Java

The Ultimate Guide to Learn Java Programming and

Computer Hacking (java for beginners, java for dummies,
java apps, hacking, how to hack, hacking exposed)


 Java
The Ultimate Guide to Learn Java Programming Fast
(Java for Beginners, Java for dummies, how to program,
java apps, java programming)


PETER HOFFMAN


CONTENTS

Introduction
Chapter 1 – Writing a Java Program
Software Types
Classes, Instances, and Objects
Project Creation
Main Class Creation
Writing the Package Statement
Writing the Class Declaration
Writing the Main Method
Writing the Program Output
Allowing User Input
Chapter 2 – Variables
Overview of Data Types
Creation of Variables
Data Type and User Input
Storing User Input into Another Variable
Chapter 3 – Operators
Summary in a Single Program
Conclusion


I think next books will also be interesting for you:
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Python

Javascript
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SQL


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Introduction

The company behind the Java programming language is the Sun Microsystems.
The language was initially introduced in the year 1991. It was developed by a
team of people consisting Mike Sheridan, Ed Frank, Chris Warth, Patrick
Naughton, and James Gosling. Due to its object-oriented nature, the Java
language can be reused with regards to data focus, classes creation, written
instructions, and the creation of both instances and objects.


The Four Java Platforms

There are four primary platforms in the Java programming language. They are as
follows:
Java Standard Edition (Java SE)
Java Enterprise Edition (Java EE)
Java Micro Edition (Java ME)
JavaFX

Java-based applications that were being used for computer software were
developed on the standard edition of Java. Java-based applications for web
servers were developed on the enterprise edition while Java-based applications
for multimedia platforms were developed on JavaFX. Most JavaFX-based
applications are what we usually call flash players. Lastly, Java-based
applications for mobile devices were developed on the micro edition Java
platform.


Tools for Beginners

In order to begin your journey to the world of Java programming, you need to
choose which IDE to use. IDE, also known as Integrated Development
Environment, serves as your workspace in writing Java applications. Imagine it
as your notepad in writing HTML codes. However, IDEs were specifically
designed for the Java language which means it features all the tools you might
need in Java development.

Here are the following IDEs that you can use:
BlueJ – this is an ideal IDE for beginners. You can easily navigate
due to its simplistic interface. It was also originally designed to
help beginners in familiarizing the primary concepts of the Java
language.

DrJava – this is a lightweight IDE. Similar to BlueJ, DrJava was
also designed for beginners. Although it features a simplistic user
interface, DrJava has enough tools that every advanced Java
developer can use as well.

Eclipse – one of the popular IDEs today, the Eclipse is an open
source platform with responsive navigation and design. Apparently,
it has the cleanest user interface compared to other IDEs in this list.

NetBeans – this is another popular IDE which is commonly used in
Java development nowadays. This is highly recommended for
beginners due to its fast and powerful tools that are compatible in
all platforms of the Java language.

Each IDE has a unique user interface and ease of navigation. Feel free to use any
IDE where you feel most comfortable with. Keep in mind that all of them use the
same language although they may appear to be different from one another.

Aside from Java IDEs, another tool you need to begin learning the Java
programming language is the JDK. JDK, which stands for the Java Development
Kit, serves as your computer’s interpreter and compiler for the Java language.
Without this, your computer will not be able to translate Java codes into the
universal machine language. All versions of JDK are available from the official
website of Oracle.

Take note that you need to choose the JDK version that is most appropriate to
your computer’s operating system to avoid future issues when compiling written
Java programs.


Misinterpretations

Before we proceed, I would like to clarify that the Java language is not related to
the JavaScript language. These are two different programming languages
whereas Java is used for the development of stand-alone applications. On the
other hand, the JavaScript language is an integrated language for web
development. It is used to assert functions that are not achievable through
HTML language alone.

This book is about the Java programming language and not about the JavaScript
language.










Chapter 1 – Writing a Java Program

Once you are done from choosing your preferred IDE and from downloading the
latest version of JDK, you now have the tools to begin programming using the
Java language. However, having the tools does not mean that you are already
prepared to jump into writing your very first Java application.

It is also important to understand the structure of a Java program – its primary
components and their components in the Java application.


Software Types

You can create two types of software using the Java programming language –
applets and applications.

Applets are smaller pieces of programming codes that were designed to run on
web browsers. We can consider the applets as smaller and lighter applications.
They are mainly used to provide either navigation enhancements or additional
interactivity to the browser. In contrast with stand-alone Java applications,
applets do not need any interpreter in order to execute.

Another type of software that you can develop through Java is a console
application. Console applications are stand-alone programs that run within a
console environment. All IDEs feature an integrated console environment in
order for you to test these kinds of programs. As a beginner, it is important for
you to learn console operations to have a good grasp on the basics of Java
language.

Classes, Instances, and Objects

The classes, instances, and objects are the three vital elements of a program
created using an object-oriented language such as the Java. In order to
understand these three, you need to first look at their relationship from one
another.

Classes are the highest and they cover everything in Java programming
language. Specific elements in a class are called Objects. Once you add the
additional specification to an Object, then it becomes an Instance.

In an analogy, for instance, let us say our class here is the animal. Under animal
class, we have different kinds of animals like dogs, cats, birds, and so on. These
are the objects under animal class. Under the category of dogs, we have different
breeds like poodles, golden retrievers, Labradors, and so on. These are the
instances of the object dogs.

Project Creation

The first step in writing your Java program is to start a new empty project in
your chosen IDE. You can do this by navigating through the top most toolbar as
follows: File -> New Project

After selecting New Project, a new window will appear where you will be able
to choose from a list of categories. Under the Categories list, select Java and then
select Java Application from the adjacent window panel. Afterward, click on the
Next button and you will be asked for the project name and the location where
you want to save your project.

Always remember the project name since you will be asked to go back to the
same project along the way.


Main Class Creation

After the creation of a new project, the IDE will automatically create both the
package and the main class. Packages, also known as source packages, serves as
folders where you can efficiently organize all assets of the Java project such as
classes and instances. Take note, however, that packages are simply identifiers
for the organization of assets. Consider them as folders in your computer where
you organize your files accordingly.

There should be a main class under the package. If the IDE did not automatically
create the main class, then you can create it by navigating on the main menu as
follows: File -> New File -> Java Class The main class has its vital role in a
Java program. The main method, which is what initially executed when opening
a Java program, is contained in the main class. In other programming languages,
the main method is known as the entry point.

Writing the Package Statement

Now that we already have the main class in our Java project, we are now ready
to write our first Java programming language line – the package statement. This
statement is an optional part of the program and is only introduced to you for
learning purposes. This is written using the following syntax: package [package
name]; The IDE will automatically look for the default package if this line is not
written. In other words, the package statement might come in handy if you are
working on a Java project with multiple packages. Keep in mind that package
name must match with the name of the package where the class you need
belongs to. Let us say, for instance, that the name of your package is
“javatestproject”. The syntax should look like this in your IDE:

1
2 project javatestproject;

3

Writing the Class Declaration

Next to the package statement is the class declaration. The syntax we need to
follow here is this: [access modifier] class [class name]

There are two kinds of access modifiers that you can use: public and private. The
private modifier prevents the other classes from accessing the declared class
while the public modifier allows other classes to access the declared class. For
the meantime, let us focus and use the public as our access modifier for our first
Java application.

Class name, as what the name suggests, is the name you designated to the main
class. Take note that the Java programming language is case sensitive so make
sure that you name of the main class with correct upper case and lower case
characters. Let us say that the name of our main class is “JavaTestProject”, then
this is what should we have right now:

1
2 package javatestproject;

3
4 public class JavaTestProject {

5
6 }

7

The open ( { ) and close ( } ) curly braces refer to the opening and closing of a
Java code block. This helps the program in determining where a certain block of
code begins and where it ends.

Writing the Main Method

Now that we are done declaring the class, it is now time to declare the main
method for our first program. In our main method, we will be using two
keywords: void and static.

The void keyword signals the Java Virtual Machine, also known as JVM, that
the program successfully ran and finished. The keyword static signals the
program that the field refers to the class and neither the objects nor the instances
in it. In other words, the program will be able to freely go through the class
without creating instances in that class. Due to the nature of the main method to
act as the program’s entry point, it is essential to declare it as static. Hence, our
syntax for the main method declaration should follow this format: [access
modifier] static void

However, this is not a complete declaration for the main method yet. We should
also add the parameter “main(String[] args)” to allow the program in executing
command-line arguments. And so, our final code for the main method should
look like this: public static void main(String[] args) If added to our line of codes
above, our IDE should look like this:

1
2 package javatestproject;

3
4 public class JavaTestProject {

5
6 public static void main(String[] args) {

7
 8 }

9
10 }

11

Writing the Program Output

As of now, you already covered the basic parts of our Java program.
Unfortunately, we are not yet telling the program what exactly it needs to do.

What we want for the program to execute is to deliver a message. This is what
we call as the Program Output or Output Stream. In order for the program to
deliver a message, we should use the following syntax:
System.out.print(“[message]”);

Instead of the parameter “print”, you may replace it with “println”. This will
print the output to a new line once executed. Hence, the alternative format
should look like this: System.out.println(“[message]”);

Let us now tell the program to print the statement “Java is Awesome!” using the
command line above. Our syntax should be like this: System.out.print(“Java is
Awesome!”);

And so, our IDE should look like this once we insert the output code:

1
2 package javatestproject;

3
4 public class JavaTestProject {

5
6 public static void main(String[] args) {

7
 8 System.out.print(“Java is Awesome!”);

9
10 }

11
12 }

13

Allowing User Input

The Java programming language allows you to let users communicate with the
program by sending inputs. We can do this by using the built-in class known as
the Scanner.

The Scanner class collects the user’s input from the computer’s keyboard. It
stores the collected data into variables that can also be executed in the program’s
output stream. In order to do this, we need to add the following lines right after
the package statement: import java.util.Scanner; This is an example of an import
statement which signals the program to import the Scanner class from the built-
in Java package known as java.util. This is where we add them in our IDE:

1
2 package javatestproject; 3 import java.util.Scanner;

4

This, however, does not do anything yet. We need to assign a variable name to
the scanner class first in order to call the scanner’s collected data into our output
stream. We can assign a variable name to the scanner class by using the
following statement: Scanner [variable name] = new Scanner(System.in); You
can assign any name to the variable. It is a common practice to start the name
with an uppercase character followed by lowercase characters. It is also a good
practice to separate words by using uppercase characters. Let us say that we
want to name our scanner variable as “userinput”. Instead of writing the entire
variable name in lowercases, replace the first letters of the words “user” and
“input” to uppercases. Hence, the statement will look like this: Scanner
UserInput = new Scanner(System.in); We should insert the statement within the
blocks of code after the declaration of the main method. Hence, our IDE should
be as follows:

1
 2 package javatestproject; 3 import java.util.Scanner;

4
5 class JavaTestProject {

6
7 public static void main(String[] args) {

8
9 Scanner UserInput = new Scanner(System.in);

10
11 }

12
13 }

14

With this set of Java codes, we are commanding the program to assign the user
input to the variable named as “UserInput”. Let us now tell the program to call
the input. As an example, let us try to ask the user’s name through our program
and let the program itself return the user’s name by delivering another output.
Our program should be following this schema: First Output -> Input -> Second
Output In order to create the first output, we will be using what we have learned
from writing an output. Let us ask the user’s name by asserting the following
statement above the scanner assigns variable name statement:
System.out.print(“What should we call you?”); Next, let us return the user’s
answer by calling the collected data into the second output. We can do that by
writing the second output below the scanner variable name statement. Our
second output should be: System.out.println(“Hello “+UserInput.nextLine());
With this, we can come up with our final Java program written as follows:

1
2 package javatestproject; 3 import java.util.Scanner;

4
5 class JavaTestProject {

6
7 public static void main(String[] args) {

8
9 System.out.print(“What should we call you?”); 10 Scanner
UserInput = new Scanner(System.in); 11 System.out.println(“Hello
“+UserInput.nextLine());

12
13 }

14
15 }

16





















Chapter 2 – Variables

Due to the introduction to the scanner class above, we are now familiar with
variables. However, the full potential of variables was still unknown to us.

Variables serve as containers of data. They allow us to call specific data in a
more convenient way. We can also create a new set of data using inconsistent
values through the use of variables. Most programming languages use variables
and developers were able to solve both arithmetic and logical operations through
them.

In order to utilize a variable, we need to declare it first and then assign a data
type upon its declaration. By doing so, the program will be able to recognize
what kind of value was stored inside a variable.


Overview of Data Types

There are different data types and we can use each type in various operations and
functions. Before we can learn how to assign a data type to a variable, it is
important to first familiarize ourselves with the data types. Here is a table of the
data types we can use for variables in the Java programming language and their
brief descriptions:

Data Type

Description

Boolean
This data type has only two possible values: true or
false.



 Byte
This data type has the tiniest range compared to all
number-based data types. Its value by default is 0
and it may store an 8-bit 2s integer.



 Character
This data type only stores a single character. By
default, the value will always be an empty space.



 Double
This data type can store numerical value of 64-bit
IEEE 754 and has a value of 0.0d by default. These
are numerical values that have decimal points.



 Float
This data type stores 32-bit IEEE 754 which is less
specific than the Double data type. By default, data
is set to 0.0f.




 Integer
This data type is the simplest way to handle
numerical values. When not specified, it will
automatically translate the value into 0. It does not
support decimal points which make it inefficient for
precise values.



 Long
This data type allows you to store numerical value
between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807. Its default value is 0.


 Short
This data type allows you to store a numerical value
between -32,768 to 32,767. By default, it is set to 0.


 String
This data stores alphanumeric values. Empty string
variables will give null values by default.



Creation of Variables

We need to write a declaration statement in order to create a variable for a
certain data type. Any name can be assigned to a variable which we will also use
when calling the stored data in the future block of codes.

Let us create a variable using the integer data type and let us name this variable
as “MyAge”. Our declaration syntax should be: int MyAge;

By default, the program will assign the zero value to the MyAge variable since
we did not specify an integer value. In order to assign a specific value inside the
MyAge variable, we will use the equal ( = ) operator sign. Let us say that we
want to assign the value 20 to the variable. Our syntax will now look like this:
int MyAge = 20;

The same goes with other data types. Here is the list of examples for each data
type when declaring them in our IDE: (Assigned variable name is “TestVar”)

Syntax Formula

 Example

Boolean [variable name] = Boolean TestVar = true;
[true or false];

byte [variable name] = byte TestVar = 0;
[numerical value];

char [variable name] = char TestVar = L;
[single character];

double [variable name] = double TestVar = 31.13d;
[numerical value].
[numerical value]d;

float [variable name] = float TestVar = 1.3f
[numerical value].
[numerical value]f;

int [variable name] = int TestVar = 5
[numerical value]


long [variable name] = long TestVar = 0L
[numerical value]


short [variable name] = short TestVar = 32000
[numerical value]


String [variable name] = String TestVar = null
[alphanumeric value]


Data Type and User Input

We already know that we can collect input data with the use of Scanner. Now,
we will use the Scanner class to collect other data types. In this example, we will
ask for a numerical value from the user and then ask the program to save the
value as an integer value.

Our first step is to tell the Scanner class that the value it needs to store is a value
of the integer data type. We can do it by changing the nextLine() parameter into
nextInt() parameter in our output.

Let us create a program where we will ask the year of birth of the user.
Afterward, let us return that value to the user as an integer data type. Our IDE
should be like this:

1
2 package javatestproject; 3 import java.util.Scanner;

4
 5 class JavaTestProject {

6
7 public static void main(String[] args) {

8
9 System.out.print(“What year were you born?”); 10 Scanner
BirthYear = new Scanner(System.in); 11 System.out.println(“You
were born in “+BirthYear.nextInt());

12
13 }

14
15 }

16

Storing User Input into Another Variable

When calling the Scanner class to collect data from user input, we create a
variable as well. In our Java program with regards to the birth year, for instance,
we have created a new variable named as “BirthYear” and we store the collected
data in it. The problem here is that we also write the parameter right after the
variable name when executing the Scanner class data in our program’s output.
This is too much hassle when you need to call the collected data in multiple
statements. Hence, we can store the entire syntax into another variable to
simplify our codes. Do this by declaring a variable while assigning the Scanner
syntax as the variable’s value.

Let us create another program where we calculate the user’s age five years from
now. This time, we will also store the Scanner call statement into another
variable. This is how it should look like:

1
2 package javatestproject; 3 import java.util.Scanner;

4
5 class JavaTestProject {

6
7 public static void main(String[] args) {

8
9 System.out.print(“How old are you?”); 10 Scanner UserAge
= new Scanner(System.in); 11 Age = UserAge.nextInt(); 12
System.out.println(“You will be “+(Age+5)+” five years from now”);

13
 13
14 }

15
16 }

17

From our example program, we stored the Scanner call statement into a new
variable which we named as “Age”. On the next line, we called the user
collected integer and wrote a simple arithmetic operation in order to provide how
old our users will be after five years from now. Notice that the mathematical
expression is enclosed in parentheses. Without the parentheses, the program will
connect the stored value in the Age variable with the numerical value 5 instead
of adding the two values together.

In addition to integers, you may also use the following parameters to look for
other types of data using the Scanner class call statement:
nextByte() for Byte data type values
nextShort() for Short data type values
nextLong() for Long data type values
nextFloat() for Float data type values
nextDouble() for Double data type values


























Chapter 3 – Operators

Since the first chapter, we have been using different operators and the most
common operator we have used is the assignment operator. It is defined by the
equal ( = ) sign and it signals the program to designate a certain value to a
variable.

Aside from the assignment operator, there are five other operators that you use to
manipulate data in the Java programming language. They are as follows and
their role as mathematical operators:
Operator for Addition which is represented by the plus sign ( + ). It
commands the program to give you the sum of multiple values.

Operator for Subtraction which is represented by the hyphen sign ( -
). It commands the program to give you the difference of multiple
values.

Operator for Multiplication which is represented by the asterisk sign
( * ). It commands the program to give you the product of multiples
values.

Operator for Division which is represented by the slash sign ( / ). It
commands the program to give you the quotient of multiple values.

Operator for Remainder which is represented by the percentage sign
( % ). It commands the program to divide two numerical values and
gives you the remainder of the numerical values.


Summary in a Single Program

The best way to familiarize with the operators is by creating a Java program
where we can use at least one of the mathematical operators. We will also
integrate what we have learned so far. In other words, we will also use the
Scanner class to collect data from the user and then execute an arithmetic
expression to provide efficient output back to the user.

In this program, we will ask the user to input two numerical values and we will
let the program to provide the sum of the numerical values. Let us begin writing
our Java program:

1
2 package javatestproject; 3 import java.util.Scanner;

4
5 class JavaTestProject {

6
7 public static void main(String[] args) {

8
 9 int Value1, Value2, Total; 10 System.out.print(“Please enter
the first value”); 11 Scanner FirstValue = next Scanner(System.in);
12 Value1 = FirstValue.nextInt(); 13 System.out.println(“Please
enter the second value”); 14 Scanner SecondValue = next
Scanner(System.in); 15 Value2 = SecondValue.nextInt(); 16
Total = Value1 + Value2; 17 System.out.println(“The total of the two
values is “+Total);

18
19 }

20
21 }

22

In this program, you will notice that we declared three variables as containers for
integer values. This was written on line 3 where we used the following syntax:
int Value1, Value2, Total; Because of this, we no longer need to enclose the two
variables inside the parentheses as we call them for a mathematical expression
on line 16.

We also allow users to enter two numerical values by using two Scanner call
statements. Then, we stored these values into two separate variables that added
to one another inside another variable. This way, we were able to call the sum of
the two values for our final output stream.








Conclusion

The Java programming language gives you unlimited tools to achieve different
operations. However, it is extremely important to get to know the IDE you chose
to use. Beginners should find which IDE they feel most comfortable working on.
Although all IDEs use a single programming language, each has its own unique
interface that might change your programming pace.

We also learned how to start a new project and the essential elements a project
needs such as the main class and the main method. Packages were also
introduced and although the package declaration is optional, we have learned
that declaring packages in our Java program will help us efficiently organize
multiple classes for bigger projects.

The main class and the main method may also contain access modifiers that will
allow the program in defining whether it should allow other classes in accessing
the statement or not. It is a general practice to use “Public” as the main class’s
access modifier.

Allowing the program to return a message as its output has also been discussed
in the first chapter of this book. You may use the keyword “print” as the simplest
form of the parameter or you may rather sign the Java program to show the
string in another line. This can be done with the use of the keyword “println”.

We also discussed how dull it is to have a one-way-only program where users
were not capable of sending an input. The Java programming language has an
answer to this by allowing you to use its built-in Scanner class which can be
found in the built-in local package known as java.util. The Scanner class allows
us to collect data entered by the user from their keyboard. This opened new
operations such as returning the user input as the program output.

The next chapter introduces variables and how do they bring out the full
potential of the Java programming language. We discussed the different data
types that we can store inside variables and how to call these data for our
program’s output. It is also important to remember that we can also store
variables into another variable for efficient programming later on.

Lastly, our last chapter discusses the different operators aside from the
assignment operator represented by the equal sign ( = ). In the end, we combined
everything we have learned to create a Java program which can solve a
mathematical equation based on user’s input.

At this point, I am confident that you already grasped the idea behind the Java
programming language as an object-oriented language. I personally congratulate
you for finishing this book and I am quite sure that you are now ready to move
forward to a more advanced method in Java programming.

Do not forget that you have only took a glimpse on what the Java language is
capable of. This book has a continuation where you will learn more advanced
techniques such as flow control, a deeper understanding of access modifiers, a
closer look to objects and classes, constructors, serials, and inheritance.

Consider this book as your big leap into the world of Java programming
language. Always remember that this programming language is fun to learn, yet
filled with tons of challenges ahead. Nevertheless, mastering the language will
open new opportunities to you such as being able to develop your own mobile
application. You may even end up developing a new stand-alone game that may
stand the test of time like Minecraft.

















Computer Hacking
The Essential Hacking Guide for Beginners

MATT BENTON

 Contents
Introduction – What is Hacking?
Chapter 1 – Hacking and the Influence of Cyberpunk Chapter 2 – The Different Types of Hackers
Chapter 3 – Computer Security
Chapter 4 – Hacking Techniques
Conclusion

Introduction – What is Hacking?

Hacking is the act of gaining unauthorized access to a computer system, and can
include viewing or copying data, or even creating new data. Often hacking is
understood to be a way of maliciously disrupting a computer system, copying
information, or leaving behind a virus that destroys data.

There are many different reasons why hacking takes place, and these reasons
range from wanting to disrupt a system due to ideology (so hacking as a means
of protesting); wanting to gain profit for example in order to commit credit card
fraud; or simply hacking for the sake of enjoyment and amusement.

There is some controversy about the definition of the word ‘hacker’ because
those that try to prevent such breaches in security from taking place, or seek to
recover lost files, can also be known as hackers. Thus, some people believe that
the correct term for malicious system security breaches is in fact ‘cracking’ and
that ‘hacking’ is the correct word to use for those who fight against such
malicious exploitation of computer weaknesses.

However, in the popular imagination and in general conversation, the word
‘hacker’ is mainly understood to refer to the ‘bad’ method of breaking through
computer security. The two processes share many common skills, as regardless
of motivation (whether to steal or protect, break in to or save, computer data) the
same understanding of computers is required.

Hacking is more than simply a pastime for those who are interested in
technology, and more than simply an illegal activity used for personal gain and
with malicious intent, although both of these motivations do make up much of
hacking activity. In fact, hacking is its own subculture, and members of the
community feel very strongly about their ideologies, techniques and social
relationships in the computer underworld.

There are many hacking groups and conventions, such as SummerCon, DEF
CON, HoHoCon, ShmooCon, BlackHat, Chaos Communication and Hacker
Halted, and local hacking communities take their entries into hacking
competitions very seriously. Unsurprisingly there are also numerous online
groups and forums dedicated to the subject of hacking, and there is certainly a
strong community spirit felt by those with similar hacking ideologies.

Furthermore, hackers are often passionate about literary depictions of the
hacking community, and ardently read fictional Cyberpunk and factual hacker
magazines.

This book will serve as an introduction to the world of hacking, and will provide
insight into some of the key influences, ideologies, groups, concepts, and
techniques of hacking.

The first chapter will consider the beginnings of hacking and the influence of the
literary genre, Cyberpunk. The second chapter will look at the different types of
hackers, and draw a distinction between ethical and unethical hacking. The third
chapter will look at the issue of computer security, which is vital to an
understanding of hacking.

The final chapter will provide an overview of the various different techniques for
hacking, including automated and manual approaches as well as the importance
of the cyber confidence trick known as social engineering.






Chapter 1 – Hacking and the Influence of Cyberpunk

Michael Bruce Sterling, the American science fiction author, helped establish the
popular genre of Cyberpunk. Cyberpunk is a subcategory of science fiction that
focuses on the role of technology in a future setting. In this literary and
cinematic genre, lower-class citizens are depicted, who have access to, and a
great understanding of, advanced technology.

Cyberpunk often explores the role of technology during the breakdown of social
order, in which there is an oppressive government restricting and damaging the
lives of the general population. Furthermore, artificial intelligence (such as
robots or intelligent computers) also plays a significant part in Cyberpunk
stories, and the Earth is depicted in the near future in a post-industrial dystopia
(the opposite of utopia, and therefore a bleak world characterized by oppression

and often social unrest.)

The impact of Cyberpunk in the present-day understanding of hacking is
considerable. Science fiction is particularly effective when we can recognize our
own world within the fictional representation, and with Cyberpunk we can
recognize many of the concerns of the contemporary technological age.
Lawrence Person (editor of the science fiction magazine Nova Express)
describes the typical characters in Cyberpunk: “Classic cyberpunk characters
were marginalized, alienated loners who lived on the edge of society in generally
dystropic futures where daily life was impacted by rapid technological change,
an ubiquitous data sphere of computerized information, and invasive
modification of the human body.”

To a contemporary reader, this description of Cyberpunk characters is
reminiscent of how hackers are thought of in the popular imagination, and
depicted in books and in films. Therefore, the interplay between Cyberpunk
characters and how we view real-life hackers is considerable: in many ways our
understanding of what a hacker is like is based on how Cyberpunk characters are
depicted in fiction. One example of this is how in Cyberpunk the characters
often live in filthy conditions, work at night and sleep all day, and do not have
any social life beyond chat rooms.

In the present-day imagination when we think of hackers we will often think of a
lonely adolescent boy sitting in a darkened room behind a computer screen. In
fact, Michael Bruce Sterling, who was one of the first science-fiction writers
who dealt with Cyberpunk, has also shown the most interest in understanding the
development of hacking.

Sterling has traced the emergence of hacking, and the associated underground
computer network, to the Yippies, a counterculture group who were active in the
1960s and published Technological Assistance Program, a newsletter that taught
its readership techniques for unauthorized access to telephones, known as
phreaking.

Many of the individuals who were involved in the phreaking community are also
an active part of the underground hacking community, suggesting that the
relationship between the two groups.







Chapter 2 – The Different Types of Hackers

The computer hacking underground contains various different subcategories of
hackers. This is mainly due to conflicting ideologies, whereby certain groups
calls themselves by a specific name, or call others a specific name, in order to
emphasize that they do not agree with the ideologies of others.

The generic word ‘hacker’ therefore, although referring

to those who have technical knowledge and are able to gain unauthorized access
to computer systems, is rather vague and does not distinguish between those who
use different methods or believe certain things.

Instead, separate names have emerged in order to distinguish between groups,
and to indicate that not all hackers follow the same rules or ideologies. One way
in which this can be seen, as discussed previously, is the distinction between
hackers and crackers, as advocated by Eric S. Raymond in The New Hacker’s
Dictionary.


In this book Raymond compiled a glossary of hackers’ computer programming
jargon, but those from the hacking community feel that this book is too biased
by Raymond’s own view of hacking as a malicious practice.

Rather than following the dichotomy of hacker/cracker that Raymond suggested,
the general hacking community feels that this is too reductive and instead
advocate a wider list of name to reflect the spectrum of beliefs and practices of
the large hacking community.

One subcategory of hackers is known as ‘white hat hackers’ and they break
through computer security without a malicious motivation. Examples of why this
might be done include doing so to test one’s own security effectiveness, or when
doing work developing computer security software.

These breaches of security can occur whilst performing vulnerability
assessments of computer software as part of a contractual agreement, and is
therefore legal. In this way, the slang term ‘white hat’ references an ethical
hacker who does so for positive reasons, in order to protect rather than destroy.
There are recognized organizations, such as The International Council of
Electronic Commerce Consultants, who provide training and certificates for this
area of ethical hacking.

On the other hand, there are ‘black hat hackers’

who breach computer security systems simply to be malicious, or to gain profit.
These hackers are the ones who are also sometimes referred to as crackers. This
subcategory form the cliché hackers who are often depicted in films and
television, and represent the elusive and little-understood computer criminal who
the public fears.


These types of hackers violate computer security in order to destroy, change or
steal information, or to prevent authorized users from being able to access the
system. In this way they can cause disruption, waste time, and cause distress, but
they can also steal significant amounts of money or access confidential
information.

Generally a black hat hacker will spend time looking for and discovering faults
in programs, or weaknesses in computer systems, but rather than alert the public
to these problems they exploit them for personal gain or simply for fun. Once
they have accessed a computer system, they can consequently make adjustments
that prevent somebody with authorized access from using the system and thus
the black hat hackers retain control.

Lying somewhere between the two, not quite a white hat hacker and not quite a
black hat hacker, is the gray hat hacker. This is somebody who without being
asked to searches the Internet for systems with a weakness or security flaw, and
will then notify the administrator and offer to rectify the problem for a fee.

In this way they are not as good as a white hat hacker (because they are
demanding a fee, and their services were never requested) but they are also not
as bad as a black hat hacker because they do not exploit these weaknesses in
order to wreak disruption of steal data. Another way in which gray hat hackers
might respond to their discovery of a security weakness is to publish their
findings online, so that the general public has access to the information.

In this way they are not performing malicious hacking themselves, but they are
publishing the information, which leaves their subject at risk of a security
breach. This type of hacking is illegal and also considered unethical, whether or
not the gray hat hacker has breached security for personal gain, because they
have gained unauthorized access to data and have left the system susceptible to
hacking by malicious blat hat hacker groups.

As well as these three main classifications for hacking, which differentiate
hackers based on their motivation and what they do about the information they
discover, there are various other specific types of hacker. There is a social
hierarchy amongst hackers, who are recognized based on their skill.

The highest of these statuses is the elite

hacker, and sometimes form into elite groups such as the ‘Masters of Deception.’
On the other end of the scale is a script kiddie, who is still learning and has not
yet developed their skills with breaching security systems. A script kiddie uses
automated tool written by others, and is therefore simply following a code
provided by a more skilled, black hat hacker, and not having to work it out
themselves. Usually a script kiddie does not really have any knowledge or
understanding of the complicated underlying technological concepts, and simply
follows a plan provided by a more experienced hacker.

Even less experience than a script kiddie is a neophyte, who is a completely new
hacker who has very little knowledge of computer technologies or the logic and
concepts behind hacking. A blue hat refers to somebody who is used by
computer security consulting firms but is not actually a part of the company; the
blue hat is used to test a system prior to its launch to determine whether it has
sufficient security or will be susceptible to hacking.

A hacktivist (a combination of the words ‘hacker’ and ‘activist’) is a hacker who
uses their knowledge of technology and their hacking skills in order to broadcast
a political, social or religious message. Hacktivism itself has two subcategories:
cyber terrorism (where websites are damaged or services cannot be accessed)
and freedom of information (making information available to the public that was
previously either undisclosed or stored in an encrypted format.) Groups of
hackers working collectively can include organized criminal gangs, and cyber
warfare of nation states. The different subcategories of hackers are indicative of
the various ideologies, motivations and techniques that are present in the hacking
community.




































Chapter 3 – Computer Security

Before we can begin to explore the key concepts and techniques of hacking, it is
helpful to first understand the basics of computer security. As hacking is the act
of breaking through security measures of computer systems, an understanding of
these systems is vital to any hacker who hopes to penetrate them. Computer
security is applied to computers, smartphones, computer networks (public and
private) and the entire Internet in order to protect devices, data and services.

Digital equipment is protected from

unauthorized access by computer security, to ensure that data is not stolen,
changed or deleted and to maintain the smooth running of systems. In present-
day society, where digital culture forever growing, protecting these systems is
extremely important and thus the field of computer security is forever growing
and developing. Part of computer security is protecting the physical equipment
from theft, whereas the other part of computer security is information security, to
protect the data itself (and this is where hacking comes into play.) However,
sometimes these two fields overlap because if there is a breach in physical
security (e.g. if a laptop is stolen) then it becomes much easier for the individual
to succeed in a breach of information security, since they have the piece of
equipment and it is therefore easier to access data than it is remotely.
Cyber security encompasses all security measures in place to protect a
computer’s data, and includes procedures such as awareness training, penetration
testing, and the use of passwords to confirm authorization in order to protect data
both when it is in transit and when it is simply being stored. The financial cost of
being a victim of a computer security breach is considerable and as a
consequence there is a lucrative market for anti-virus and computer security
protection.

Computer security is a huge field because of our present-day reliance on
technology. Almost every industry uses computers to a greater or lesser extent,
and therefore the extent and variety of computer security measures is vast. There
are some areas, however, where computer security is particularly important
because they are especially vulnerable to breaches in security.

One of these is the area of financial systems, because hackers can make a profit
by stealing data and consequently accessing funds. Any website that requires
somebody to enter their credit card numbers are often targeted because a hacker
can immediately transfer money to their own account, or spend the victim’s
money online.

Even if the hacker themselves do not directly use the person’s bank details, they
may also sell the information illegally, in order to distance themselves from the
crime and attempt to avoid being caught. It is not only online that a person’s data
can be stolen; in-store card machines and cash points can also be rigged to
collect personal information and thus gain access to funds.


People are becoming increasingly aware of this risk when doing online shopping
or entering their card details, and therefore various measures are being put in
place including using passwords and answering security questions. The aviation
industry is another field in which computer security is of the upmost importance,
because the consequences of a breach in security can range from the publication
of confidential information, to the loss of expensive equipment and human life.

There are various reasons why the aviation

industry may become subject to a computer security attack, depending on the
motivation for the crime. These motivations include sabotage and espionage in
the military aviation industry, and industrial competition and terrorism in the
commercial aviation industry. Air traffic control is one of the aviation industries
most vulnerable systems, because any attack can be difficult to trace, and are
relatively simple because it only requires a spoof message on the radio.

There are those who seek to exploit computer vulnerabilities (either due to thrill
seeking, to make a political/social statement or for financial gain) and of course
on the other side those who work to uphold computer security again such threats.
Somebody with knowledge of technology, and the ability to hack into computer
systems, can therefore either become involved in the illegal and unethical form
of hacking (otherwise known as cracking), or serve the other side by identifying
threats, improving security measures and alerting companies to the
vulnerabilities in their systems.

For those whose aim is to protect computer security, there are various
countermeasures to guard against damaging hacking, whereby the risk of being
vulnerable to a breach of computer security can be minimized or eliminated.
These precautions vary in cost and complexity, but can include: intrusion
detection systems (to detect threats and also analyze attacks after the event), the
use of account controls (passwords and encryption of data); and the installation
of firewalls (providing either hardware or software package filtering of certain
forms of attack.

Precautions against a computer system being compromised by attack include
making steps to prevent attack, ensure any potential attacks are detected, and the
ability to respond to an attack to prevent further damage.

However, despite there being a range of countermeasures available, computer
systems still remain vulnerable to attack and it is certainly not uncommon for a
computer to have its security compromised. The first reason why attempted
security violations still occur is that the police are often unfamiliar with
computer technology and as a result do not have either the skill or the inclination
to solve the crimes and apprehend the criminals responsible.

Furthermore, any investigation of such

matters requires a search warrant in order for an officer to examine the entire
network and this can make the procedure extremely time consuming. Another
difficulty in ensuring computer security is that in the age of globalization, in
which information can be shared throughout the world using the internet, and
technology can spread data extremely easily, identifying and apprehending those
responsible is particularly difficult.

The reason for this difficulty is that a hacker might be working from one
jurisdiction, while the system they are hacking into is in a different jurisdiction.
Furthermore, a hacker can use various techniques (such as a temporary dial-up
internet) in order to ensure their anonymity. The third problem is due to the high
number of attacks that occur.

Organizations can be subject to many attacks and therefore are unable to pursue
every security threat. A computer user would benefit from taking precautionary
measures in order to ensure their computer security, as once a breach of security
has occurred there is not much that can be done to rectify it.





















Chapter 4 – Hacking Techniques

There are various techniques that can be used by hackers in order to gain
unauthorized access to a computer system, in order to wreak havoc, steal money
or data, or to prevent the system from operating as it is supposed to. The three
main methods that are used in order to attack a system that is connected to the
Internet are: network enumeration, vulnerability analysis and exploitation.

A network enumerator is a program that is used in

order to discover the usernames and other information from networked
computers. The program discovers any weaknesses in the computer network’s
security and the findings are reported to a hacker who may then use this
information in order to access the network and cause damage (either by stealing
data or corrupting the network.) On the other hand, ethical hackers can use the
same process simply to discover any weaknesses in their system in order to
tighten security. Another method used is vulnerability analysis, which identifies
any points of vulnerability in a system; this information can then be used to
either attack the system, or to remove the weakness. Vulnerability analysis can
then lead to exploitation, where the hacker uses the vulnerability information in
order to breach a computer or system’s security.

There are many specific techniques that can be used, but they all employ the
main concepts and methods described above. The first more specific example of
a hacking technique is a vulnerability scanner, which is a program used to check
a network for susceptibility to attack. A port scanner can also be used, which
identifies avenues of access to a computer and can establish how to
circumnavigate a firewall.

As well as these mechanized devices, hackers can also find these vulnerabilities
themselves, which can be done by manually searching the code of the computer
and then testing whether they are right. Brute-force attack is another method by
which a hacker can gain unauthorized entry to a computer network, and this
involves for example guessing passwords. Password cracking is another hacking
technique that uses passwords, but rather than guessing the password, the hacker
recovers password information that has been stored in the computer, or
transmitted.

A spoofing attack (otherwise

known as phishing) is an enemy program, system or website that poses as a
trusted one. By falsifying data the hacker is able to masquerade as a trusted
system and thus fool a program or user into revealing confidential information
such as passwords or bank details. Another hacking technique that is commonly
used is a root kit, which is a program that manages to take over the control of an
operating system by employing hard to detect methods.

A Trojan horse is yet another technique that is a program which manages to fool
systems and users; it works by working in one way while seeming to be doing
something else. By using this method a hacker is able to gain unauthorized
access to a system and create an access point so that they can re-enter via that
established route later on. A computer virus is the most widely recognized form
of hacking, as it is the computer threat that most of the public is aware of.

The virus works by self-replicating and implanting itself into documents and
code; while some computer viruses are malicious some are merely irritating or
harmless. A computer worm is similar in that it is self-replicating, but it is able
to enter a computer program without a user inadvertently letting it in, and it does
not need to insert itself into present programs.

Finally, a keylogger is a tool that records every keystroke on a given machine,
which can later be accessed and viewed by the hacker. This is usually to enable
the hacker to access confidential information that has been typed by the victim.
In fact, there are some legitimate uses for such a technique, for example some
companies use a keylogger in order to detect any dishonesty or fraud committed
by an employee.

A large area of computer hacking

involves the use of social engineering, whereby in order to circumvent
information security a person is manipulated in order to reveal confidential
information or to grant access to secure networks. This technique (which
includes phishing) is usually only part of a complex routine in a wider fraud
scheme, but it is also a dangerous step because human beings are more likely to
be won over by a convincing trickster than a machine is.

Social engineering relies on the psychological act of decision-making, and can
be thought of as one of the most significant vulnerabilities in a computer security
system. There are many different ways in which social engineering can be
applied in order to gain unauthorized access to a computer system, and this
includes criminals posing as IT technicians who pretend that they are fixing the
company computers whilst in fact stealing data.

Another example would be a trickster informing a company that the number of
the IT helpdesk has changed, so that when employees phone the number they
will willingly disclose their account details thinking that they are talking to
somebody who they can trust with the information. These sorts of scenarios
come under the category of ‘pretexting’ because making up a believable scenario
allows the criminal to access the required information and this leads the victim
to disclose the information.

Other professionals that a hacker involved in social

engineering could pose as include the police or bank manager, because these are
individuals who we believe have the right to be granted any information that
they request. Baiting is a subcategory of social engineering because it relies on
human psychology in order to work. Baiting is where a victim’s computer
security is compromised when an infected disk, device or USB stick is used.

An example of baiting would be for the criminal to post a USB through
somebody’s door with a tempting sounding label and simply wait for the curious
victim to plug it into their laptop, at which point malware would automatically
install and infect their computer. This technique makes the most of the human
tendency towards curiosity and greed, because if a label promises erotic images,
money or gossip then a victim may find it hard to resist taking a look.

Kevin Mitnick, a once computer criminal who later because a security
consultant, has pointed out that it is much easier and quicker to trick a person
into disclosing confidential information than it is to crack into the system using
luck, brute force or technical knowledge. Christopher Hadnagy has written a
book titled Social Engineering: The Art of Human Hacking, which emphasizes
the way in which humans are the most vulnerable part of any computer system.


































Conclusion

This book has provided an overview of some of the key concepts to do with
hacking. We have considered the beginnings of hacking and how it was
influenced by the literary tradition of Cyberpunk. It is interesting to note that
what was once depicted in science-fiction as an imagined activity in a dystopian
society has become real and has gone on to pose a significant threat to computer
security and a central concern of information technology experts.

Here we can see the true beginnings of hacking and how what was once a
fictional theoretical concept has become a reality with a significant impact on the
digital culture. Next we looked at the different types of hackers and noted the
distinction between ethical hackers, who perform hacking legally and in order to
improve computer security (otherwise known as white hat hackers) and unethical
hackers, who use their skills illegally in order to wreak havoc, disrupt services,
and steal information and data (otherwise known as black hat hackers.) With this
it is interesting to note how technical skill can be used differently depending on
motivation, and how the hacking community is not united by a clear and
consistent ideology. Subsequently we looked at computer security in order to
better understand the conditions within which hacking takes place. By learning
about computer security it is possible to understand the challenges faced by
hackers who come up against security measures, as well as the challenges faced
by those seeking to maintain the security of their computer systems.

Any introduction to hacking would not be complete without this examination of
computer security because the value of maintaining computer security is what
motivates ethical hackers, and what unethical hackers are fighting against.
Finally we looked at the numerous different hacking techniques that can be
utilized, including both automated software that finds and exploits vulnerabilities
in computer systems, as well as manual methods for breaking through security
measures such as discovering a password through trial and error.

In this chapter we also considered the vast area of hacking that is social
engineering, by which a hacker is able to access a secure network by illegally
obtaining the information needed. In today’s digital culture we are becoming
increasingly reliant on technology for everything that we do.

As technology has improved our lives have become easier in many ways, but
with this blossoming industry new types of criminals have also been created. A
criminal does now not even need to leave the house in order to steal money, but
can do so simply by hacking into their victim’s computer and accessing
confidential data.

Hacking is not always illegal though, and this book has also looked at the ways
in which there is an increasing demand for computer experts to become ethical
hackers in order to further promote and protect computer security. This
introduction to the world of hacking has revealed that hacking is not a simple
activity but a huge spectrum of different behaviors that involve a wide range of
techniques and motivations.

Moreover, hacking is shown to be an activity that has a strong sense of cult
affiliation, in the sense that hackers strongly feel part of the hacking community.
As digital culture continues to grow, it seems that both ethical and unethical
hacking will become more and more skilled and its impact evermore significant.


Thank you for reading. I hope you enjoy it. I ask you to leave your
honest feedback.