Fluid

Compressors Machinery

exactly, each can be useful for analysis. A third

method measures real-world results.
Compressors
Isothermal – This model assumes that the
A compressor is a mechanical device that compressed gas remains at a constant
increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its temperature throughout the compression or
volume. In any vapor compression refrigeration expansion process. In this cycle, internal energy
system the compressor is the most important and is removed from the system as heat at the same
often the costliest component (typically 30 to 40 rate that it is added by the mechanical work of
percent of total cost). Compressors are similar to compression. Isothermal compression or expan-
pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and sion more closely models real life when the
both can transport the fluid though a pipe. As com-pressor has a large heat exchanging surface,
gases are compressible, the compressor also a small gas volume, or a long time scale (i.e., a
reduces the volume of a gas but the pump just small power level). Compressors that utilize
transports the liquid. inter-stage cooling between compression stages
come closest to achieving perfect isothermal
In a gas compressor, the control volume compression. However, with practical devices
energy equation relates the power input to the perfect isothermal compression is not attainable.
enthalpy change as follows: For example, unless you have an infinite number
of compression stages with corresponding inter-
W = m (h E – h I ) coolers, you will never achieve perfect isother-
mal compression
where h E and h I are the exit and inlet enthalpies,
respectively. In this form, the compressor is Adiabatic – This model assumes that no
modelled as a fixed volume into which and from energy (heat) is transferred to or from the gas
which a gas flows; it is assumed that negligible during the compression, and all supplied work is
heat transfer occurs from the compressor and added to the internal energy of the gas, resul-ting
ignore the differences between inlet and outlet in increases of temperature and pressure.
kinetic and potential energy changes. Theoretical temperature rise is T 2 = T 1 ·R c (k-1)/k,
and k = ratio of specific heats. R is the compres-
Compressor Types sion ratio; being the absolute outlet pressure
divided by the absolute inlet pressure. The rise
There are three general types of com- in air and temperature ratio means compression
pressors: reciprocating, centrifugal and axial does not follow a simple pressure to volume
flow. Reciprocating compressors are especially ratio. This is less efficient, but quick. Adiabatic
useful for producing high pressures, but are compression or expansion more closely model
limited to relatively low flow rates: upper limit real life when a compressor has good insulation,
of about 200 MPa with inlet flow of rates of 60 a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a
cmm are achievable with two-stage units. For high power level). In practice there will always
high flow rates with relatively low pressure rise, be a certain amount of heat flow out of the
a centrifugal or axial flow compressor would be compressed gas. Thus, making a perfect
selected, a pressure rise of several MPa for an adiabatic compressor would require perfect heat
inlet flow rate of over 10,000 cmm is possible. insulation of all parts of the machine. For
example, even a bicycle tire pump's metal tube
Dynamic becomes hot as you compress the air to fill a tire.
Centrifugal
Axial Polytropic – This model takes into
Positive Displacement account both a rise in temperature in the gas as
Rotary well as some loss of energy (heat) to the
Lobe compressor's components. This assumes that
Screw heat may enter or leave the system, and that
Liquid Ring input shaft work can appear as both increased
Scroll pressure (usually useful work) and increased
Vane temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due
Reciprocating to cycle efficiency). Compression efficiency is
Diaphragm then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical
Double Acting 100 percent (adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic).
Single Acting
Staged Compression – Since compres-
sion generates heat, the compressed gas is to be
Gas Compression Models cooled between stages making the compres-sion
less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-
Compression of a gas naturally increases stage coolers causes condensation, meaning,
its temperature. In an attempt to model the water separators with drain valves are present. In
compression of gas, there are two theoretical the case of small reciprocating compressors, the
relationships between temperature and pressure compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan
in a volume of gas undergoing compression. that directs ambient air across the intercooler of
Although neither of them model the real world a two or more stage compressor.

1
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

Because of mechanical limitations and to

increase efficiency, most compressors utilize
staged compression, usually with intercooling V V
between stages. In the case of centrifugal During actual operation the pV diagram
compressors, commercial designs currently do would more likely resemble that of the right.
not exceed more than a 3.5 to 1 ratio in any one Intake and exhaust valves do not open and close
stage. Because rotary screw compressors can instantaneously, the airflow around the valves
make use of cooling lubricant to remove the heat results in pressure gradients during the intake
of compression, they very often exceed a 9 to 1 and exhaust strokes, losses occur due to the
ratio. For instance, in a typical diving com- valves, and some heat transfer may take place.
pressor the air is compressed in three stages. If The ideal cycle does, however, allow us to
each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the predict the influence of proposed design changes
compressor can output 343 times atmosphe-ric on work requirements, maximum pressure, flow
pressure (7 x 7 x 7 = 343 atmospheres). rate and other quantities of interest.

The Reciprocating Compressor 3 2' 2

P
T2
Reciprocating compressors use pistons
T2 '
driven by a crankshaft. They can be either sta-
tionary or portable, can be single or multi-
staged, and can be driven by electric motors or 4 1
internal combustion engines. Modern day
reciprocating compressors are high speed v
(~3000 to 3600 rpm), single acting, single or To improve the performance of the recip-
multi-cylinder (up to 16 cylinders) type. Small rocating compressor, we can remove heat from
reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 hp (3.7 the compressor during the compression process
to are 22.4 kW) are commonly seen in automo- 1 to 2. The effect of this is displayed in the
tive applications and are typically for intermit- figure where a polytropic process is shown. The
tent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors up temperature of state 2’ would be significantly
to 1000 hp are still commonly found in large lower than that of state 2 and the work require-
industrial applications, but their numbers are ment for the complete cycle would be less since
declining as they are replaced by various other the area under the pV diagram would decrease.
types of compressors. Discharge pressures can To analyze this situation let us return to the
range from low pressure to very high pressure control volume inlet-outlet description. The
(above 35 MPa). In certain applications, such as required work for an adiabatic (isentropic
air compression, multi-stage double-acting compression) compressor is
compressors are said to be the most efficient
compressors available, and are typically larger, W = m (h 2 – h 1 ); h = CpT
noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary W = m Cp (T 2 – T 1 )
units. W = m Cp (T 2 – T 1 )(T 1 / T 1 )
W = mCpT 1 T 2 – 1
A sketch of the cylinder of a reciprocating T1
compressor is shown below. The intake and ex-
haust valves are closed when state 1 is reached, For isentropic compressors between inlet
as shown on the pV diagram. An isentropic com- and outlet
pression follows as the piston travels inward
until the maximum pressure at state 2 is reached. T2 k
= P2 k–1
Cp = kR
The exhaust valve then opens and the piston T1 P1 and k–1
continues its inward motion while the air is
exhausted until state 3 is reached at top dead W = mkRT 1 P 2 (k – 1)/k
–1
center. The exhaust valve then closes and the k – 1 P1
piston begins its outward motion with an isen-
tropic expansion process until state 4 is reached. For a polytropic process we simply
At this point the intake valve opens and the replace k with an n and get
piston moves outward during the intake process
until the cycle is completed. W = mnRT 1 P 2 (n – 1)/n
–1
n – 1 P1
1 2 3 4 1
The heat transfer is then found from the first
law.

By external cooling with a water jacket

surrounding the compressor, the value of n for
3 2 3 2
air can be reduced to about 1.35. this reduction
P P from 1.4 is difficult since heat transfer must
occur from the rapidly moving air through the

24 1 1
4
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

compressor casing to the cooling water, or from

the fins. This is an ineffective process, and discharge
multistage compressors with interstage cooling
are often desirable alternative. With a single intake
staage and with a high P 2 , the outlet tempera-
ture T 2 would be too high even if n could be stroke
reduced to, say, 1.3. TDC BDC

Consider a two-stage compressor with a P

single intercooler. The compression processes 2 – isentropic
are assumed to be isentropic and are shown in 2" 2' 2 n = k, Q = 0
3
the following Ts and pV diagrams. 2’ – polytropic
n = n, Q < 0
Low P 3 2” – isothermal
1 n=1

1st stage intercooler 2nd stage 4

1

4
vC vA v
2 High P
vD
4 s1 = s2
P4 P2 = P3
P T1
T 4 2
2 P1
3

1 3 1 TDC BDC

V S

For two-stage compression, the work is PVT Relations

(k – 1)/k
W = CpT 1 P2 –1 P1v1 n = P2 v2 n
P1
n n–1 n–1
T2 = P2 T2 = V2
(n – 1)/n
+ CpT 3 P4 –1 T1 P1 T1 V1
P3
Compressor Work
(k – 1)/k (k – 1)/k
or: W = CpT 1 P 2 + P4 –2
(n – 1)/n
P1 P2 W = mnRT 1 P 2 –1
n – 1 P1
where we have used P 2 = P 3 and T 1 = T 3 , for an
(n – 1)/n
ideal intercooler. To determine the intercooler W = nP 1 V A P2 –1
pressure that minimizes the work, we let dW/dP n–1 P1
= 0. This gives
Piston Displacement, V D – the volume
P 2 = (P 1 P 4 )1/2 or P 2 /P 1 = P 4 /P 3 displaced by the piston as it moves from TDC to
BDC.
That is, the pressure ratio is the same V D = (π/4) D2 LN
across each stage. If three stages were used, the
same analysis would lead to a low-pressure VD – volumetric displacement
intercooler pressure of D – bore
L – stroke
P 2 = (P 1 2 P 6 )1/3 N – speed, rev/s

and a high pressure intercooler pressure of Capacity of compressor, V A – actual

volume of gas delivered as measured at the
P 4 = (P 1 P 6 2)1/3 intake conditions (pressure and temperature).

where P 6 is the highest pressure. This is also V A = mRT / P

equivalent to equal pressure ratios across each VA = V1 – V4
stage. Additional stages may be necessary for
extremely high outlet pressure, an equal pressure Volumetric Efficiency – measurement of
ratio across each stage would yield the minimum the effectiveness of a gas compressor defined as
work for the ideal compressor. the ratio of the actual gas drawn in at intake
condition to the displacement volume (volume
swept by the piston).
Performance of Single Stage
Reciprocating Compressors In actual compressors, small clearance left
between the cylinder head and the piston to

3
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

accommodate the valves and to take care of vD v1 – v3 c

thermal expansion and machining tolerances. As substituting equation 2 in equation 1:
a rule of thumb, the clearance C in millimeters is e V = 1 + c (v 3 – v 4 )(v 1 – v 3 )
given by v 3 (v 1 – v 3 )
e V = 1 + c (v 3 – v 4 )
C = (0.005 L + 0.5) mm v3

where L is the stroke in mm. e V = 1 + c – c (v 4 / v 3 )

This space along with other spaces If the expansion process (3 – 4) also fol-
between the closed valves and the piston at the low the expression pVn = C, then
TDC is called the clearance volume, V C . The
ratio of the clearance volume, V C , to the volume V 4 / V 3 = (P 3 / P 4 )1/k
dis-placed by the piston, V D , is called the
clearance ratio. Hence, the volumetric efficiency is also
given by:
C = VC / VD
e V = 1 + c – c (P 3 / P 4 )1/k
The clearance ratio, c, depends on the e V = 1 – c (r P 1/k – 1)
arrangement of the valves in the cylinder and the
mean piston velocity. Normally, c is less than 5 where r P is the pressure ratio at the beginning
percent for well-designed compressors with and end of the compression.
moderate piston velocities (~3 m/s), however, it
can be higher for higher piston speeds. The above expression holds good for any
reversible compression process with clearance.
Due to the presence of the clearance If the process is not reversible, adiabatic (i.e.,
volume, at the end of the discharge stroke, some non-isentropic) but a reversible polytropic
amount of gas at the discharge pressure P 3 will process with an index of compression and
be left in the clearance volume, v C . As a result, expansion equal to n, then the k in the above
suction does not begin as soon as the piston equation has to be replaced by n.
starts moving away from the TDC, since the
pressure inside the cylinder is higher than the The above expression also shows that the
suction pressure (P 3 > P 4 ). As shown in the volumetric efficiency decreases as the pressure
figure, suction starts only when the pressure ratio and the clearance increases. The effect of
inside the cylinder falls to the suction pressure, decreasing volumetric efficiency is the reduction
P 1 , in an ideal compressor with clearance. This of the mass flow rate of the gas being com-
implies that even though the compressor swept pressed. Thus, the required size of the compres-
volume V D = V 1 – V 3 , the actual volume of the sor increases as the volumetric efficiency dec-
gas that entered the cylinder during suction reases.
stroke is V A = V 1 – V 4 . As a result, the volumet-
ric efficiency, e V , of the compressor with clear-
ance is less than 100 percent. Two-Stage Compression

e V = actual volume compressed Ideal conditions :

volume of displacement – no pressure drop in the intercooler
– perfect intercooling
eV = VA e V = v1 – v4 – equal work per stage
VD v1 – v3
Work Stage 1 = Work Stage 2
3 2 nP 1 V A P x (n–1)/n – 1 =nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/n – 1
n – 1 P1 n – 1 Px

where : Px = P2 P x = (P 1 P 2 )1/2
1 P1 Px
4 Px – intercooler pressure
vC vD P1 Px tx P2
vA

e V = v1 – v4 in out
v1 – v3 water
e V = v 1 + (v 3 – v 3 ) – v 4
v1 – v3
e V = v1 – v3 + v3 – v4 low pressure high pressure
v1 – v3 v1 – v3 stage stage

eV = 1 + v3 – v4  P2 HP stage
in tercooler
v1 – v3
since c = v C = v 3 v1 – v3 = v3  Px

4
LP stage

P1
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

adiabatic
• frictional pressure drops in connecting lines
and across suction and discharge valves
• losses due to leakage
Compressor Work
Effect of Heat Transfer
(n – 1)/n
W = 2nP 1 V A Px –1
n–1 P1 Heat transfer from the cylinder walls and
piston to the gas takes place during the suction
(n – 1)/2n
W = 2nP 1 V A P2 –1 stroke and heat transfer from the gas to the
n–1 P1 surroundings takes place at the end of compres-
sion. In hermetic compressors, additional heat
Heat rejected in the intercooler : transfer from the motor winding to the gas takes
(n-1)/n
Q = m Cp (T x – T 1 ) Tx = Px place. The effect of this heat transfer is to
Cp – 1.0213 kJ/kg-°C T1 P1 increase the temperature of the gas, thereby
increasing the specific volume. This in general
Heat absorbed by intercooler water : results in reduced volumetric efficiency and
Q = m w Cp w (∆T w ) hence reduced mass flow rate and capacity. The
Cp w – 4.1868 kJ/kg-°C extent of reduction in mass flow rate and capa-
city depends on the pressure ratio, compressor
Power Saved / Increase speed and compressor design. As seen before,
P S = (P S – P D ) / P S the discharge temperature and hence the
P I = (P S – P D ) / P D temperature of the cylinder and piston walls
increase with pressure ratio. As the compressor
speed increases the heat transfer rate from the
Three-Stage Compression compressor to the surroundings reduces, which
may result in higher gas temperature. Finally,
Ideal conditions : the type of external cooling provided and com-
– no pressure drop in the intercooler pressor design also affects the performance as it
– perfect intercooling influences the temperature of the compressor.
– equal work per stage
Since the compression and expansion
processes are accompanied by heat transfer,
P1 PX PY P2 these processes are not adiabatic in actual com-
pressors. Hence, the index of compression is not
an isentropic but a polytropic index. However,
depending upon the type of compressor and the
amount of external cooling provided, the com-
pression process my approach an adiabatic
process (as in centrifugal compressors) or a
For ideal conditions, pressure ratios reversible polytropic process (as in reciprocating
should be equal: compressors with external cooling). The index
PX = PY = P2 of compression may be greater than isentropic
P1 PX PY index (in case of irreversible adiabatic compres-
PX2 = P1PY sion). When the process is not reversible adiaba-
P X 4 = P 1 2P Y 2 ; PY2 = PXP2 tic, then the polytropic index of compression ‘n’
4 2
PX = P1 PXP2 depends on the process and is not a property of
P X 3 = P 1 2P 2 the gas. Also, the polytropic index of compres-
sion may not be equal to the polytropic index of
Compressor Work expansion. Since the compression process in
general is irreversible, the actual power input to
(n – 1)/n
W = 3nP 1 V A Px –1 the compressor will be greater than the ideal
n–1 P1 compression work. Sometimes the isentropic
efficiency is used to estimate the actual work of
Heat rejected in the intercooler : compression. The isentropic efficiency for a
(n-1)/n
Q = 2m Cp (T x – T 1 ) Tx = Px compressor is defined as the ratio of isentropic
Cp – 1.0216 kJ/kg-°C T1 P1 work of compression to the actual work of
compression. It will be observed that for a given
compressor the isentropic efficiency of the com-
Actual Compression Process pressor is mainly a function of the pressure ratio.
Normally the function varies from com-pressor
Actual compression processes deviate to compressor and is obtained by con-ducting
from ideal compression processes due to: experimental studies on compressors. The actual
work of compression and actual power input can
• heat transfer between the refrigerant and be obtained if the isentropic efficiency of the
surroundings during compression and ex- compressor is known as the isentropic work of
pansion, which makes these processes non- compression can be calcu-lated from the

5
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

operating temperatures.
Problem: A compressor with a clearance of 5%
is used to compress gas from a pressure of 100
kPa using n = 1.4. Calculate the effect of
Effect of Pressure Drops increasing output pressure to the actual volume
compressed as the output pressure increases in
In actual reciprocating compressors, 100 kPa increments from 100 kPa to 1 MPa.
pressure drops takes place due to resistance to
fluid flow. Pressure drop across the suction P 2 , kPa V A , cm3 P 2 , kPa V A , cm3
valve is called “wire drawing”. This pressure 100 1000 600 870.20
drop can have adverse effect on compressor 200 967.97 700 849.27
performance as the suction pressure at the inlet 300 940.41 800 829.18
to the com-pressor will be lower than the 400 915.41 900 809.80
surrounding gas. As a result, the pressure ratio 500 892.15 1000 791.03
and discharge temperature increases and the
density of gas decreases. This in turn reduces Problem: A compressor with a clearance of 5%
volumetric efficiency, mass flow rate of gas and is used to compress gas using n = 1.4. Calculate
increases the work of compression. This the effect of increasing output pressure to the
pressure drop depends on the speed of the power consumed as the output pressure
compressor and design of the suction valve. The increases in 100 kPa increments from 100 kPa to
pressure drop increases as the piston speed 1 MPa.
increases.
P 2 , kPa W, kJ P 2 , kPa W, kJ
Even though the pressure drop across the 100 0 600 203.61
discharge valve is not as critical as the pressure 200 74.20 700 221.04
drop across the suction valve, it still affects the 300 121.37 800 235.49
compressor performance negatively. The net 400 155.71 900 247.56
effect of pressure drops is to reduce the com- 500 182.30 1000 257.67
pressor capacity and increase the power input.
The pressure drop also affect the discharge Problem: A compressor with a clearance of 5%
temperature and compressor cooling in an is used to compress gas from 100 kPa to 1 MPa
adverse manner. using n = 1.4. Calculate the effect of increasing
n to the power consumed as n increases from 1.3
to 1.4 in 0.1 increments.
Topics from Fluid Machineries
Gas Compressors n W, kJ n W, kJ
1.31 232.67 1.36 246.81
• Definition of Gas Compressors 1.32 235.55 1.37 249.56
• Practical Uses of Compressed Air 1.33 238.40 1.38 252.29
• Types of Gas Compressors 1.34 241.23 1.39 254.99
• Rotary and Centrifugal Compressors 1.35 244.03 1.40 257.67
• Reciprocating Compressors (RC)
• Preferred Compression Curves
• Volumetric Efficiency of a RC
• Displacement Volume of a RC
Problems
• Compressor Efficiency
• Two-Stage Reciprocating Compressor Problem 01
• Three-Stage Reciprocating Compressor Air taken from the atmosphere at 100 kPa and
• Four-Stage Reciprocating Compressor 21°C is delivered to an air receiver at 690 kPa
• Five-Stage Reciprocating Compressor and 150°C by means of a water-jacketed recip-
rocating compressor. The compressor has a rated
capacity of 150 L/s free air. Determine the
Investigations on Compressors power required to compress the air.

Problem: A compressor with a displacement water-jacketed – polytropic compression :

volume of 1000 cc is used to compress gas from W = nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/n – 1
100 kPa to 1 MPa using n = 1.4. Calculate the n – 1 P1
effect of increasing clearance value to the actual solving for n :
volume compressed as the clearance increases
from 1 to 10% in 1% increments. T 2 = P 2 (n–1)/n 423 = 690 (n–1)/n

T1 P1 294 100
Clearance V A , cm3 Clearance V A , cm3 (n – 1)/n = 0.1883
1% 958.21 6% 749.23 0.1883n = n – 1
2% 916.41 7% 707.44 n = 1.232
3% 874.62 8% 665.64 W = (1.232)(100 kPa)(0.15 m3/s)
4% 832.82 9% 623.85 1.232 – 1
5% 791.03 10% 582.05 [(690/100)0.1883 – 1]

6
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

W = (79655.17)[0.43865] kPa, 21°C. It is to deliver at a pressure of 725

W = 34.94 kW – ans. kPa. The compression and re-expansion curve
follows pV1.34 = C. A 75 kW, 750 rpm, 440 V
motor is to be used for the drive. What is the
Problem 02 piston displacement of the unit?
A double-acting compressor with piston dis-
placement of 50 L/stroke operates at 500 rpm. e V = 1 + c – c (P 2 /P 1 )1/n
The clearance factor is 5% and it receives air at e V = 1 + 0.03 – (0.03)(725/100)1/1.34
100 kPa and discharges it at 600 kPa. The com- e V = 0.8984
pression and re-expansion curve is polytropic eV = VA / VD ; VD = VA / eV
with n=1.3. Determine the power required to V D = 240 L/s / 0.8984
compress the air. V D = 267.14 L/s – ans.

solving for V A : 3 2
VA = V1 – V4 Problem 05
where : A single-stage air compressor with a volumetric
V1 = VD + VC 1
efficiency is 0.72 handles 600 L/s of
4
V C = cV D vC vD atmospheric air at 27°C and compresses it to 800
V 1 = V D + cV D vA kPa. Its compression efficiency on an isothermal
V 1 = V D (1 + c) basis is 0.85 and its mechanical efficiency is
V 1 = 50 L (1 + 0.05) 0.90. What power does it consume?
V 1 = 52.5 L/stroke
solving for V 4 using polytropic equation : isothermal compression :
P1V 1n = P2V 2 n P4V 4n = P3V 3 n W = P 1 V 1 Ln (P 2 /P 1 )
V 4 = V 3 (P 3 /P 4 )1/n; V 3 = V C = cV D W = (101.3 kPa)(0.6 m3/s) Ln (800/101.3)
V 3 = (0.05)(50 L/stroke) W = 125.6 kW
V 3 = 2.5 L/stroke = V C power consumed :
V 4 = (2.5 L/s)(600/100)1/1.3 P = W/(e S x e M )
V 4 = 9.92 L/stroke P = 125.60 kW / 0.85 / 0.90
VA = V1 – V4 P = 164.18 kW – ans.
V A = 52.5 L/str – 9.92 L/str
V A = 42.58 L/stroke
W = nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/n – 1 Problem 06
n – 1 P1 An engine has a bore diameter of 150 mm and a
W = (1.3)(100k)(0.04258) 600 0.3/1.3 – 1 stroke of 500 mm. Its volumetric compression is
1.3 – 1 100 4500 cc. Find the volumetric efficiency of the
W = 9.45 kW/stroke engine.
double acting :
W = (9.45 kW/str)(500 str./min)(60s/min)(2) V D = (π/4)(15)2(50)
W = 157.5 kW – ans. V D = 8835.73 cc
eV = VA / VD ; e V = 4500 cc /
8835.73 cc
Problem 03 e V = 50.93 % – ans.
An adiabatic compressor receives 20 cmm of air
from the atmosphere at 20°C and compresses it
to 10 MPa. Calculate the power required. Problem 07
A single-acting reciprocating compressor is
m = (101.3 kPa)(20 m3/min)(min/60s) needed to compress 50 kg/h of air at 100 kPa,
(287.08 J/kg-K)(20 +273)K 24°C to 950 kPa delivery pressure. The com-
m = 0.40 kg/s pressor is expected to follow pV1.25 = C and
T 2 = P 2 (k–1)/k T 2 = (293) 10 M 0.4/1.4 operate at 300 rpm with a clearance of 4%. What
T1 P1 101.3 k is the required piston displacement?
T 2 = (293 K)(3.7139)
T 2 = 1088.16 K, 815.16°C V A = (50 kg/h)(287.08 J/kg-K)(24 + 273)K
W = m(h 2 – h 1 ); W = mCp(t 2 – t 1 ) (100,000 Pa)(60 min/h)
W = (0.40 kg/s)(1004.78 J/kg-K)(795.16 K) V A = 710.52 L/min
W = 319.58 kW – ans. e V = 1 + c – c(P 2 /P 1 )1/n
W = kP 1 V A P 2 (k–1)/k – 1 e V = 1 + 0.04 – (0.04)(950/100)1/1.25
k – 1 P1 e V = 0.7978
W = (1.4)(101.3k)(20 cmm) 10M 0.4/1.4 – 1 eV = VA / VD ; VD = VA / eV
(1.4 – 1)(60s/min) 101.3 V D = 710.52 L min 1000 cc
W = 320.73 kW – ans. 0.7978 min 300 rev Liter
V D = 2968.66 cc – ans.

Problem 04
A single-stage double-acting reciprocating com-
pressor is to deliver 240 L/s of free air with a Problem 08
clearance of 3% and suction conditions of 100 Air enters a compressor and is compressed from

7
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

25°C, 85 kPa to 850 kPa. Compute the work per

unit mass for an isentropic compression. required mass :
V T = (π/4)(40 cm)2(80 cm)
W = kP 1 V A P 2 (k–1)/k – 1 pV = mRT V D = 100.50 L
k – 1 P1 m R = (600 kPa)(0.1005 m3)
W = kmRT 1 P 2 (k–1)/k – 1 (287.08 J/kg-K)(24 +273)K
k – 1 P1 m R = 0.7072 kg
W = (1.4)(1)(287.08)(298) 850 0.4/1.4 – 1 m R = 707.23 g
1.4 – 1 85 volume compressed :
W = 278.67 kW – ans. V D = (π/4)(4 cm)2(6 cm)
V D = 75.40 cc
e V = 1 + c – c(P 2 /P 1 )1/n
Problem 09 e V = 1 + 0.05 – (0.05)(1200/101.3)1/1.20
A small compressor with a displacement volume e V = 0.6577
of 8 cmm takes in air at 101.3 kPa, 26°C and eV = VA / VD ; V A = (0.6577)(75.40 cc)
delivers the air to a 12 cu.m. tank. The com- V A = 49.59 cc / stroke
pressor has a volumetric efficiency of 70%. Cal- V A = (49.59 cc/stroke)(180/60 stroke/s)
culate the time required to fill the tank from 400 V A = 148.77 cc/s
kPa to 980 kPa at the same temperature. mass compressed :
m C = (101.3 kPa)(148.77 μm3)
mass required : (287.08 J/kg-K)(24 +273)K
P = 980 – 400 = 580 kPa m C = 0.176752 g/s
mR = (580 kPa)(12 m3) m C = 636.31 g/h
(287.08 J/kg-K)(26 +273)K time required :
m R = 81.08 kg t = mR / mC
mass compressed : t = 707.23 g / 0.17675 g/s
V A = eVV D; V A = (0.70)(8 cmm) t = 4001.30 s – ans.
V A = 5.60 cmm t = 1h 6m 41.30 s – ans.
m C = (101.3 kPa)(5.60 m3/min)
(287.08 J/kg-K)(26 +273)K
m = 6.61 kg/min Plate 02 :
time to fill tank : Fans and Compressors
t = 81.08 kg / 6.61 kg/min Fans : A conference hall measuring 85 m by 60
t = 12m 16s – ans. m by 15 m houses 3000 delegates each emitting
250 W of sensible heat. Air at 18°C is to be sup-
plied, cooled from an outside temperature of
Problem 10 36°C. Assume a duct diameter of 1.20 m and a
A single-acting compressor with a 10 cm bore static pressure of 200 mmwg. Air velocity is to
and 16 cm stroke operates at 300 rpm. Clear- be 12 m/s. How many 5-hp fans are needed?
ance is 6%. The compressor receives air at 100
kPa and discharges it at 700 kPa. Compression mass of air :
is polytropic with n=1.32. Determine the power Q S = 3000 x 250 W
required in kW. Q S = 750 kW
mA = QS
V D = (π/4)(10 cm)2(16 cm)(300 rev/60 s) (1.0216 J/kg-K)(t R – t S )
V D = 6.28 L/s mA = 750,000 J/s
e V = 1 + c – c(P 2 /P 1 )1/n (1.0216 J/kg-K)(36 – 18)K
e V = 1 + 0.06 – (0.06)(700/100)1/1.32 m A = 40.79 kg/s
e V = 0.7980 volume and weight involved :
eV = VA / VD ; V A = (0.798)(6.28 L/s) ρ= P ρ= 101,325 Pa
V A = 5.01 L/s RT (287.08 J/kg-K)(18+273)K
W = nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/n – 1 ρ = 1.21 kg/m3
n – 1 P1 V= m V = 40.79 kg/s
ρ 1.21 kg/m3
W = (1.32)(100k)(0.00501) 7(1.32–1)/1.32 – 1 V = 33.71 m3/s
1.32 – 1 w = ρg w = (1.21 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)
W = 1245.71 W – ans. w = 11.87 N/m3
heads :
h V = v2 h V = (12 m/s)2
Problem 11 2g (2)(9.81 m/s2)
Calculate the time required for a small compres- h V = 7.34 m air
sor with a bore of 40 mm and a stroke of 60 mm h S = ρ W h W h S = (1000 kg/m3)(0.20 m)
running at 180 rpm to fill a tank 800 mm in ρA 1.21 kg/m3
length and 400 mm in diameter. The compres- h S = 165.29 m air
sor will have a cut-in pressure of 600 kPa and a hT = hV + hS
cut-out pressure of 1.2 MPa. Air is available at h T = 7.34 + 165.29
101.3 kPa, 24°C. Assume a 5% clearance and h T = 172.63 m air
use n = 1.2. capacity of a 5-hp fan :

8
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

P = (5 hp)(0.746 W/hp)
P = 3.73 kW total volume at suction conditions
Q= P Q= 3730 J/s V T = (100 kg)(287.08 J/kg-K)(27+273K)
wh (11.87 N/m3)(172.63 m) 100,000 Pa
Q = 1.82 m3/s V T = 86.12 cu.m.
number of fans :
n = (33.71 m3/s) / (1.82 m3/s-fan) W = nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/n – 1
n = 18.52 fans – ans. n – 1 P1
VA = W (n – 1)
nP 1 (P 2 /P 1 )(n – 1)/n – 1
Compressors : Calculate the power required to VA = (2500 J/s)(1.3 – 1)
fill a transport tank measuring 2 m in diame-ter (1.3)(100 kPa)[(600/100)(1.3 – 1)/1.3 –1]
and 4 m in length with methane (R = 518.45 V A = 11.27 e–03 m3/s
J/kg-K, k = 1.321). The gas is to be compressed V A = 11.27 L/s
from 100 kPa, 25°C to 1.2 MPa and the tank is t = 86.12 cu.m. / 0.01127 cu.m./s
to be filled in 90 minutes. Design the compres- t = 7641.53 s / 2h 7m 21.53s
sor if it is to run at 180 rpm with stroke = 1.5 x for the design:
bore. Assume an 8% clearance. e V = 1 + c – c(P 2 /P 1 )1/n
e V = 1 + 0.05 – (0.05)(600/100)1/1.3
tank volume : e V = 0.8516
V T1 = (π/4)(4)(4) VD = VA / eV
V T1 = 12.57 m3 – at 1.2 MPa V D = (11.27 L/s)(60s/min) / 0.8516
V T2 = V T1 P 1 V T2 = (12.57)(1.2 MPa) V D = 794.03 L/min
P2 100 kPa V D = (π/4)d2LN VD =
V T2 = 150.84 m3 – at 100 kPa (π/4)(b2)(2b)N
actual compressor volume per stroke : V D = (π/2)b3N; b3 = 2V D / πN
3 3
VA = 150.84 cu.m. x 1,000,000 cc b = (2)(0.79403 m /min)
(180 rev/min)(90 min) cu.m. (π)(360 rev/min)
V A = 9311.11 cc b = 111.98 mm – ans.
e V = 1 + c – c(P 2 /P 1 )1/n s = 223.96 mm – ans.
e V = 1 + 0.08 – (0.08)(1200/100)1/1.321
e V = 0.5552
V D = V A / e V ; V D = 9311.11 / 0.5552 Problem 14
V D = 16770.73 cc A two-stage compressor takes in air at 90 kPa
V D = (π/4)(b2)(1.5b) and 20°C and discharges it at 700 kPa. Find the
b3 = (4V D )/(1.5π) polytropic exponent n if the intercooler tempe-
b3 = (4)(16770.73 cc)/(1.5π) rature is 100°C.
b = 242.36 mm – ans.
(n–1)/n
s = 363.54 mm – ans. TX = PX Px2 = (P 1 )(P 4 )
T1 P1 Px2 = (90 kPa)(700 kPa)
Px = 251 kPa
Exam / Problem 12 100 + 273 = 251 (n–1)/n
How long will it take a 180-rpm, 1.5 kW com- 20 + 273 90
pressor to compress 120 kg of air from 100 kPa, 1.2730 = 2.7889(n–1)/n
25°C to 600 kPa using n = 1.3? (n – 1) / n (Ln 2.7889) = Ln 1.2730
(n – 1) / n = 0.23537
W = nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/n – 1 n = 1.3078 – ans.
n – 1 P1
VA = W (n – 1)
nP 1 (P 2 /P 1 )(n – 1)/n – 1 Problem 15
VA = (1500 J/s)(1.3 – 1) An air compressor is to compress air at 8.5 cmm
(1.3)(100 kPa)[(600/100)(1.3 – 1)/1.3 –1] from 98 kPa to 980 kPa. Assuming ideal condi-
V A = 6.76 e–03 m3/s tions, and with n = 1.3, what will be the savings
V A = 6.76 L/s in work due to two staging?
at 100 kPa, 180 kg is :
V T = (120 kg)(287.08 J/kg-K)(28 + 273K) for single stage compressor :
100,000 Pa W = nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/n – 1
V T = 103.69 cu.m. n – 1 P1
0.3/1.3
t = 103.69 cu.m. / 0.00676 cu.m./s W = (1.3)(98k)(8.5 cmm) 980 –1
t = 4h 15m – ans. (1.3 – 1)(60 s/min) 98
W = 42.19 kW

Exam / Problem 13 for a two-stage compressor :

How long will it take a 2.5 kW compressor to P x 2 = (P 2 )(P 1 )
compress 100 kg of air at 100 kPa, 27°C, to 600 P x 2 = (980 kPa)(98 kPa)
kPa using n = 1.3. Design the compressor if it P x = 309.90 kPa
runs at 360 rpm and works with a clearance of W = 2nP 1 V A P X (n–1)/n – 1
5%. Let stroke = 2 x bore. n – 1 P1

9
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

W = (2)(1.3)(98k)(8.5) 309.90 0.3/1.3 – 1 S = 6.69 kW (13.21%) – ans.

(1.3 – 1)(60) 98 for the single-staged compressor :
W = 36.62 kW e V = 1 + c – c(P 2 /P 1 )1/n
also : e V = 1 + 0.08 – (0.08)(10)1/1.3
W = 2nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/2n – 1 e V = 0.6098
n – 1 P1 V D = (π/4)(0.18 m)2(0.36 m)n (1000 L/m3)
W = (2)(1.3)(98k)(8.5) 980 0.3/2.6 – 1 V D = 9.16n L/stroke
(1.3 – 1)(60) 98 V D = (9.16n L/stroke)(0.6098)
W = 36.62 kW V D = 5.59n L/stroke
n = 10,000 L/min
savings : 5.59n L/stroke
S = 48.64 – 42.22 n = 1788.91 stroke/min
S = 6.42 kW (13.20%) – ans. use 1790 – ans.

Problem 16 Problem 18
A two-stage compressor receives 0.35 kg/s of air A two-stage, double acting reciprocating com-
at 100 kPa and 269 K and delivers it at 5000 pressor is rated at 100 L/s of free air. It com-
kPa. Find the heat transferred in the intercooler presses the air according to the relation pV1.32 =
if the compression is isentropic. C from 100 kPa initial pressure with a tempera-
ture of 32°C to 800 kPa delivery pressure when
For isentropic compression : n = k = 1.4 operating at 200 rpm and a clearance factor of
Q = m Cp (T X – T 1 ) 8% in each cylinder. Calculate the compressor
T X = P X (n–1)/n Px2 = (P 1 )(P 4 ) work.
T1 P1 Px2 = (100 kPa)(5 MPa)
Px = 707.11 kPa V A = 0.1 m3/s
T X = 707.11 (1.4–1)/1.4 W = 2nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/2n – 1
269 K 100 n – 1 P1
T X = (269 K)(1.74868) W = (2)(1.32)(100k)(0.1) 800 0.32/2.64 – 1
T X = 470.40 K (197.40°C) 1.32 – 1 100
Q = m Cp (T X – T 1 ) Cp = 1.0216 kJ/kg- W = 23.65 kW – ans.
K also:
Q = (0.35 kg/s)(1.0216 kJ/kg-K)(470.4 W = 2nmRT 1 P 2 (n–1)/2n – 1
– 269) K n–1 P1
Q = 72.01 kJ/s
m= (100 kPa)(0.1 m3/s)
(287.08 J/kg-K)(32 + 273)K
Exam / Problem 17 m C = 0.1142 kg/s
An air compressor is to compress 10 cmm of air W = (2)(1.32)(0.1142 kg/s)(305 K)(287.08)
from 100 kPa to 1000 kPa. Assuming ideal 1.32 – 1
conditions, and with n = 1.3, what will be the 800 0.32/2.64 – 1
savings in work due to two staging? If the single 100
staged compressor is designed to run with a W = 23.65 kW – ans.
clearance of 8%, a bore of 18 cm and a stroke of
36 cm, at what speed (to the nearest rpm) should
it be operated? Problem 19
A single-acting air compressor with a volumetric
for single stage compressor : efficiency of 87% operates at 600 rpm. It takes
W = nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/n – 1 in air at 100 kPa, 30°C and discharges it at 600
n – 1 P1 kPa. The air handled is 6 cmm measured at
W = (1.3)(100k)(10 cmm) 1000 0.3/1.3 – 1 discharge condition. If compression is
(1.3 – 1)(60s/min) 100 isentropic, find the mean effective pressure.
W = 50.65 kW
for a two-stage compressor :
P x 2 = (P 2 )(P 1 )
P x 2 = (1000 kPa)(100 kPa) Problem 20
P x = 316.23 kPa A compressor has a cylinder diameter of 20 mm
W = (2)(1.3)(100k)(10) 316.23 0.3/1.3 – 1 and a piston rod length of 160 mm. The pres-
(1.3 – 1)(60) 100 sure at the beginning and end of compression are
W = 43.9578 kW 1 bar and 5 bars respectively and the deli-very
also : valves open when the piston is 120 mm from the
W = 2nP 1 V A P 2 (n–1)/2n – 1 beginning of compression. Find the clearance
n – 1 P1 volume if the polytropic exponent is 1.3.
W = (2)(1.3)(100k)(10) 1000 0.3/2.6 – 1 9 mm
120 mm
(1.3 – 1)(60) 100 500 kPa
W = 43.9575 kW 49 mm
savings :
S = 50.65 – 43.96 169 mm
31 mm

10 100 kPa
160 mm
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

N – speed, rev/s

Compressor Work / Single Acting – work

done by the compressor in compressing a given
P 1 V 1 1.3 = P 2 V 2 1.3 amount of gas
V = (π/4)d2L
P 1 [(π/4) d2 L 1 ]1.3 = P 2 [(π/4) d2 L 2 ]1.3 W = mnRT 1 P 2 (n – 1)/n
–1
P 1 [L 1 ]1.3 = P 2 [L 2 ]1.3 L 1 = L 2 + 0.12 n – 1 P1
P 1 [L 2 + 0.12]1.3 = P 2 [L 2 ]1.3
L 2 + 0.12 1.3 = P 2 = 5 W = nP 1 V A P2 (n – 1)/n
–1
L2 P1 n–1 P1
1.3 1.3
L 2 + 0.12 = √5 L 2 + 0.121.3 = L 2 √5 VA = V1 – V4 C = VC / VD
9 mm
L2 0.12 = L 2 ( √5 – 1) 3 2
120 mm 31 mm 49 mm 100 kPa
L 2 = 0.049 m, 500 49 kPa
mm
L 1 = L 2 + 120 L 1 = 169 mm
L 1 = C + 160 C = 9 mm
P3V 3n = P4V 4 n 1
4
P3 L3n = P4 L4n L3 = C vC vD
P3 = L4n = 5 vA
P4 Cn
L 4 = C (n√5) L 4 = 9 mm (1.3√5)
L 4 = 31.04 mm W – compressor work/power, J, W
C = VC = π/4 d2 (9 mm) m – mass of gas at intake conditions, kg
VD π/4 d2 (169 – 31 mm) n – polytropic index of compression
C = 9/138 R – ideal gas constant, J/kg-K
C = 6.52% T1 – temp. at intake conditions, K
e V = 1.0652 – 0.0652(5)1/1.3 P1 – pressure at intake, Pa
e V = 84.03% P2 – pressure at discharge, Pa
VA = eVVD VA – actual intake volume, cu.m.
V A = (0.8403)(π/4)(0.02)2(0.138) VC – clearance volume, or minimum
V A = 36.43 x 10–6 m3 volume when the piston is at TDC
V A = 36.43 cc / stroke VD – displacement volume, cu.m.
total volume in 1 hour : C – clearance ratio, percent
36.43 x 10–6 m3 1800 rev 60 min
rev min hour Volumetric efficiency – ratio of the volume of
V T = 3.93 m3/h at 25°C the gas actually drawn in at the intake con-dition
m = 4.59 kg by the compressor and the volume displaced by
the piston

e V = 1 + c – c (P 2 /P 1 )1/n
Summary of Formulas C = VC / VD
V A = (e V )(V D )
Single-Stage Compressor
eV – volumetric efficiency, percent
PVT Relations c – clearance ratio, percent
P 2 /P 1 – discharge/intake pressure ratio
P1V 1n = P2V 2 n also known as compression ratio
V A – actual intake volume, cu.m.
T2 n
= P2 n–1
T2 = V2 n–1 – also known as rated intake volume
T1 P1 T1 V1 or compressor capacity

P1 – intake pressure, Pa
V2 – discharge volume, cu.m. or L
T – temperature, K
n – polytropic index of compression Two-Stage Compressor

Piston Displacement, V D – actual volume Compressor Work

displaced by the piston, or, the volumetric differ- (n – 1)/n
ence between the TDC and BDC of the piston W = 2nP 1 V A Px –1
n–1 P1
V D = (π/4) D2 LN
P x = (P 1 P 2 )1/2
VD – volumetric displacement (n – 1)/2n
– actual volume displaced by the Or: W = 2nP 1 V A P2 –1
compressor’s piston n–1 P1
D – bore, m
L – stroke, m Heat rejected in the intercooler :

11
 Fluid
Compressors Machinery

(n-1)/n
Q = m Cp (T x – T 1 ) Tx = Px
Cp – 1.0213 kJ/kg-°C T1 P1

Heat absorbed by intercooler water :

Q = m w Cp w (∆T w )
Cp w – 4.1868 kJ/kg-°C

Power Saved / Increase

P S = (P S – P D ) / P S
P I = (P S – P D ) / P D

12