Contents

Introduction viii 3 What’s their point? Identifying

Glossary xii arguments 37
Acknowledgements xiv
Introduction 37
The author’s position 38
1 What is critical thinking? 1 Activity: Capturing the author’s position 39
Argument: Persuasion through reasons 40
Introduction 1
Identifying the argument 41
What is critical thinking? 2
Activity: Identifying simple arguments 44
Reasoning 3
Activity: Reasons and conclusions 45
Why develop critical thinking skills? 4
Hunting out the conclusion 46
Underlying skills and attitudes 5
Summary of features 47
Self-awareness for accurate judgement 6
Summary 48
Personal strategies for critical thinking 7
Information about the sources 48
Critical thinking in academic contexts 8
Answers to activities in Chapter 3 49
Barriers to critical thinking 10
Critical thinking: Knowledge, skills and
attitudes 13 4 Is it an argument? Argument and
Priorities: Developing critical thinking abilities 14 non-argument 51
Summary 16
Introduction 51
Argument and disagreement 52
2 How well do you think? Develop Activity: Argument and disagreement 53
your thinking skills 17 Non-arguments: Description 54
Non-arguments: Explanations and summaries 55
Introduction 17
Activity: What type of message? 56
Assess your thinking skills 18
Distinguishing argument from other material 58
Scoring sheet 22
Activity: Selecting out the argument 59
Focusing attention 23
Summary 61
Focusing attention: Identifying difference 24
Information about the sources 61
Focusing attention: Recognising sequence 25
Answers to activities in Chapter 4 62
Categorising 27
Activity: Categorising text 28
Close reading 29 5 How well do they say it? Clarity,
Information about the sources 31 consistency and structure 63
Answers to activities in Chapter 2 32
Introduction 63
How clear is the author’s position? 64
Internal consistency 65
Activity: Internal consistency 66
Logical consistency 67

Contents v
Activity: Logical consistency 68 Unwarranted leaps and castle of cards 116
Independent reasons and joint reasons 69 Emotive language; Attacking the person 117
Activity: Independent reasons and joint More flaws 118
reasons 70 Misrepresentation and trivialisation 119
Intermediate conclusions 71 Tautology; Two wrongs don’t make a right 120
Intermediate conclusions used as reasons 72 Summary 121
Activity: Intermediate conclusions 73 Information on the sources 121
Summative and logical conclusions 74 Answers to activities in Chapter 7 122
Activity: Summative and logical conclusions 75
Logical order 76
8 Where’s the proof? Finding and
Activity: Logical order 77
evaluating sources of evidence 125
Summary 78
Information about the sources 78 Introduction 125
Answers to activities in Chapter 5 79 Primary and secondary source materials 126
Searching for evidence 127
Literature searches 128
6 Reading between the lines:
Reputable sources 129
Recognising underlying
Authenticity and validity 130
assumptions and implicit
Currency and reliability 131
arguments 85
Selecting the best evidence 132
Introduction 85 Relevant and irrelevant evidence 133
Assumptions 86 Activity: Relevant and irrelevant evidence 134
Activity: Identify the underlying assumptions 87 Representative samples 135
Identifying hidden assumptions 88 Activity: Representative samples 136
Implicit assumptions used as reasons 89 Certainty and probability 137
Activity: Implicit assumptions used as reasons 90 Sample sizes and statistical significance 138
False premises 91 Over-generalisation 139
Activity: False premises 92 Controlling for variables 140
Implicit arguments 93 Facts and opinions 141
Activities: Implicit arguments 94 Eye-witness testimony 142
Denoted and connoted meanings 95 Triangulation 143
Activities: Associations and stereotypes 97 Evaluating a body of evidence 144
Activity: Denoted and connoted meanings 98 Summary 145
Summary 99 Information on the sources 145
Information about the sources 99 Answers to activities in Chapter 8 146
Answers to activities in Chapter 6 100
9 Critical reading and note-making:
7 Does it add up? Identifying flaws Critical selection, interpretation
in the argument 105 and noting of source material 147
Introduction 105 Introduction 147
Assuming a causal link 106 Preparing for critical reading 148
Correlations and false correlations 107 Identifying the theoretical perspective 149
Activity: Identify the nature of the link 108 The relation of theory to argument 150
Not meeting the necessary conditions 109 Categorising and selecting 151
Not meeting sufficient conditions 110 Accurate interpretation when reading 152
Activity: Necessary and sufficient conditions 111 Making notes to support critical reading 153
False analogies 112 Reading and noting for a purpose 154
Activity: False analogies 113 Concise critical notes: Analysing argument 155
Deflection, complicity and exclusion 114 Concise critical notes: Books 156
Other types of flawed argument 115 Concise critical notes: Articles and papers 157

vi Critical Thinking Skills

Critical selection when note-making 158 12 Critical reflection 207
Activity: Critical selection 159
Introduction 207
Commentary on critical selection activity 161
What is critical reflection? 208
Note your source of information 162
Why engage in critical reflection? 210
Summary 164
Decide your approach and purpose 211
Information on the sources 164
Approach: outcome, focus, model, method 212
Answers to activities in Chapter 9 165
Approach: method and audience 213
Approach: relating experience and theory 214
10 Critical, analytical writing: Decide your approach: summary 215
Critical thinking when writing 167 Resource: Outline approach to reflection 216
Reflection phases 1 and 2 218
Introduction 167
Examples of phase 1 reflection 219
Characteristics of critical, analytical writing 168
Examples of phase 2 reflection 220
Setting the scene for the reader 170
Models of reflection 221
Activity: Setting the scene for the reader 171
Deciding on your model for reflection 222
Writing up the literature search 172
The Core Model for critical reflection 223
Words used to introduce the line
Applying reflection to professional practice 225
of reasoning 173
Reflection and professional judgement 226
Signposting alternative points of view 175
Good and bad critical reflection 227
Words used to signpost conclusions 177
Presenting your reflection to others 229
Words and phrases used to structure
Summary 230
the line of reasoning 178
Information about the sources 230
Drawing tentative conclusions 179
Activity: Writing conclusions 180
Critical analysis for essays: essay titles 181 Texts for Activities in Chapters 8, 9
Academic keywords used in titles 182 and 11 231
Critical analysis for essays: reading 183
Texts for activities in Chapters 8, 9 and 11 233
Critical analytical essays: introductions 184
Structured argument: the body of the essay 185
Essays: Bringing the argument together 186 Practice activities on longer texts 239
Citing and referencing your sources 187
Practice 1: Features of an argument 240
What do I include in a reference? 188
Answer to Practice 1: Features of an
Summary 189
argument 244
Information on the sources 189
Answers to activities in Chapter 10 190 Practice 2: Finding flaws in the argument 247
Answers to Practice 2: Finding flaws in the
argument 251
11 Where’s the analysis? Evaluating
Practice 3: Features of an argument 255
critical writing 191
Answers to Practice 3: Features of an
Introduction 191 argument 261
Checklist for evaluating Essay 1 192 Practice 4: Finding flaws in the argument 266
Evaluate Essay 1 193 Answers to Practice 4: Finding flaws in the
Evaluation of Essay 1 195 argument 271
Commentary for Essay 1 196
Checklist for evaluating Essay 2 198
Evaluate Essay 2 199 Appendix: Selected search engines
Evaluation of Essay 2 201 and databases for on-line literature
Commentary on Essay 2 202 searches 277
Evaluating your writing for critical thinking 204 Bibliography 278
Summary 206 Index 280

Contents vii
 Chapter 1

What is critical thinking?

Learning outcomes
This chapter gives you opportunities to:
 understand what critical thinking is
 recognise some of the benefits associated with critical thinking skills
 recognise the personal qualities associated with critical thinking
 recognise barriers to the development of good critical thinking skills
 assess your current understanding of critical thinking and identify your priorities for improvement

Introduction
This chapter provides a general orientation to critical You are invited to consider, in this chapter, how far
thinking. It examines what is meant by ‘critical such barriers could be affecting your own thinking
thinking’, the skills associated with it, and the abilities and how you will manage these.
barriers that can hinder effective development of
critical approaches. Many people can find it difficult
to order their thoughts in a logical, consistent,
and reasoned way. This book starts from
the premise that skills in reasoning
can be developed through a better
understanding of what critical thinking
What did
entails, and by practice.
my mom
Critical thinking is a cognitive activity, say about no
Yay! such thing as
associated with using the mind. Learning Food a free lunch?
to think in critically analytical and evaluative
ways means using mental processes such
as attention, categorisation, selection, and
judgement. However, many people who
have the potential to develop more effective
critical thinking can be prevented from doing
so for a variety of reasons apart from a lack of
ability. In particular, personal and emotional,
or ‘affective’, reasons can create barriers.

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan What is critical thinking? 1
 What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking gives you the tools to use scepticism

Critical thinking as a process
and doubt constructively so that you can analyse
Critical thinking is a complex process of what is before you. It helps you to make better and
deliberation which involves a wide range of skills more informed decisions about whether something
and attitudes. It includes: is likely to be true, effective or productive. Ultimately,
 identifying other people’s positions, arguments in order to function in the world, we have to accept
and conclusions; the probability that at least some things are as they
 evaluating the evidence for alternative points of seem. This requires trust. If we can analyse clearly
view; the basis of what we take as true, we are more able
 weighing up opposing arguments and evidence to discern when it is reasonable to be trusting and
fairly; where it is useful to be sceptical.
 being able to read between the lines, seeing
behind surfaces, and identifying false or unfair
Method rather than personality trait
assumptions; Some people seem to be more naturally sceptical
 recognising techniques used to make certain whilst others find it easier to be trusting. These
positions more appealing than others, such as differences may be because of past experiences
false logic and persuasive devices; or personality traits. However, critical thinking is
 reflecting on issues in a structured way, bringing not about natural traits or personality; it is about a
logic and insight to bear; certain set of methods aimed at exploring evidence
 drawing conclusions about whether arguments in a particular way. Sceptical people can require
are valid and justifiable, based on good structured approaches that help them to trust in
evidence and sensible assumptions; the probability of an outcome, just as those who
 synthesising information: drawing together your are more trusting require methods to help them use
judgements of the evidence, synthesising these doubt constructively.
to form your own new position;
 presenting a point of view in a structured, clear,
well-reasoned way that convinces others.
Critical thinking and argument
The focus of critical thinking is often referred to as
the ‘argument’. Chapter 3 identifies the features
Scepticism and trust of an argument in critical thinking. The argument
Ennis (1987) identified a range of dispositions and can be thought of as the message that is being
abilities associated with critical thinking. These conveyed, whether through speech, writing,
focused on: performance, or other media. Critical thinking helps
 the ability to reflect sceptically; you to identify the obvious and the hidden messages
 the ability to think in a reasoned way. more accurately, and to understand the process by
which an argument is constructed.
Scepticism in critical thinking means bringing an
element of polite doubt. In this context, scepticism
doesn’t mean you must go through life never
believing anything you hear and see. That would not
be helpful. It does mean holding open the possibility
that what you know at a given time may be only
part of the picture.

2 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
 Reasoning

Knowing our own reasons Critical analysis of other people’s

Critical thinking is associated with reasoning or with reasons can involve:
our capacity for rational thought. The word ‘rational’  identifying their reasons and conclusions;
means ‘using reasons’ to solve problems. Reasoning  analysing how they select, combine and order
starts with ourselves. It includes: reasons to construct a line of reasoning;
 having reasons for what we believe and do, and  evaluating whether their reasons support the
being aware of what these are; conclusions they draw;
 critically evaluating our own beliefs and actions;  evaluating whether their reasons are well-
 being able to present to others the reasons for founded, based on good evidence;
our beliefs and actions.  identifying flaws in their reasoning.
This may sound easy, as we all assume we know
what we believe and why. However, sometimes,
when we are challenged on why we believe that Constructing and presenting
something is true, it becomes obvious to us that reasons
we haven’t really thought through whether what
we have seen or heard is the whole story or is Reasoning involves analysing evidence and drawing
just one point of view. There are also likely to be conclusions from it. The evidence may then be
occasions when we find we are not sure what we presented to support the conclusion. For example,
consider to be the right course of action or a correct we may consider that it is a cold day. Someone who
interpretation. disagrees may ask why we believe this. We may
use evidence such as a thermometer reading and
It is important to examine the basis of our own observation of weather conditions. Our reasons may
beliefs and reasoning, as these will be the main be that the temperature is low and there is ice on
vantage points from which we begin any critical the ground.
analysis.
We use basic examples of reasoning such as this
every day. For professional and academic work, we
are usually required to present such reasoning using
Critical analysis of other people’s formal structures such as essays, or reports with
reasoning recommendations. This requires additional skills such
Critical reasoning usually involves considering other as knowing how to:
people’s reasoning. This requires the skill of grasping  select and structure reasons to support a
an overall argument, but also skills in analysing and conclusion;
evaluating it in detail.  present an argument in a consistent way;
 use logical order;
 use language effectively to present the line of
reasoning.

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan What is critical thinking? 3
 Why develop critical thinking skills?

Benefits of critical thinking skills Realistic self-appraisal

Good critical thinking skills bring numerous It is likely that you already possess some or all of
benefits such as: these skills in order to cope with everyday life, work
or previous study. However, the more advanced
 improved attention and observation;
the level of study or the professional area, the
 more focused reading;
more refined these skills need to be. The better
 improved ability to identify the key points in a
these skills are, the more able you are to take on
text or other message rather than becoming
complex problems and projects with confidence of a
distracted by less important material;
successful outcome.
 improved ability to respond to the appropriate
points in a message; It is likely that many people over-estimate the quality
 knowledge of how to get your own point of the critical thinking they bring to activities such
across more easily; as reading, watching television, using the internet,
 skills of analysis that you can choose to apply or to work and study. It is not unusual to assume
in a variety of situations. our point of view is well-founded, that we know
best, and that we are logical and reasonable. Other
people observing us may not share this view. A
lack of self-awareness and weak reasoning skills can
Benefits in professional and result in unsatisfactory appraisals at work or poor
everyday life marks for academic work. Certainly, comments from
Skills in critical thinking bring precision to the way lecturers indicate that many students are prevented
you think and work. You will find that practice in from gaining better marks because their work lacks
critical thinking helps you to be more accurate and evidence of rigorous critical thinking.
specific in noting what is relevant and what is not.
The skills listed above are useful to problem-solving
and to project management, bringing greater
All my own work!
precision and accuracy to different parts of a task.
Although critical thinking can seem like a slow
process because it is precise, once you have acquired
good skills, they save you time because you learn to
identify the most relevant information more quickly
and accurately.

Ancillary skills
Critical thinking involves the development of a range
of ancillary skills such as:
 observation
 reasoning Your annual self-appraisal says you
 decision-making have excellent skills in construction,
 analysis marketing skills and self-presentation.
 judgement Fortunately for you, my poor critical
 persuasion thinking skills force me to agree.

4 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
 Underlying skills and attitudes

Critical thinking rarely takes place in a vacuum.

Perseverance, accuracy and precision
Higher-level critical thinking skills usually require
some or all of the skills and attitudes listed below. Critical thinking involves accuracy and precision
and this can require dedication to finding the
Underlying thinking skills right answer. It includes:
 Attention to detail: taking the time to note
Critical thinking assumes abilities in a range of skills small clues that throw greater light on the
such as categorising, selection and differentiation, overall issue.
comparing and contrasting. These skills are  Identifying trends and patterns: this may be
examined in Chapter 2. through careful mapping of information,
analysis of data, or identifying repetition and
Knowledge and research similarity.
 Repetition: going back over the same ground
Good critical thinkers can often detect a poor
several times to check that nothing has been
argument without a good knowledge of the subject.
missed.
However, critical thinking usually benefits from
 Taking different perspectives: looking at the
background research. Finding out more about
same information from several points of view.
a subject helps you to make a more informed
 Objectivity: putting your own likes, beliefs and
judgement about whether relevant facts, alternative
interests to one side with the aim of gaining
explanations and options have been covered
the most accurate outcome or a deeper
sufficiently.
understanding.
 Considering implications and distant
Emotional self-management consequences: what appears to be a good idea
Critical thinking sounds like a dispassionate process in the short term, for example, might have
but it can engage emotions and even passionate long-term effects that are less desirable.
responses. This should not surprise us when we
consider that reasoning requires us to decide
between opposing points of view. In particular, Reflection Emotional self-management
we may not like evidence that contradicts our
For me, the emotions that are most difficult to
own opinions or beliefs. If the evidence points in a
manage when others disagree with me are:
direction that is unexpected and challenging, that
can rouse unexpected feelings of anger, frustration
or anxiety.
The academic world traditionally likes to consider
itself as logical and immune to emotions, so if
feelings do emerge, this can be especially difficult. I deal with these by:
Being able to manage your emotions under such
circumstances is a useful skill. If you can remain
calm, and present your reasons logically, you will
be better able to argue your point of view in a
convincing way.

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan What is critical thinking? 5
 Self-awareness for accurate judgement

Good critical thinking involves making accurate Becoming more self-aware takes courage. It can be
judgements. We noted above that our thinking unsettling to find out things about ourselves we
might not be accurate if we are not fully aware of didn’t know, as most of us like to think we know
the influences that affect it. These can include such ourselves very well. It is also challenging to question
things as our own assumptions, preconceptions, our belief systems. We think of these as part of
bias, dislikes, beliefs, things we take for granted our identity and it can be unsettling if we feel our
as normal and acceptable, and all those things identity is called into question.
about our selves and our world that we have never
Furthermore, the result of your critical thinking
questioned.
might place you in a minority amongst your
People who are outstanding at critical thinking friends, family or colleagues. Nobody else might
tend to be particularly self-aware. They reflect upon interpret the evidence in the same way as you. It
and evaluate their personal motivations, interests, takes courage to argue an alternative point of view,
prejudices, expertise and gaps in their knowledge. especially when it is possible that you might be
They question their own point of view and check the wrong.
evidence used to support it.

Reflection Influences on my thinking Reflection Challenging opinions

For me, the influences on my own thinking that I For me, the things I find most difficult about
need to be most aware of so they don’t prejudice challenging the opinions of other people are:
my thinking are:

I will deal with these by: I deal with these by:

6 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
 Personal strategies for critical thinking

Below, three lecturers describe how they view critical The example below indicates that, as well as the
thinking. words on the page or material being critiqued, there
are wider contextual and other considerations to be
Example 1 taken into account.
 I may make a quick first reading to get the
Example 2
overall picture and check my initial response. I
see whether it rings true or contradicts what I I put my energy into looking for the heart of the
believe to be true. issue: what is really being said, and why? The
 I compare what I read with what I already answers may not be on the page; they may be in
know about the topic and with my experience. the wider history of a debate, a cultural clash, or
 I summarise as I go along, and hold the overall conflicting bids for project money. It is surprising
argument in my head to make sense of what how often the wider context, popular debates,
comes next. even a desire to be seen to be saying what is
 I look for the author’s position or point of view, currently in fashion, have a bearing on what a
asking ‘What are they trying to “sell me”?’ given passage is really saying.
 As I read, I check each section and ask myself
if I know what it means. If not, I check again –
sometimes it is clearer when I read the second The third lecturer wouldn’t disagree with what has
time. If it is still unclear, I remind myself to gone before, but adds another dimension. Analysis
come back to it later as the rest of the passage encourages a focus on the detail, and on considering
may make it clearer. many different angles. This can generate a large body
 I then read more carefully, seeing what reasons of evidence or long list of points for consideration.
the writers present and checking whether I am An important aspect of your critical analysis is to sift
persuaded by these. through this wealth of information, and make good
 If I am persuaded, I consider why. Is it because judgements about what is the most significant.
they make use of experts in the field? Is there
research evidence that looks thorough and Example 3
convincing?
The trick is being able to see the wood for the
 If I am not persuaded, then why not? I check
trees; identifying what is relevant amongst a mass
if this is a ‘gut level’ thing or whether I have
of less relevant information. It isn’t enough just to
good reasons for not being convinced. If I
understand; you have to be constantly evaluating
have relied on a gut response, I check for hard
whether something is accurate, whether it gets
evidence such as whether I have read other
to the heart of the issue, whether it is the most
material that contradicts it.
important aspect on which to focus, whether it is
 I then create my own position, and check that
the best example to use – and whether what you
my own point of view is convincing. Could I
are saying about it is a fair representation of it.
support it if I was challenged?

All three examples illustrate different aspects of the

Here the lecturer is describing an overall strategy
critical thinking process:
for reading and analysing the text in a critically
analytical way. The final point refers to ‘creating’  an analytical strategy for the material;
a personal position by synthesising the available  understanding of the wider context;
material – and then submitting this to critical  an evaluative and selective approach;
analysis too.  being self-critical about your own understanding,
interpretation and evaluation.

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan What is critical thinking? 7
 Critical thinking in academic contexts

Development of understanding Reflection ‘Knowing without

Students are expected to develop critical thinking understanding’?
skills so that they can dig deeper below the surface Do you recognise anything of yourself in Bodner’s
of the subject they are studying and engage description of students? What effect would the
in critical dialogue with its main theories and approach he suggests have on your learning and
arguments. This is usually through engaging in understanding?
critical debate in seminars, presentations or writing
produced for assessment or publication.
One of the best ways of arriving at a point where
we really understand something is by doing, or
replicating, the underlying research for ourselves.
However, as undergraduates, and indeed in everyday
life, there simply isn’t the time to research everything
we encounter. The depth of understanding that
comes through direct experience, practice and
experimentation has to be replaced, at times, by
critical analysis of the work of other people.
Students need to develop the ability to evaluate
critically the work of others. Whilst some find this
easy, others tend to accept or apply the results
of other people’s research too readily, without
analysing it sufficiently to check that the evidence
and the reasoning really support the main points
being made. Bodner (1988), for example, describes Both positives and negatives
chemistry students as being unable to ‘apply their In academic contexts, ‘criticism’ refers to an analysis
knowledge outside the narrow domain in which it of positive features as well as negative ones. It is
was learnt. They “know” without understanding.’ important to identify strengths and satisfactory
Bodner suggests that, instead of focusing primarily aspects rather than just weaknesses, to evaluate
on standard chemical calculations in books, students what works as well as what does not. Good critical
should be looking for answers to questions such as analysis accounts for why something is good or poor,
‘How do we know . . . ?’ and ‘Why do we believe why it works or fails. It is not enough merely to list
. . . ?’ good and bad points.
Bodner’s description is likely to be just as true
of students in other subjects. It is not unusual Comprehensive: nothing is
for students, and for people generally, to rely excluded
unquestioningly on research that is based on a small
sample of the population, or that is based on faulty At most English-speaking universities, students
reasoning, or that is now out of date. Evidence are expected to take a critical approach to what
from small or isolated projects is often treated as if they hear, see and read, even when considering
it were irrefutable proof of a general principle, and the theories of respected academics. Normally,
is sometimes quoted year after year as if it were an any theory, perspective, data, area of research or
absolute truth. Chapter 8 looks further at critically approach to a discipline could be subjected to
examining and evaluating evidence. critical analysis. Some colleges, such as religious
foundations, may consider certain subjects to be out
of bounds, but this is not typical.

8 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
The idea or the action, not the do not lend themselves to straightforward responses.
person You may have noticed yourself that the more you
know about a subject, the more difficult it becomes
A distinction is usually drawn between the idea, to give simple answers.
work, text, theory or behaviour, on the one hand
and, on the other, the person associated with these.
This is also true when making critical analyses of
Dealing with ambiguity and
other students’ work, if this is a requirement of doubt
your course. Even so, it is worth remembering that With the internet at our fingertips, we are more used
people identify closely with their work and may take to obtaining answers within minutes of formulating
criticism of it personally. Tact and a constructive a question. However, in the academic world,
approach are needed. Giving difficult messages in a questions are raised in new areas and answers may
way other people can accept is an important aspect not be found for years, or even lifetimes. This can
of critical evaluation. feel uncomfortable if you are used to ready answers.
This does not mean, though, that vague answers
Your work’s rubbish, of course but as a are acceptable. If you look at articles in academic
human being, you’ll do, I suppose! journals, you will see that they are very closely
argued, often focusing on a minute aspect of the
subject in great detail and with precision. Students,
too, are expected to develop skills in using evidence,
even if drawn from other people’s research, to
support a detailed line of reasoning.
It is worth remembering that in academic work,
including professional research for business and
industry, researchers often need to pursue lines of
enquiry knowing that:
 no clear answers may emerge;
 it may take decades to gain an answer;
 they may contribute only a very small part to a
much larger picture.

Critical thinking as a student means:

 finding out where the best evidence lies for the
subject you are discussing;
 evaluating the strength of the evidence to
support different arguments;
 coming to an interim conclusion about where
the available evidence appears to lead;
 constructing a line of reasoning to guide your
Irma wasn’t famed for her tact
audience through the evidence and lead them
towards your conclusion;
 selecting the best examples;
Non-dualistic  and providing evidence to illustrate your
In our day-to-day lives, we can slip into thinking argument.
everything is right or wrong, black or white. In the
academic world, answers may occur at a point on a
continuum of possibilities. One of the purposes of
higher-level thinking is to address questions which
are more complicated and sophisticated, and which

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan What is critical thinking? 9
 Barriers to critical thinking (1)

Critical thinking does not come easily to everyone.

Barriers vary from person to person, but can usually And in your essay, Angela, you refer to
be overcome. This section looks at some key barriers Napoleon as ‘she’ throughout. What a
to critical thinking and encourages you to consider marvellously unique and creative approach!
whether these might be having an impact on you.

Misunderstanding of what is
meant by criticism
Some people assume that ‘criticism’ means making
negative comments. As a result, they refer only to
negative aspects when making an analysis. This is
a misunderstanding of the term. As we saw above,
critical evaluation means identifying positive as well
as negative aspects, what works as well as what does
not.

Your art lacks any real sense of line, tone,

colour, emotion, conceptual development,
originality – it’s lop-sided and hasn’t got Over-estimating our own
a frame. reasoning abilities
Most of us like to think of ourselves as rational
beings. We tend to believe our own belief systems
are the best (otherwise we wouldn’t hold those
beliefs) and that we have good reasons for what we
do and think.
Although this is true of most of us for some of the
time, it isn’t an accurate picture of how humans
behave. Most of the time our thinking runs on
automatic. This makes us more efficient in our
everyday lives: we don’t have to doubt the safety of
a tooth-brush every time we brush our teeth.
However, it is easy to fall into poor thinking habits.
People who get their own way, or simply get by,
with poor reasoning, may believe their reasoning
must be good as nobody has said it isn’t. Those who
Others feel that it is not good to engage in criticism are good at winning arguments can mistake this for
because it is an intrinsically negative activity. Some good reasoning ability. Winning an argument does
worry that they will be regarded as an unpleasant not necessarily mean that you have the best case.
sort of person if they are good at criticism. As a It may simply mean that your opponents didn’t
result, they avoid making any comments they feel recognise a poor argument, or chose to yield the
are negative and make only positive comments. point for their own reasons, such as to avoid conflict.
They may not provide feedback on what can be Imprecise, inaccurate and illogical thinking does
improved. This is often an unhelpful approach, as not help to develop the mental abilities required for
constructive criticism can clarify a situation and help higher-level academic and professional work.
people to excel.

10 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
 Barriers to critical thinking (2)

Lack of methods, strategies or Affective reasons

practice We saw above that emotional self-management can
Although willing to be more critical, some people play an important part in critical thinking. To be
don’t know which steps to take next in order to able to critique means being able to acknowledge
improve their critical thinking skills. Others are that there is more than one way of looking at an
unaware that strategies used for study at school and issue. In academic contexts, the implications of a
in everyday situations are not sufficiently rigorous theory can challenge deeply held beliefs and long-
for higher-level academic thinking and professional held assumptions. This can be difficult to accept,
work. With practice, most people can develop their irrespective of how intelligent a student might be.
skills in critical thinking.

Reluctance to critique experts

There can be a natural anxiety about critically
analysing texts or other works by people that you
respect. It can seem strange for students who know
little about their subject, to be asked to critique
works by those who are clearly more experienced.
Some students can find it alien, rude or nonsensical
to offer criticism of practitioners they know to be
more expert than themselves.
If this is true of you, it may help to bear in mind
that this is part of the way teaching works in most
English-speaking universities. Critical analysis is
a typical and expected activity. Researchers and
lecturers expect students to question and challenge
even published material. It can take time to adapt to This is especially so if ‘common-sense’ or ‘normality’
this way of thinking. appears to be challenged by other intelligent people
or by academic research. It can be hard to hear
If you are confident about critical thinking, bear in deeply held religious, political and ideological beliefs
mind that there are others who find this difficult. challenged in any way at all. Other sensitive issues
In many parts of the world, students are expected include views on bringing up children, criminal
to demonstrate respect for known experts by justice, genetic modification, and sexuality.
behaviours such as learning text off by heart,
repeating the exact words used by an expert, When we are distressed by what we are learning, the
copying images precisely, or imitating movements emotional response may help to focus our thinking
as closely as possible. Students of martial arts such as but very often it can inhibit our capacity to think
tai chi or karate may be familiar with this approach clearly. Emotional content can add power to an
to teaching and learning. argument, but it can also undermine an argument,
especially if emotions seem to take the place of the
reasoning and evidence that could convince others.
Critical thinking does not mean that you must
abandon beliefs that are important to you. It may
mean giving more consideration to the evidence
that supports the arguments based on those beliefs,
so that you do justice to your point of view.

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan What is critical thinking? 11
 Barriers to critical thinking (3)

Mistaking information for Which barriers have an effect

understanding upon you?
Learning is a process that develops understanding On the table below, tick all those barriers that you
and insight. Many lecturers set activities to develop consider might be affecting your critical thinking
expertise in methods used within the discipline. abilities.
However, students can misunderstand the purpose
of such teaching methods, preferring facts and Barrier Has an
answers rather than learning the skills that help them effect?
to make well-founded judgements for themselves.
Misunderstanding what is meant
Cowell, Keeley, Shemberg and Zinnbauer (1995) by criticism
write about ‘students’ natural resistance to learning
to think critically’, which can mean acquiring Lack of methods and strategies
new learning behaviours. Cowell et al. outline the
problem through the following dialogue: Lack of practice
Student: ‘I want you (the expert) to give me answers Reluctance to criticise those with
to the questions; I want to know the right answer.’ more expertise
Teachers: ‘I want you to become critical thinkers,
which means I want you to challenge experts’ Affective reasons
answers and pursue your own answers through
active questioning. This means lots of hard work.’ Mistaking information for
understanding
If you feel that critical thinking is hard work at
Insufficient focus and attention
times, then you are right. There are lecturers who
to detail
would agree with you. However, if it wasn’t difficult,
you would not be developing your thinking skills
into new areas. In effect, you are developing your
‘mental muscle’ when you improve your critical Reflection Managing barriers
thinking skills.
Consider what you could do to manage these
barriers in the next few months.

Insufficient focus and attention to

detail
Critical thinking involves precision and accuracy and
this, in turn, requires good attention to detail. Poor
criticism can result from making judgements based
on too general an overview of the subject matter.
Critical thinking activities require focus on the exact
task in hand, rather than becoming distracted by
other interesting tangents.
When critically evaluating arguments, it is important
to remember that you can find an argument to be
good or effective even if you don’t agree with it.

12 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
 Critical thinking: Knowledge, skills and attitudes

Self-evaluation
For each of the following statements, rate your responses as outlined below.
Note that ‘strongly disagree’ carries no score.
4 = ‘strongly agree’  3 = ‘agree’  2 = ‘sort of agree’  1 = ‘disagree’  0 = ‘strongly disagree’
Rating 4–0
1 I feel comfortable pointing out potential weaknesses in the work of experts
2 I can remain focused on the exact requirements of an activity
3 I know the different meanings of the word ‘argument’ in critical thinking
4 I can analyse the structure of an argument
5 I can offer criticism without feeling this makes me a bad person
6 I know what is meant by a line of reasoning
7 I am aware of how my current beliefs might prejudice fair consideration of an issue
8 I am patient in identifying the line of reasoning in an argument
9 I am good at recognising the signals used to indicate stages in an argument
10 I find it easy to separate key points from other material
11 I am very patient in going over the facts in order to reach an accurate view
12 I am good at identifying unfair techniques used to persuade readers
13 I am good at reading between the lines
14 I find it easy to evaluate the evidence to support a point of view
15 I usually pay attention to small details
16 I find it easy to weigh up different points of view fairly
17 If I am not sure about something, I will research to find out more
18 I can present my own arguments clearly
19 I understand how to structure an argument
20 I can tell descriptive writing from analytical writing
21 I can spot inconsistencies in an argument easily
22 I am good at identifying patterns
23 I am aware of how my own up-bringing might prejudice fair consideration of an issue
24 I know how to evaluate source materials
25 I understand why ambiguous language is often used in research papers
Score out of 100

Interpreting your score

Going through the questionnaire may have raised some questions about what you know or don’t know
about critical thinking. The lower the score, the more likely you are to need to develop your critical thinking
skills. A score over 75 suggests you are very confident about your critical thinking ability. It is worth checking
this against objective feedback such as from your tutors or colleagues. If your score is less than 100, there is
still room for improvement! If your score is under 45 and remains so after completing the book, you may find
it helpful to speak to an academic counsellor, your tutor or a supervisor to root out the difficulty.

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan What is critical thinking? 13
 Priorities: Developing critical thinking abilities

 In column A, identify which aspects of critical thinking you want to know more about. Give a rating
between 5 and 0, giving 5 for ‘very important’ and 0 for ‘not important at all’.
 In column B, consider how essential it is that you develop this aspect soon. Give a rating between 5 and 0,
where 5 is ‘very essential’ and 0 is ‘not essential at all’.
 Add scores in columns A and B to gain an idea of where your priorities are likely to lie.
 Column D directs you where to look for more information on that point.

Aspects I want to develop A B C D

further Want to know How essential Priority score See Chapter
more? to develop it
now?
Rate from 0 to 5 Rate from 0 to 5 Add scores for
5 = ‘very 5 = ‘very columns
I want to: important’ essential’ A and B.
1 understand the benefits of 1
critical thinking
2 remain focused on the exact 2
requirements of an activity
3 pay better attention to small 2
details
4 know what is meant by a line of 3
reasoning
5 identify the component parts of 3
an argument for critical thinking
6 recognise the words used to 3 and 10
signal stages in an argument
7 distinguish argument from 4
disagreement
8 distinguish argument from 4
summaries, descriptions and
explanations
9 pick out the key points from 4
background information
10 be able to analyse the structure 5, 10
of an argument
11 evaluate whether arguments are 5
internally consistent
12 understand what is meant by an 5
intermediate conclusion
13 be able to structure an 5, 10 and 11
argument
14 be better at reading between 6
the lines
15 recognise underlying 6
assumptions
16 recognise when an argument is 6
based on false premises

14 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
 Aspects I want to develop A B C D
further Want to know How essential Priority score See Chapter
more? to develop it
now?
Rate from 0 to 5 Rate from 0 to 5 Add scores for
5 = ‘very 5 = ‘very columns
I want to: important’ essential’ A and B.
17 recognise implicit arguments 6
18 understand what is meant 6
by denoted and connoted
meanings
19 be aware of how cause, effect, 7
correlation and coincidence can
be confused
20 be able to check for ‘necessary 7
and sufficient conditions’
21 identify unfair techniques used 6, 7
to persuade readers
22 recognise tautology 7
23 recognise flawed reasoning 6 and 7
24 be able to evaluate source 1 and 8
materials
25 understand what is meant 8
by authenticity, validity, and
reliability
26 evaluate when samples are 8
representative
27 understand what is meant by 8
‘triangulation’
28 check for levels of probability 8
29 apply critical thinking when 9, 10
making notes
30 use language more effectively to 3, 10 and 11
structure argument
31 present my own arguments 10, 11
clearly in writing/for essays
32 be able to undertake 12
good critical reflection for
assignments or my job

Priorities for action

 Look back over the priorities table above. Identify the three aspects to which you gave the highest scores.
If more than three have the highest score, select three to start with.
 Write the three priorities here as actions starting with ‘I will . . .’, using words that are meaningful to you –
e.g. ‘I will find out what tautology means.’

1 I will
2 I will
3 I will

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan What is critical thinking? 15
 Summary
Critical thinking is a process that relies upon, and develops, a wide range of skills and personal qualities.
Like other forms of activity, it improves with practice and with a proper sense of what is required. For
some people, this may mean changing behaviours, such as paying attention to detail or taking a more
sceptical approach to what they see, hear and read. Some need to focus on developing critical thinking
techniques, and this is the main purpose of the book.
For others, weaknesses in critical thinking abilities may stem from attitudes to criticism, and anxiety
about potential consequences. Barriers associated with attitudinal and affective responses to critical
approaches were considered in this chapter. Sometimes, it is sufficient to become more aware of these
barriers, and to recognise the blocks to effective thinking, for the anxiety to subside. If you find that
these difficulties persist, it is worth speaking to a student counsellor about your concerns. They will
be familiar with such responses and may be able to help you to find a solution that fits your personal
circumstances.
Developing good critical thinking skills can take patience and application. On the other hand, the
rewards lie in improved abilities in making judgements, seeing more easily through flawed reasoning,
making choices from a more informed position and improving your ability to influence others.
Having undertaken an initial personal evaluation of your critical thinking skills, you may now wish to
follow up the priorities you identified. This is a particularly useful approach if you have already worked
on your critical thinking skills. If you are new to critical thinking, you may find it useful to progress
directly to Chapter 2 in order to test, and practise, your underlying thinking skills. Alternatively, proceed
now to Chapter 3 and work through the chapters in turn.

16 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
 Index

abstracts, using, 128 261, 263

academic writing, 54, 125, 127, 149, 162, 167, 168–9, dealing with evidence against, 183
172
see also essays; writing critically background information, necessary and unnecessary,
accuracy, 5, 6, 9, 54, 152, 166, 172 197, 244, 261, 262, 272
see also precision see also description
agreement, 52 barriers to critical thinking, 1, 10–12, 16
ambiguity, 8, 40 benefits of critical thinking skills, 4
analogies, 112–13, 122, 221, 275
analysis, critical, 1, 4, 8, 51, 54, 58, 60, 117, 155, 168 castle of cards, 116, 274
use analysis rather than description, 58, 205 categorising, 17, 19, 27–8, 151
when writing, 167–82, 184–86 grouping points, 169
see also argument, identifying; comparison; reasons and arguments, 165, 202
categorising; selection; evidence, evaluating; theories, 141, 150, 151, 165
selection cause and effect, 106–8, 121, 122, 274
argument, xii, 38, 52 citations 187; see references
arguments as reasons, 38 clarity in critical thinking, 64, 65, 168
contributing arguments, 38 close reading, 20, 29–31, 147
counter arguments, 59–60, 65, 117, 169, 175–6, comparisons, making, 18, 21, 24, 27, 112
183, 195, 201, 202, 203, 244, 245, 261, 263 complicity, with the reader, 114, 253, 254, 275
features, 37, 38, 40, 41, 47, 63, 240 conclusions, xii, 41, 46, 47
flawed arguments, 105, 106–21, 196 as deduction, 46, 74, 195
identifying arguments, 37, 41–3, 47, 51–61 evidence-based, 133–4, 195, 197, 201, 204, 261–4
implicit arguments, 85, 93, 103 interim see intermediate
and non-argument 51, 54–61, 62, intermediate, xii, 63, 71–2, 201, 202, 244, 245, 246,
overall argument, xii, 38, 262, 263, 264
and theoretical perspective, 149, 150; see also location of, 43, 45–7
structuring an argument logical conclusions, 74, 246, 264; see also deduction
‘winning’ an argument, 10 as reasons see conclusions, intermediate
assertions, xii as summaries, 46, 47, 60, 74, 82, 245, 246, 264
assumptions, 85–90, 99, 252, 253 supported by reasons, 244
ideological, 93, 103 tentative conclusions 179
implicit assumptions, 88–9 writing conclusions, 176–7, 180, 182, 186, 187, 196
unsupported, 93, 95, 106, 107, 112, 116, 273, 274 connoted meanings, 95–6, 98
used as reasons, 89–90, 100–1 consistency
attention, focusing, 1, 17, 23–6, 29, 34, 51 checking your own writing for, 205
to detail, 5, 12, 13–15, 17 internal, xii, 65–6, 79–80, 195, 197, 273–275
audience, ix, 168 logical, xii, 67–8
authenticity, 130, 146 contributing arguments see argument
author, x correlation, 107–8
author’s position, 38–9, 40, 49, 52, 63, 64, 65, 78, counter arguments, see argument
79–80, 112, 183, 195, 201, 202, 203, 244, 245, credible sources, 196

280 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan
critical reflection, see reflection interim conclusions see conclusions, intermediate
critical thinking intermediate conclusions see conclusions
in academic contexts, 7–9, 11, 12 introductions, for critical writing, 170, 184
as cognitive activity, 1
critical thinking – continued journal articles as evidence, 129
as process, 2, 16 notes from, 157
what is critical thinking, viii references from, 163
criticism judgements, making critical, 185, 226
of peers, 8–9
what is criticism, 2 key features of an argument see argument, features
currency, 131
latent messages, 96
deduction, 46, 47, 74 line of reasoning see reasoning
and unwarranted leaps, 116 literature searches, 128
deflection, of the reader, 114, 254, 273 on-line, 128, 245
denoted meanings, 95–6, 98 writing up, 172
description, 54, 60, 61, 195, 244, 262 see also primary source; secondary source
identifying background information, 42–3, 51, 58, logical conclusions, 74–5, 82
59, 60 logical order, xii, 63, 76–7, 78, 79, 83, 169, 195, 197,
difference, identifying, 24 201; see also sequencing
disagreement, 52, 53
distortions to argument, 195, 201, 205 misrepresentation, 119, 252, 273

emotion, and critical thinking, 1, 5, 11 necessary conditions, meeting, 109–11, 123–4, 252,
emotive language, 117, 196, 252, 253, 273 275
essays, 3, 172, 181–88, 229 non-sequitors, 88
see also academic writing; writing critically note-making, 147, 164
evidence, 125–46 to support reading, 153
evaluating the evidence, 3, 8, 9, 125, 127, 128, 129, selecting what to note, 158–61
144, 145, 165 structuring notes, 155–7
interpreting evidence, 6 why make notes, 153
reputable sources, 129 see also references, quotations
selecting evidence, 132–4
using supporting evidence, 195, 196–7, 201, 202, objectivity, 5
205, 244, 252, 253 opinion, 141
see also primary sources; secondary sources; out-groups, 114
triangulation
exclusion, 114 personal attacks, 9, 117, 252, 275
explanation, 55, 59, 60, 61 personal strategies, 6, 9, 12
extraneous material, 58 personality and critical thinking, 2
eye-witness testimony, 142 persuasion
and audience, 47, 52, 112, 167, 168
facts, 141, 205 through flawed argument; see also argument, flawed
false analogies, 112–13, 122, 253, 275 through reasons, 40, 47, 52
false correlations, 107–8 through latent methods, 85, 93, 99, 114
false premises, 42, 85, 91–2, 102, 254, 273 see also presenting an argument
features of an argument see argument plagiarism, 164, 188; see also references
flawed arguments see argument position, see author’s position
following directions, 19 precision, 5, 6, 8, 10, 65, 252, 272
frames of reference, 23 predicate, xii, 42, 91
premises, xiii, 42, 91
generalisations, 139, 196 see also false premises
presenting an argument, 2, 3, 4, 9, 14–15, 23, 52, 78
identifying arguments see arguments see also line of reasoning; persuasion; writing critically
influences on judgement, 6 primary sources, 125, 126, 142, 245, 262, 263, 264,
in-groups, 114 265, 276
priorities for developing critical thinking, 13–17

© Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan Index 281
probability, levels of, 137, 138, 139, 205 self-awareness and critical thinking, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10
professional life, and critical thinking, 4, 8, 17, 125, 210 see also barriers
propositions, xiii, 41, 42, 43, 47 self-evaluation, 4, 6, 10, 13–15, 18–22
sequencing, 18, 25–6
quotations, choosing, 154 in critical writing, 169
see quotations; references see also logical order
signal words, 4, 6, 167, 169, 173–8, 201–3, 245, 261,
reading 262, 263, 264
and accurate interpretation, 152, 166, 172 signposting, 169; see also line of reasoning; signal
close reading, 29–31, 152, 183 words
critically, 2, 4, 147, 183 similarities, recognising, 21
efficiently, 37, 51, 63, 147, 148, 152, 153 skills associate with critical thinking, 4, 5, 17
selectively, 151, 154 see also primary sources
see also note-making sleight of hand, 116, 254
reasoning, 3 stereotyping, 96–7, 104, 253, 273
line of reasoning, xii, 47, 52, 93, 120, 173–4, 178, structure of an argument, 63, 105, 167
197, 204 using intermediate conclusions, 71–2
see also logical order when writing, 168–9, 195, 196–7, 201, 204, 261
reasons, xiii, 3, 187, 193 see also signal words
and implicit assumptions, 89 substantive points, xiii
independent and joint, 69 sufficient conditions, meeting, 110–11, 123–4, 275
intermediate conclusions as reasons, 71–2 summary, 59–60
supporting the conclusion, xii, xiii, 42–3, 49–50, conclusions, 46
59–60, 67, 69, 71, 100–2, 109–10, 204 similarity to argument, 55
references, 172, 187–8, 204, 205 summarising the argument, 197, 204, 261
using other people’s, 127 synthesis, 186, 218
to other people’s work, 132, 154, 162–3, 172, 195,
200, 201 tautology, xiii, 120, 254, 272
poor referencing, 252, 253, 272, 274, 276 theoretical perspective, 149
see also quotations theory and argument, 150, 203
reflection and critical thinking, xi, 207 types of theory, 151
good and bad, 227–8 using when writing, 205
characteristics of, 208–9, 218 triangulation, 142, 143–4
experience, 208, 209, 227 two wrongs don’t make a right, 120
transformative role, 208, 209, 221
and theory, 209, 214, 215, 227, 229 unwarranted leaps, 116, 252, 254, 273
and professional practice, 210, 225–6
approaches to (methodology), 211–17 validity, 130
audience, 213, 215, 228 value judgements, 54
models of, 212, 215, 221–4 and own prejudices, 6, 13
confidentiality, 215 variables, 130
phases of reflection, 218–20 controlling for, 140, 146
relevance to the argument, 3, 4, 51, 133, 134, 195, vested interest, 40, 52, 131, 196, 202
201, 204, 262; see also selection
replication, 131 writing critically, 167, 188
reputable sources see evidence and audience, 86, 167, 168
research skills, 5, 7 characteristics of, 168–9
evaluating critical writing, 191–206, 239–76
salient characteristics, xiii, 27, 54 evaluating your own writing critically, 204–5, 206
samples introducing the line of reasoning, 173
representative, 135–6 setting the scene for the reader, 86, 167, 170–1, 189,
significance, 138–40 261
scepticism, 2, 9 signalling the direction of the argument, 174–8, 261
secondary sources, 126, 128, 129, 132, 244, 245, 261, tentative style, 179
262, 276 see also author’s position; consistency; line of
selection, 8, 132, 151, 158–61, 168 reasoning; signposting
see also relevance

282 Critical Thinking Skills © Stella Cottrell (2005, 2011) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave Macmillan