History

•  Introduced by Dr. Walter Shewhart in 1931

Control Charts •  Originally for industrial manufacturing processes

•  For suddenly occurring changes and for slow but

Collated by
Prof. Jerom constant worsening of the quality
e Alvarez

SPC or Control Charts Control Chart

•  SPC does not refer to a parGcular technique, •  The control chart is a staGsGcal quality control tool used
algorithm or procedure in the monitoring variaGon in the characterisGcs of a
product or service.
•  SPC is an op)misa)on philosophy concerned
with con)nuous process improvements, using
a collecGon of (staGsGcal) tools for •  Contains a reference or opGmum target value, an upper
control limit, and a lower control limit.
–  data and process analysis
–  making inferences about process behaviour
–  decision making •  Control charts are parGcularly useful for monitoring
•  Control charts provide a graphical means for quality and giving early warnings that a process may be
going “Out of Control” and on its way to producing
tesGng hypotheses about the data being
defecGve parts.
monitored.

Control Chart funcGons Major Lines in a Control Chart

•  A decision-making tool, not a soluGon tool. •  Centerline (CL)
Improves producGvity –  shows where the “process average” is centered or
•  Data collected from a control chart may form the central tendency of the data
the basis for process improvement. •  Upper control limit (UCL) and Lower control
•  Control charts are helpful in understanding limit (LCL)
the performance of a process over Gme. –  UCL: MulGply the Standard deviaGon by three. Then add
that value to the Average Value.
•  Makes defects visible –  LCL: MulGply the Standard deviaGon by three. Then
–  Determine rate of nonconforming products subtract that value from the Average Value.
–  Detects when a deviation from process stability has occurred

1
 Control Chart General Formula Process Control Charts
•  UCL = Process Average + 3 Standard DeviaGons Control Charts show sample data ploYed on a graph with Center Line
(CL), Upper Control Limit (UCL), and Lower Control Limit (LCL).
•  LCL = Process Average - 3 Standard DeviaGons
X
UCL

+ 3σ
Process Average

- 3σ
LCL

TIME

Example: How does the control

Suppose we specify a dimension chart relate to the tolerances?
and tolerance as shown.
Assigned Tolerances

2.50±0.05
2.45 2.55

Questions:
- What does the X control chart look like?
µ-3σ µ+3σ
- How does control chart relate to the tolerances? Measured Variation

±6 Sigma vs. ± 3 Sigma 3 Sigma Capability

•  Mean output +/- 3 standard deviaGons fall
within the design specificaGon
•  It means that 0.26% of output falls outside the
design specificaGon and is unacceptable.
•  The result: a 3-sigma capable process
produces 2600 defects for every million units
produced

2
 6 Sigma Capability Sources of VariaGons
•  Six sigma capability assumes the process is capable •  Common causes of varia4on
of producing output where the mean +/- 6 standard –  Random causes that we cannot
idenGfy
deviaGons fall within the design specificaGons –  Unavoidable
•  The result: only 3.4 defects for every million –  Cause slight differences in process
variables like diameter, weight,
produced service Gme, temperature, etc.
•  Six sigma capability means smaller variaGon and •  Assignable causes of
therefore higher quality varia4on
–  Causes can be idenGfied and
eliminated
–  Typical causes are poor employee
training, worn tool, machine
needing repair, etc.

Common Causes/ Natural VariaGons Assignable VariaGons

þ  Affect virtually all production processes
þ  Also called special causes of variation
þ  Expected amount of variation
þ  Variations that can be traced to a specific
þ  Output measures follow a probability
reason
distribution
þ  The objective is to discover when assignable
þ  For any distribution there is a measure of
causes are present
central tendency and dispersion
þ  Eliminate the bad causes
þ  If the distribution of outputs falls within
þ  Incorporate the good causes
acceptable limits, the process is said to be
“in control”

VariaGons Control Charts Limits

X X X •  Warning / acGon limits
–  95.5% of the data are in µ ± 2σ
–  99.7% are in µ ± 3σ
•  x
± 2s is taken as warning limits
•  x
± 3s is taken as acGon limit

Common Cause Special Cause Variation: Downward Pattern: no

Variation: no points two points outside control points outside control
outside control limit limit limit; however, eight or
more points in trend

3
 Warning Limits Ac4on Limits
•  (100-95.5) 4.5% of the (correct) values are •  There is a probability of only (100-99.7) 0.3 %
outside the warning limits. that a (correct) measurement is outside the
•  This is not very unlikely. acGon limits (3 out of 1000 measurements)
•  Therefore this is only for warning, no •  Therefore the process should be stopped
immediate acGon required. immediately and searched for errors

Process is OUT of control if:

Process is IN control if:
•  The sample points fall between the control •  One or mulGple points outside of control
limits limits (±3σ)
•  There are no major trends forming, i.e.. The •  7 consecuGve points on one side of center line
points vary, both above and below the (above or below the average value)
average value. •  2 of 3 consecuGve points outside the 2σ limits
•  4 of 5 points outside the 1 σ limits
•  7 consecuGve points trending up or down

Out-of-control Situa4on 1 Out-of-control Situa4on 2

•  2 of 3 successive values outside the
•  Suddenly deviaGng value, outside the acGon limits

warning limits
concentration concentration

upper action limit upper action limit

upper warning limit upper warning limit

target value target value

lower warning limit lower warning limit

lower action limit lower action limit

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 Out-of-control Situa4on 3 Out-of-control Situa4on 4
•  7 successive values on one side of the •  7 successive increasing or decreasing values
central line Not so criGcal as 1 and 2 Not so criGcal as 1 and 2
concentration concentration

upper action limit upper action limit

upper warning limit upper warning limit

target value target value

lower warning limit lower warning limit

lower action limit lower action limit

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Review: Types of Data Types of Control Charts
Variables Attributes
•  Control chart for variables are used to monitor
þ  Characteristics that can þ  Defect-related characteristics
take any real value
characterisGcs that can be measured, e.g. length,
þ  Classify products as either weight, height, speed, volume, diameter, Gme, etc.
þ  May be in whole or in good or bad or count defects
fractional numbers þ  Categorical or discrete

þ  Continuous random random variables •  Control charts for aAributes are used to monitor
variables þ  Items are either good or bad, characterisGcs that have discrete values and can be
þ  Measures dimensions such acceptable or unacceptable counted, e.g. % defecGve, number of flaws in a
as weight, speed, height, or þ  Does not address degree of shirt, number of broken eggs in a box, etc.
strength
failure
þ  Falls within an acceptable
range

Types of Control Charts Control Charts for Variables

•  Variables are the measurable characterisGcs
Variables AAributes of a product or service such as (e.g. weight, height,
Average value in a speed, volume, etc.)
X charts p ProporGon DefecGve
process

Number of DefecGve or
R Range of the values np
Number non-conforming •  Variables control charts are typically used
Number nonconforming
used in pairs.…… one chart monitors process
MA Moving Average c in a consistent sample average while the other monitors the
space
Average number of
variaGon in a process.
MR Moving Range u defects in each sample
set.

5
 Control Charts for Variables Control Charts for Variables
•  Mean (x-bar) charts
•  The salt content, thickness, or crispness of a bag of –  Tracks the central
potato chips. tendency (the average
•  The number of chocolate chips in a container of value observed) over
chocolate-chip ice cream. Gme or locaGon effects
•  The diameter of a bearing, or the center of a gear. •  Range (R) charts:
•  The waiGng Gme at a fast-food restaurant or at an –  Tracks the spread of the
airport check-in counter. distribuGon or dispersion
•  The internal temperature of a “rare” steak when it over Gme (esGmates the
leaves a restaurant’s kitchen. observed variaGon)

31

Mean and Range Charts Mean and Range Charts

(a) (b)
These (Sampling mean is These
sampling shifting upward but sampling (Sampling mean
distributions range is consistent) distributions is constant but
dispersion is
result in the result in the
charts below charts below increasing)

UCL UCL
(x-chart detects (x-chart does not
x-chart shift in central x-chart detect the increase
tendency) in dispersion)
LCL LCL
UCL UCL
(R-chart does not (R-chart detects
R-chart detect change in R-chart increase in
mean) dispersion)
LCL LCL

Central Limit Theorem X-chart

Regardless of the distribution of the population, •  Synonyms are X-control chart, mean control chart
the distribution of sample means drawn from or average control chart
the population will tend to follow a normal curve
•  Original Shewhart-chart with single values
•  Used mainly for precision check
1.  The mean of the sampling
distribution (x) will be the same as x=µ
the population mean µ
2.  The standard deviation of the
sampling distribution (σx) will equal σ
σx =
the population standard deviation n
(σ) divided by the square root of the
sample size, n

6
 X-chart Formula Mean chart Example 1
For x-Charts when we know σ
A quality control inspector at the Cocoa Fizz son drink company has taken
Upper control limit (UCL) = x + zσx samples with four observa4ons each of the volume of boYles filled. If the
standard devia4on of the boYling operaGon is .2 ounces, use the data
Lower control limit (LCL) = x - zσx below to develop control charts with limits of 3 standard deviaGons for the
16 oz. boYling operaGon.
where x = mean of the sample means or a target
value set for the process
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3
z = number of normal standard deviations Observation 1 15.8 16.1 16.0
(2 for 95.5% confidence, 3 for 99.73%) Observation 2 16.0 16.0 15.9
σ = population, system, or process deviation Observation 3 15.8 15.8 15.9
σx = standard deviation of the sample means
Observation 4 15.9 15.9 15.8
= σ/ n
n = sample size

Step 1: Step 2: Calculate the Standard DeviaGon of

Calculate the Mean of Each Sample the Sample Mean

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

Observation 1 15.8 16.1 16.0 σ ⎛ .2 ⎞
Observation 2 16.0 16.0 15.9 σx = = ⎜ ⎟ = .1
Observation 3 15.8 15.8 15.9 n ⎝ 4⎠
Observation 4 15.9 15.9 15.8

Sample means 15.875 15.975 15.9

(X-bar)

Step 3: Calculate CL, UCL, LCL Step 4: Draw the Chart

n  Center line (x-double bar):

15.875 + 15.975 + 15.9

x = = 15.92
3
n  Control limits for ±3σ limits (z = 3):

UCLx = x + zσ x = 15.92 + 3 (.1) = 16.22

LCLx = x − zσ x = 15.92 − 3 (.1) = 15.62

7
 Mean chart Example 2 Mean chart Example 2
The weight of boxes of Oat flakes within large Example: Hour 1
Sample Weight of
producGon lot are sampled each hour. To set Number Oat Flakes
control limits that include 99.73% of the sample 1 17
2 13
means, samples of nine boxes are randomly 3 16
selected and weighed. Standard deviaGon of the 4 18
n=9
system is 1. The nine boxes for hour 1 are as 5 17
6 16
follows: 7 15
17oz. 13oz. 16oz. 18oz. 17oz. 16oz. 15oz. 17oz. 16oz. 8 17
9 16
Mean 16.1

Mean chart Example 2 Mean chart Example 2

Summary: For Hours 1 through 12, the results are: Control Chart
Variation due
for sample of 9 Out of
boxes to assignable
Hour Mean Hour Mean Given: control causes
1 16.1 7 15.2 X = 16
σ = 1 ounce 17 = UCL
2 16.8 8 16.4
n= 9 Variation due to
3 15.5 9 16.3 16 = Mean
z = 3 (99.73% confidence) natural causes
4 16.5 10 14.8
5 16.5 11 14.2 15 = LCL
6 16.4 12 17.3 UCLx = x + zσx = 16 + 3(1/3) = 17 ozs
Variation due
The average mean = 16 ounces LCL = x - zσ = 16 - 3(1/3) = 15 ozs | | | | | | | | | | | |
to assignable
x x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Out of causes
Sample number control

AlternaGve Method for the X-bar Chart: Step 1: Calculate the Range of Each
R - bar and the A2 Factor Sample and Average Range
Factor for x-Chart Factors for R-Chart
Sample Size
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3
(n)
A2 D3 D4
Use this method when sigma 2 1.88 0.00 3.27 Observation 1 15.8 16.1 16.0
for the process distribu4on 3 1.02 0.00 2.57 Observation 2 16.0 16.0 15.9
is not known. 4 0.73 0.00 2.28
Observation 3 15.8 15.8 15.9
5 0.58 0.00 2.11
6 0.48 0.00 2.00 Observation 4 15.9 15.9 15.8
7 0.42 0.08 1.92
The table of coefficients for 8 0.37 0.14 1.86
Sample ranges 0.2 0.3 0.2
(R)
calcula4ng the control lines 9 0.34 0.18 1.82
10 0.31 0.22 1.78
are A2, D4, and D3 is
provided.
11 0.29 0.26 1.74
0.2 + 0.3 + 0.2
12
13
0.27
0.25
0.28
0.31
1.72
1.69
R = = .233
14 0.24 0.33 1.67 3
15 0.22 0.35 1.65

8
 Average Range (R – bar) Formula R - bar Example 1
For x-Charts when we don t know σ
n  Center line:

Upper control limit (UCL) = x + A2R

15.875 + 15.975 + 15.9
CL = x = = 15.92
Lower control limit (LCL) = x - A2R 3
n  Control limits for ±3σ limits:

where R = average of sample ranges

UCLx = x + A2 R = 15.92 + (0.73) .233 = 16.09
A2 = control chart factor found in Table
x = mean of the sample means LCLx = x − A2 R = 15.92 − (0.73) .233 = 15.75

R - bar Example 1 X–bar and R-bar Comparison

R - bar Example 2: R - bar Example 2:

Super Cola son drinks labeled net weight 12 ounces . An Process average x = 12 ounces
overall process average 12 ounces has been found by taking Average range R = .25
Sample size n = 5
several batches of samples, in which each sample contained
5 boYles. The average range of the process is 0.25 ounce.
Determine the upper and lower control limits for averages
in the process.
UCLx = x + A2R
= 12 + (.58)(.25)
Process average x = 12 ounces
= 12 + .144
Average range R = .25
= 12.144 ounces
Sample size n = 5

From Table

Referring to the table, a sample size of 5 has a mean factor of .58

9
 R - bar Example 2: Range Chart
Process average x = 12 ounces •  Synonyms are R-chart or Precision chart.
Average range R = .25
Sample size n = 5 •  Absolute difference between the highest and
lowest value of mulGple analyses
UCLx = x + A2R UCL = 12.144 •  Repeatability Precision check
= 12 + (.58)(.25)
= 12 + .144 •  Range Chart has only upper limits
= 12.144 ounces Mean = 12
concentration

upper action limit

upper warning limit

LCLx = x- A2R LCL = 11.857

= 12 - .144 target value

= 11.857 ounces
sample-# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Range Chart Formula Range Chart

R Chart Control Limits Using previous SoOdrink Company Sample Size

Factor for x-Chart Factors for R-Chart

Data:
(n)
A2 D3 D4
UCLR = D4 R 2
3
1.88
1.02
0.00
0.00
3.27
2.57
0.2 + 0.3 + 0.2 4 0.73 0.00 2.28
LCLR = D3 R CL = R =
3
= .233 5 0.58 0.00 2.11
6 0.48 0.00 2.00
where 7 0.42 0.08 1.92
UCL = D4R = 2.28(.233) = .53 8 0.37 0.14 1.86
D3 = a control chart factor based on sample size, n 9 0.34 0.18 1.82
LCL = D3R = 0.0(.233) = 0.0 10 0.31 0.22 1.78
D4 = a control chart factor based on sample size, n 11 0.29 0.26 1.74
12 0.27 0.28 1.72
13 0.25 0.31 1.69
14 0.24 0.33 1.67
15 0.22 0.35 1.65

Range Chart Example 2 Range Chart Example 2

The average range of a process for loading Average range R = 5.3 pounds
Sample size n = 5
trucks is 5.3 pounds. If the sample size is 5, From Table D4 = 2.115, D3 = 0

determine the upper and lower control limits.

UCLR = D4R UCL = 11.2
Referring to the table, for a sample size of 5, D4 = 2.115 and D3 = 0. = (2.115)(5.3)
= 11.2 pounds Mean = 5.3

LCLR = D 3R LCL = 0
= (0)(5.3)
= 0 pounds

10
 Control Chart for AYributes P - chart
þ  Fraction, proportion, or percent defectives
•  AAributes generate data that are counted. þ  a chart of the percent defective in each
(Good/bad, yes/no, acceptable/unacceptable) sample set
–  p-Chart þ  Use P-Charts for quality characteristics that
are discrete and involve decisions such as:
•  Control chart used to monitor the proporGon of þ yes/no
defecGves in a process (Percent defecGve)
þ good/bad
–  c-Chart þ pass/fail
•  Control chart used to monitor the number of defects þ operate/not
per unit (Number of defects)
þ  Ex: percent of leaking tubes in a box,
percent of broken eggs in a carton, etc.

C - chart C – chart
þ  Observations are attributes whose defects
per unit of output can be counted •  Example of occurrences and units of measure include:
þ  The number counted is a small part of the –  Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
possible occurrences –  Cracks or faults per unit of distance (e.g. meters, miles)
–  Breaks or tears, per unit of area (e.g. square yard, sqm.)
þ  A chart of the number of defects per unit in
each sample set, for discrete defects when –  Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume (e.g. gallon, cubic
there can be more than one defect per unit foot, cubic yard)
–  Calls, complaints, failures, equipment breakdown, or
þ  Remember: Use only C – chart when the crimes per unit of Gme (e.g. hour, day, month, year)
number of occurrences per unit of measure –  Number of flaws or stains in a carpet
can be counted; non-occurrences cannot be
counted. –  Number of complaints per customer at a hotel
–  Number of typographical errors on a page

P - chart Formula P - chart Example 1

A ProducGon manager for a Gre company has inspected the

UCLp = p + zσ^p p(1 - p) number of defecGve Gres in five random samples with 20 Gres in
σp^= n each sample. The table below shows the number of defecGve Gres
LCLp = p - zσp ^ in each sample of 20 Gres.

Sample Sample Number

Size (n) Defective
1 20 3
where p = mean fraction defective in the sample
z = number of standard deviations 2 20 2
σp^ = standard deviation of the sampling distribution 3 20 1
n = sample size
4 20 2
5 20 1

11
 Step 1:
Calculate the Percent defecGve of Each Sample and the
Step 2: Calculate the Standard DeviaGon of
Overall Percent DefecGve (P-Bar) P.

Sample Number Sample Percent

Defective Size Defective
1 3 20 (3/20) .15
p(1-p) (.09)(.91)
2 2 20 (2/20).10 σp = = =0.064
3 1 20 (1/20).05 n 20
4 2 20 (2/20).10
5 1 20 (1/20).05
Total 9 100 (9/100) .09

Step 3: Calculate CL, UCL, LCL Step 4: Draw the Chart

n  Center line (p bar):

CL = p = .09
n  Control limits for ±3σ limits:

UCL = p + z (σ p ) = .09 + 3(.064) = .282

LCL = p − z (σ p ) = .09 − 3(.064) = −.102 = 0

P – chart Example 2 P – chart Example 2

Data entry clerks at ARCO key in thousands of Sample
Number
Number
of Errors
Fraction
Defective
Sample
Number
Number
of Errors
Fraction
Defective
insurance records each day. Samples of work of 1 6 .06 11 6 .06
20 clerks are shown in the table. 100 records 2 5 .05 12 1 .01
3 0 .00 13 8 .08
entered by each clerk were carefully examined 4 1 .01 14 7 .07
and the number of errors counted. The fracGon 5 4 .04 15 5 .05
6 2 .02 16 4 .04
defecGve in each sample was then computed. 7 5 .05 17 11 .11
Set the control limits to include 99.73% of the 8
9
3
3
.03
.03
18
19
3
0
.03
.00
random variaGon in the entry process when it is 10 2 .02 20 4 .04
in control. Total = 80

p=
80 = .04 (.04)(1 - .04)
(100)(20) σp^= = .02
100

12
 P – chart Example 2 P – chart Example 2
UCLp = p + ^zσp = .04 + 3(.02) = .10 UCLp = p + ^zσp = .04 + 3(.02) = .10
Possible assignable
LCLp = p - zσ
^
p = .04 - 3(.02) = 0 LCLp = p - zσ
^
p = .04 - 3(.02) = 0
causes present

(No negative percent defective)

.11 – .11 –
.10 – UCLp = 0.10 .10 – UCLp = 0.10
.09 – .09 –
Fraction defective

Fraction defective
.08 – .08 –
.07 – .07 –
.06 – .06 –
.05 – .05 –
.04 – p = 0.04 .04 – p = 0.04
.03 – .03 –
.02 – .02 –
.01 – LCLp = 0.00 .01 – LCLp = 0.00
.00 – | | | | | | | | | | .00 – | | | | | | | | | |
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample number Sample number

C – chart Formula C – chart Example 1

Basis: The Poisson probability distribution (a discrete Week Number of
distribution commonly used when the items of interest The number of Complaints
are infrequent and/or occur in time and space) which weekly customer 1 3
has a variance equal to its mean. complaints are 2 2
monitored in a large 3 3
hotel. Develop a 4 1
UCLc = c + 3 c LCLc = c - 3 c three sigma control 5 3
limits For a C-Chart 6 3
where c = mean number defective in the sample using the data table 7 2
On the right. 8 1
9 3
10 1
Total 22

C – chart Example 1 C – chart Example 1

n  Center line (c bar):

#complaints 22
CL = = = 2.2
# of samples 10
# of Complaints

n  Control limits for ±3σ limits:

UCL = c + z c = 2.2 + 3 2.2 = 6.65

LCL = c − z c = 2.2 − 3 2.2 = −2.25 = 0

13
 C – chart Example 2 C – chart Example 2
Red Top Cab Company receives several c = 54 complaints/9 days = 6 complaints/day
complaints per day about the behavior of its
drivers. Over a 9-day period (where days are the UCLc = c + 3 c UCLc = 13.35

Number of complaints
units of measure), the owner received the =6+3 6
14 –
12 –
following number of calls from irate passengers: = 13.35 10 –
3, 0, 8, 9, 6, 7, 4, 9, 8, for a total of 54 8 –
complaints. 6 – c= 6
LCLc = c - 3 c 4 –
=6-3 6 2 – LCLc = 0
Compute using 99.73% control limits. =0 0 – | |
1 2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
Day

Control Chart in Services

•  Service Organiza4ons have lagged behind manufacturers in
the use of sta4s4cal quality control
•  Sta4s4cal measurements are required and it is more difficult
to measure the quality of a service
–  Services produce more intangible products
–  PercepGons of quality are highly subjecGve
•  A way to deal with service quality is to devise quan4fiable
measurements of the service element
–  Check-in Gme at a hotel
–  Number of complaints received per month at a restaurant
–  Number of telephone rings before a call is answered
–  Acceptable control limits can be developed and charted

14
 Assignment: Prac/ce Exercise

Problem:
Samples were taken in 10 days from a produc/on lot of single served meat
packs isolated from an inspec/on in a commissary with each day consis/ng
of 4 samples each. The opera/ons manager determines that the standard
devia/on of the process is 1 . Use the data below to develop control charts
with limits of 3 standard devia/ons.

Sample Sample Sample Sample

DAY 1 2 3 4
1 50 52 53 49
2 54 55 54 49
3 50 50 53 55
4 55 55 54 52
5 52 52 52 52
6 55 54 54 53
7 49 54 53 52
8 50 55 53 54
9 51 51 55 55
10 60 54 55 55

1
 To Do:

1.  Using the data provided, develop an X chart, Range bar

chart, and Range chart. Draw the lines of the UCL, CL
(Center Line), and LCL.

2.  Determine whether the process is IN Control or OUT of

Control. Explain why.

X - Chart

2
R-bar Chart

Range Chart