasible to get desired RCS reduction over wider bandwidths, an alternative method
of using such materials at the inner skin of the airframe is 55 preferred. Radar absorbing
structures involve building special materials in special ways, such as honeycomb, as shown
in Figure 2.6, to attenuate radar waves into load-bearing structure[14].

FIGURE 3.6 RADAR Absorbing Honeycomb Structure

The honeycomb structures have very important advantages. First of all, their hexagonal
passages, which are bonded together, are physically very strong, flexible and light. From a
RCS perspective, their depth, which does not cause considerable weight, is used to form
many surfaces to reflect, absorb and attenuate the radar signal. One kind of honeycomb is
made up of an outer skin of kevlar/epoxy composite, which is transparent to radar, and an
inner skin of reflective graphite/epoxy. The nomex core, between them, has absorbent
properties and its increasing density, front to rear of the honeycomb, improves the
effectiveness. The small amount of front-face reflection of the incident radar wave is
followed by the radar wave to reach the thinly spread absorber on the outer edges of the core
where another small part of the energy is absorbed and the remainder is bounced. So, the
travelling wave meets more densely loaded core material as it goes on. Each time, some
amount of energy is either absorbed or reflected, and finally the outermost layer of the

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 13

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

absorber once again attenuates it and the radar wave, which is checked into the structure,
never checks out to free space again[14] .

Another method is the physical shape of the structure is a saw-tooth pattern. The external
surface is coated with a high frequency ferrite absorber. The interior begins with a low
absorption layer and is followed by a more absorbent layer, so; while the deepness increase
the absorbent properties are also augmented. The “V” shaped geometry, shown in Figure 2.3,
causes the radar signal to bounce towards the opposite side, while the material properties of
the structure absorb and provide the incoming signal to diminish the energy, so each bounce
results in the loss of some amount of the energy[14].

V Shaped Skin of
Radar Signal Stealth Aircraft

FIGURE 3.7 Trapping Incoming Signal

ADVANTAGES OF STEALTH TECHNOLOGY

1. Efficiency can be increased while in a war zone when stealth vehicles are used in place of
conventional vehicles, providing long term fiscal savings.
2. Strikes from a stealth fighter aircraft prevent enemies from initiating attacks and as
enemies are unable to locate them stealth weapons are utilized as intimidation fleets.
3. Decline in casualty rates is achievable using stealth technology in warfare.
.

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 14

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

DISADVANTAGES OF STEALTH TECHNOLOGY

1. Compared to conventional aircrafts, stealth aircrafts are less agile and lack efficient
maneuverability.
2. Stealth aircraft have lower payload or carrying capacity than the conventional aircraft.
3. The biggest disadvantage of a stealth aircraft is its high cost (Fighter aircraft such as B-2
($2 billion) and F-22 ($100 million) are the most expensive aircraft in the world.).

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 15

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

Chapter 4
Conclusion

Stealth technology is clearly the future of air combat. In the future, as air defense systems
grow more accurate and deadly, stealth technology can be a factor for a decisive by a country
over the other. In the future, stealth technology will not only be incorporated in fighters and
bombers but also in ships, helicopters, tanks and transport planes. Ever since the Wright
brothers flew the first powered flight, the advancements in this particular field of technology
have seen staggering heights. Stealth technology is just one of the advancements that we
have seen. In due course of time we can see many improvements in the field of military
aviation which would even make stealth technology obsolete very soon within a decade.

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 16

SEMINAR REPORT 2019-2020

REFERENCES

1. http://www.totalairdominance.50megs.com/articles/stealth.htm

2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_technology

3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar

4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_ship

5. http://www.resonancepub.com/images/stealth_ship.gif

6. http://images.google.co.in/images

7. http://science.howstuffworks.com/question69.htm

8. http://www.espionageinfo.com/Sp-Te/Stealth-Technology.html

9. http://www.airplanedesign.info/51.htm

10. http://www.hitechweb.genezis.eu/stealth4f_soubory/image013.jpg

11. http://www.geocities.com/electrogravitics/scm.html

12. http://www.razorworks.com/enemyengaged/chguide/images/lo- reflecting.gif

13. htp://www.x20.org/library/thermal/pdm/ir_thermography.htm

14. International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, June 2018

“Stealth Aircraft Technology” Sameer Suraj Salunkhe, Mayur Shivaji Naikwade MITAOE
Pune, Maharashtra, India

15. William E. Bahret, “The Beginnings of Stealth Technology,” IEEE Transactions on

Aerospace and Electronic Systems Vol.29, No 4 October 1993.

16. Serdar Cadirci,” RF stealth (or low observable) and counter RF stealth technologies”.

Department of ECE, VVIET, Mysuru Page 17