This very simplified calculation of the (conditionally taken) a standard-basic modern tran

For someone this might not appear logical, but in my opinion it is best to begin the proces

and also the peak value of output cuurent as:

To calculate the required supply voltage we have to assess the additional voltage drop at

and, of course, we will need equally that much in the positive rail, which means that the power

Taking into account all that we have calculated, we can choose the appropriate output tra
to be on a safe side we
should add at least another
30%, and therefore Uce
should be chosen to be at
least 90V.

Another important parameter

is determining what is the
dissipation of output
transistors. It is calculated
as follows:

and this is the dissipation of

each output transistor. It
must not be forgotten that
because of operation in AB
class, output devices are
passing some quiescent
current too, and since it is
rarely more than about
100mA and the voltage is
36V, we get additional
dissipation from that
quiescent current of some
3,6 W to be added to the 16.2
W and we can round total of
about 20W of dissipation per
transistor. With a large
selection of transistors that
are available today, it
shouldn't be difficult to find a
suitable output pair.

To determine the parameters of driver stage transistors T3 and T4 we must proceed from
and to be safe, we should use
transistors with at least two
times higher collector
current, let's say 250mA, and
even better to choose even
higher value which will not
be a problem for modern
driver transistors. For
maximum collector-emitter
voltage of the drivers we
should choose the same as
for the output transistors, ie
about 90V. Because they are
working on the same voltage
as the outputs, their
dissipation will be smaller
than dissipation of the
outputs transistor for
difference in currents they
are passing, that mean
reduced by the current gain
of output transistors.
Therefore:

Realistic, and in
practice frequently found
usual value of current gain of
the driver transistors is at
least 50, and knowing that
we can calculate base
currents of T3 and T4, which
is:
 This information
allows us to determine the
collector current of transistor
T5, which has the function of
a linear voltage amplifier
who works in class A. Class
of operation dictate us to set
a collector current of T5 so
that it is always in a linear
mode. To ensure this, and
having in mind the base
current of T3 and T4, we will
adopt 2-5 times higher
value... say 10mA. This
higher current is needed for
many reasons and especially
due to the fact that drivers
and output transistors,
together as a system, are not
the constant load for this
stage since the current gain
of the transistor changes
with the change of current
through them, and that
happens all the time when
amplifier is operating.

Collector current of T5 is comming from a constant current source with transistor T6 and

To enable T6 to work as a constant current source we have to keep its base on a constan

To assure constant voltage at their ends, in most low-power Zener diodes you have to p

Voltage across R4 will be 36V-2,1V = 33.9 V and with the current of 5mA, it will dissipat
to have just sufficient
voltage drop that is required
to start "opening" the
outputs. Value of that
voltage we can estimate
knowing that silicon
transistors needs about 0.7 V
higher (for NPN's) or lower
(for PNP's) potential than
their emitters. Because
emitters are connected to the
same point, output
transistors will have the total
voltage difference between
their bases of 2 x 0,7 V, i.e.
~1.4 V to begin to conduct.
In doing so we can
practically ignore the emitter
voltage drop over emitter
resistors R1 as the voltage
drop on them with just a
quiescent current passing
will be very small (about
10..30 mV) due to their low
resistance.
So, knowing that across R3
should be around 1.4 V and
taking into account quiescent
current of the driver pair
such as 4mA and all that is
going through R3, we can
calculate its value as:

Its value is rounded to the nearest standard value of 330ohms which will not significantl

And now let us deal with differential input stage with T7 and T8. The largest part (but no

To achieve the best possible performance, we should not go with too small collector cur

Taking into account that the collector currents of T7 and T8 are 1.2 mA each, we can calc

To calculate the resistance R8 starting point is the fact that it passes through the collect

In better - improved constructions, instead of R9 you will most often find some type of c
Base currents of T7 and T8 are very small but still shouldn�t produce any significant vo

The result of 1.15 k you can freely round to the nearest standard value which is 1.1k or 1

Capacitors C1 and C1a have a double role. For DC, they are infinitely large resistance an

If you pay attention to the scheme, you will see that the ground of the input signal, the

Now, let us see the role of transistor T9 and the related elements around it. This circuit

If we want to be able to completely stop any current flow through the output transistors

From this, we can now easily compute the value of R12= 5,7k-1,5k = 4,2k. We'll take the
significantly reduce the
possibility for oscillation and
instabilities when amp is
working with reactive loads.
Their values are usually 10
ohms and 100nF and as such
are in most schemes but it is
not because it is some kind
of a fashion, but because
these values are very real
and proven to be optimal in
practice. Coil "L" is used to
reduce or prevent negative
influence of Capacitive Loads
and its value in practice
ranges from about 1uH to
maximally 6uH. It should be
done with enameled copper
wire for transformers and
optimal thickness of about
1,2-1,5 mm. Quality factor
(Q-factor) of that coil should
be minimized as much as
possible to prevent it to form
some kind of resonant circuit
with various capacitances
(speaker cable capacitance,
wiring between the boards ...
and so on). Therefore, it
should always have attached
a resistor in parallel whose
resistance should not be
greater than few ohms (1-5
ohms).

This tutorial is
intended to be simple as
much as possible, adapted to
the level of knowledge and
understanding of young or
less experienced DIY
builders, and I hope it will
give them a sufficient basis
for the first steps alone.

Dr. Borivoje Jagodić

rd-basic modern transistor amplifier as is commonly seen today, originated from the desire to somehow help

t to begin the process starting from the output stage and working all the way to input. Some things we have t

ional voltage drop at R1, T2, T4, T5 and R5. For R1, T2 and T4 we can count to overall voltage drop of about 2

eans that the power supply on its output should provide + - 36V DC voltage with no load.

ppropriate output transistors. Knowing that the peak collector current is 3.5Amp, to be on a safe side we will
e must proceed from assumptions that the current gain of output transistors is 30 which is quite realistic and
with transistor T6 and adjacent components. That current passes through the collector-emitter junction of T6

its base on a constant voltage which will be independ of variation of supply voltage Ub, and that we are achie

diodes you have to pass at least about 5mA or more and that current passes also through the R4 and its value

f 5mA, it will dissipate 0.17 W and it is advisable to use at least a 1/2W resistor. T5 collector current is also p
h will not significantly disrupt anything except that the quiescent current of the drivers will be little higher an

e largest part (but not all!) distortions as well as "slew rate" parameter of this type of amplifier, depends to a

o small collector currents of T7 and T8. Often you will find designs where there are no resistors Re in emitter

mA each, we can calculate the value of R9 as:

es through the collector current of T7 which we set to 1.2 mA, and that current should create across R8 a volta

n find some type of constant current source (similar to a circuit with T6, Dz, R2 and R4) and instead of R8 the
ce any significant voltage drop across R6 and R10. These two resistors should have the same values and we t

lue which is 1.1k or 1.2 k for it in practice will make no difference. R11 should have the same value to void to

y large resistance and virtually insulating the lower end of R7 as if it�s not connected anywhere, and therefo

the input signal, the lower end of the R10 and the lower ends of C1 and C1a are all connected to the same poi

round it. This circuit is a characteristic of the transistor output stages and in foreign literature you'll find it un

he output transistors by turning RV preset, we have to bring voltage higher than some 0,6-0,7 V to the base o

= 4,2k. We'll take the nearest standard value of 4.3 k. If we ever move Rv slider all the way to the end connec
re to somehow help the young and less experienced DIY enthusiasts. The construction of such unit is not a "

ome things we have to assume as pre-seted, so let say we decided to build one amplifier working in class AB a

tage drop of about 2V. At the maximum negative amplitude of the collector voltages of T5 and R5 we can cou

n a safe side we will use transistors that have peak collector current at least two times higher, and there will
is quite realistic and even a modest value for today's output transistors. Assuming this value, we can calcula
mitter junction of T6 transistor and therefore it must pass through its emitter resistor R2 on which it creates

and that we are achieving with Zener diode in its base. Voltage of the Zener diode must be for the base-emitte

h the R4 and its value we can get as:

ctor current is also passing through its emitter resistor R5 and we will chose so that it creates a voltage drop
will be little higher and that could only benefit from that.

mplifier, depends to a great extent of this stage, so it pays to devote enough attention to it. Amplifier, which a

sistors Re in emitters and a collector current "set" in the 300-500uA range. It's much better to increase the c

eate across R8 a voltage drop equal to the sum of the voltage on the R5 and the base-emitter voltage of T5 an

and instead of R8 there will be so-called "current mirror", but those are further developments with more com
ame values and we take the arbitrary value of 22k for both, i.e. R6 = R10 = 22k. Ratio of the resistance of R6

ame value to void to significantly disturbe overall balance of differential pair. Input capacitor Cin serves prim

ywhere, and therefore for DC the amplifier has unity gain. For audio signal that is AC in nature, they have rela

cted to the same point. Truth is also that the lower end of the R4 and Cs as well as both electrolytic in the pos

ature you'll find it under the name "Vbe multiplier". It serves as a "sensor" for the temperature of the output

6-0,7 V to the base of T9. To be safe, let it be 0.75V. For that voltage to appear on the base of T9, we have to

ay to the end connected to base of T9, we will actually make a short circuit between the base and emitter of T
uch unit is not a "mystery", although it might seem like that for beginners. Amplifier model that was used as

orking in class AB and producing 50W average power on 8 ohm loads. You need to first determine the peak ou

and R5 we can count with about 1.5 V on each of them, i.e. together that is approximately 3V. Also, do not for

her, and there will suit those which have that parameter in the range of 7...10A. Maximum voltage between c
ue, we can calculate the maximum collector current of the drivers as:
n which it creates a voltage drop of 1.5 V, and value of R2 we can get from

for the base-emitter voltage of T6 higher than the voltage over R2 and is calculated as:

tes a voltage drop of 1.2 V and compute its value from:

 Amplifier, which as the input stage have a differential pair (or "Long Tail pair" as you will find in the literatur

er to increase the currents of T7 and T8 to for example 1.2 mA each, and introduce the so-called "emitter dege

er voltage of T5 and we can count R8 as:

nts with more complex solutions that really made improvements but are beyond the scope of this tutorial.
he resistance of R6 and R7 determines the voltage gain of the amplifier and we choose it to be around 20 and

or Cin serves primarily to prevent the introduction of any DC voltage that may exist on the output of some pre

ure, they have relatively little resistance, but which gradually rise up as the frequency goes lower. Since they

ectrolytic in the positive and negative rail of the power supply are also going to ground, BUT THOSE TWO GRO

ture of the output transistors and the purpose is to compensate-regulate quiescent current (BIAS) through th

of T9, we have to turn Rv slider completely on one end that is connected to the collector of the T5. At that po

se and emitter of T9, which will stop its conduction and its collector-emitter junction will behave as a very hig
l that was used as an example for this explanation is a "stripped" basic concept that is commonly seen today.

ermine the peak output voltage on the speaker as:

3V. Also, do not forget that most amplifiers are powered from unstabilised power supplies which will (even wh

voltage between collector and emitter of output transistor we have at the moment when the complementary
find in the literature on the Internet) work mostly with the use of voltage feedback, which is actually connect

alled "emitter degeneration" by inserting the resistor Re in their emitters whose practical value is around 20-

of this tutorial.
be around 20 and from that the value of R7 is calculated as:

output of some pre-stage which preceded this amp, because any additional DC would completely disrupt DC o

s lower. Since they are in series with R7, whose resistance determines the gain by the ratio to the resistance o

T THOSE TWO GROUNDS ARE NOT THE SAME POINT AND SAME COPPER TRACK ON THE PCB! The first is the so

(BIAS) through them, that would vary significantly during the operation if there is no circuit with T9. Bipolar

the T5. At that position Rv behaves as an ordinary resistor and knowing that it form a divider with R12, and t

ehave as a very high resistance. Because of that, voltage between the bases of T3 and T4 will be much higher
 monly seen today. It consists of the input differential pair, voltage amplification stage (VAS) in class A with a

which will (even when they are very generously dimensioned) have output voltage falling by at least 2-2.5 V a

e complementary transistor is inactive, is then:

is actually connected to one of inputs of the differential pair (as "inputs" we assume bases of the differential

alue is around 20-100 ohm (although you will occasionally find the values up to 330 ohms). Explanation of pu
 letely disrupt DC operating points of the entire amplifier. You should use highest quality capacitor there (pref

to the resistance of R6, for C1 you should use a value large enough to prevent drop of the gain of whole amp

! The first is the so-called "input signal ground� and it is connected with separate wire to the central groundi

uit with T9. Bipolar transistors have so-called "positive temperature coefficient," which simply means that the

der with R12, and total resistance of divider is 5.7 k, value of Rv we can calculate as:

will be much higher than necessary 2,8-2,9 V, which will in turn produce that the output transistors immediate
S) in class A with a constant current source, a complementary pair driver stage and complementary output st

y at least 2-2.5 V at full load. The sum of these voltages will give us the required negative half of the supply v
of the differential pair transistors) and this circuit is actually performing a comparison of input signals and sc

. Explanation of purpose and calculation of these resistors is beyond the scope of this simplified tutorials, and
pacitor there (preferably NOT an electrolytic) and its value shall not be less than 470nF to avoid loss of the lo

gain of whole amplifier on those low frequencies. Therefore, the C1 shouldn�t have a value of less than some

he central grounding point called �star ground�, which is usually between the two main large electrolytic ca

ply means that their collector current increases with warming, and that leads to further increase of the heat a

nsistors immediately begin to "draw" very high current, and probably blow of immediately! To prevent that, it
mentary output stage in the emitter-follower configuration. Once again I have to strongly highlight that the c

alf of the supply voltage (on standby), which will amount to:
nput signals and scaled down but faithful sample of output signals from amplifier speaker output and it practi

lified tutorials, and it is enough to know that their insertion in emitters significantly linearise operation of thi
 avoid loss of the lowest frequencies.

e of less than some 47-100uF in general, but in practice there is no need to go over 470-1000uF. Capacity of C

arge electrolytic capacitors in the power supply unit. The "other" ground of R4, Cs and so on, is also routed to

crease of the heat and that will very quickly lead to overheating and failure of the output devices. In order to "

To prevent that, it is better to use lower resistance value for Rv, for example something like 250 or 500 ohms
highlight that the calculation is very simplified, but for the beginning... for "getting started" it is quite usable
utput and it practically attempts to correct the differences that exist between those two signals. This differen

se operation of this stage and also significantly reduce distortion and additionally, differences in the characte
00uF. Capacity of C1a (usually around 100nF) does not contribute much to the overall capacity of the two cap

n, is also routed to the same point but with another-separate wire. This will reduce to a minimum the chances

vices. In order to "sense" the change of temperature, the transistor T9 is mounted so that it is in good therm

e 250 or 500 ohms, and in series with Rv (from his top side to the basis of T9) insert another resistor with su
" it is quite usable in practice because the calculated amplifier will certainly work if calculation and practical c
gnals. This difference is essentially a distortion that is created i.e. a sum of "errors" produced by all stages du

ces in the characteristics of T7 and T8 are less pronounced.

city of the two capacitors but it efficiently nullify possible inductive component of the electrolytic capacitor, w

nimum the chances of noise and hum in the operation of the amplifier.

it is in good thermal contact with a main heatsink in which the output transistors are mounted. Collector and

er resistor with such value to make up the difference to 1.5 k.

ion and practical construction are done correctly. That won't be a "High End" design, but honestly speaking, N
ed by all stages during the process of amplification because each one is adding a little "dirt" on the main sign
rolytic capacitor, which can affect the gain at high frequencies.

nted. Collector and emitter of T9 are connected to the bases of driver transistors and there should be a voltage
onestly speaking, NO ONE SHOULD START THE FIRST STEPS IN AUDIO ELECTRONIC WITH High-End! (Frankly
" on the main signal. Therefore, the differential input stage is also the error amplifier at the same time, so it i
should be a voltage difference of about 2.8 to 2.9 V between them to provide that output transistors are suffic
High-End! (Frankly, most people would like to make ultimate amplifier immediately ... but in that case they wi
e same time, so it is important to make sure that at least that stage contributes as little distortion as possible.
ansistors are sufficiently "open" to start conducting a quiescent current. As the main heatsink is heating more
n that case they will most likely start with disappointments, because for High-End one needs a lot of knowledg
tortion as possible.
ink is heating more and more during the operation of the amp, that change in temperature will be transferred
s a lot of knowledge and experience!).
will be transferred on T9 too, causing its internal resistance to drop which would cause a reduction in voltage
eduction in voltage between its collector and emitter (because it conduct more and more) and as the collector
nd as the collector and emitter of T9 are on bases of drivers, reducing the voltage between those bases. With
those bases. With reduction of the voltage between their bases, drivers will conduct less current and hat will
urrent and hat will cause equal process in output devices. In order to control the voltage between the collecto
etween the collector and emitter, T9 we have to set up a proper operating condition for that transistor, and th
t transistor, and that is done by insertion of preset Rv and resistor R12. Serial connection of the two resistors
f the two resistors is situated between the bases of T3 and T4 and we have seen that voltage between these t
ge between these two points should be about 2,8-2,9 V. In this circuit transistor T9, preset Rv and R12 passes
Rv and R12 passes all current that is going through transistor T5 which we have already said that it is 10mA.
id that it is 10mA. Through a serial link Rv and R12 should not pass more than about 1/20 of that total curren
of that total current of T5 which means about 0.5 mA and the total resistance Rv + R12 can be calculated as:
be calculated as: