1.
wing divergence
Wing Divergence
twist angle ✓
zero twist angle of attack ↵0
lift curve slope a
non-dimensional factor e
chord length c
width of system b
rotational stiffness k
air velocity V
0 = k✓ Lec air density ⇢
= k✓ q e c2 b a (↵0 + ✓)
1 2
qec ba2 dynamic pressure q = V ⇢
= ↵0 2
k 2
qec ba
lift force L = q c b CL
Rq e c2 b a
= with R= lift coefficient CL = a (↵0 + ✓)
1 Rq k
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 13
1. wing divergence
1
We observe that ✓ ! 1 for q ! qdiv with qdiv = .
R
Rq q/qdiv
Thus, we may write ✓ = ↵0 = ↵0 .
1 Rq 1 q/qdiv
✓ q ✓ q
small increase of for < 0.5 , rapid increase of for ! 1
↵0 qdiv ↵0 qdiv
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 14
1. wing divergence
torsional stiffness is GJ
finite wing
centre of
shear
✓T = ?
aerodynamic centre
qdiv = ?
dT
equilibrium: = l(y) e c
dy
d✓
elasticity: T (y) = GJ
dy
deformation dependent load: l(y) = q c a ↵0 + ✓(y)
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 15
1. wing divergence
exact solution for rectangular wing with constant stiffness
Combining the equations for equilibrium, elasticity and aerodynamic load renders
d2 ✓ e c2 a
+ R q ✓(y) = R q ↵0 with R = .
dy 2 GJ
Trying ✓(y) = A sin( y) + B cos( y) ↵0 we obtain
2 2
(R q ) A sin( y) + (R q ) B cos( y) = 0 .
p
Thus, = Rq .
✓(0) = 0 ! B = ↵0
Use boundary conditions:
d✓
T (s) = 0 ! = 0 ! A = tan( s) ↵0
dy y=s
The solution is obtained as ✓(y) = (tan( s) sin( y) + cos( y)
<latexit sha1_base64="RZi/C85MZ6VlDIjedtLrgNnyadY=">AAACMXicbVDLSgMxFM34tr6qLt0MFqHFWmbcaBeC4EZ3FRwVmqHcSVMbzGSG5I4wlH6TG79EcKELFbf+hOljUasHAifn3ENyT5RKYdDzXp2Z2bn5hcWl5cLK6tr6RnFz69okmWY8YIlM9G0EhkuheIACJb9NNYc4kvwmuj8b+DcPXBuRqCvMUx7GcKdERzBAK7WKFxS7HKGcV07KFEGVqbThNtCqqVAjJu55ZZ+yxEwKB36FVinItAstr1UseTVvCPcv8cekRMZotIrPtJ2wLOYKmQRjmr6XYtgDjYJJ3i/QzPAU2D3c8aalCmJuwt5w5b67Z5W220m0PQrdoTqZ6EFsTB5HdjIG7JppbyD+5zUz7ByHPaHSDLlio4c6mXQxcQf9uW2hOUOZWwJMC/tXl3VBA0PbcsGW4E+v/JcEh7V6zbv0Sqf1cRtLZIfskjLxyRE5JeekQQLCyCN5Ie/kw3ly3pxP52s0OuOMM9vkF5zvH7AMqCQ=</latexit>
1) ↵0 .
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 16
1. wing divergence
✓ ◆
1
✓T = ✓(s) = 1 ↵0
cos( s)
⇡
We observe that ✓T ! 1 for s! .
2
r
e c2 a ⇡ 2 GJ
Thus, with = q , we obtain qdiv = 2 s2 a .
GJ 4 e c
We can write
! 30
1
✓T = p ⇡
1 ↵0 .
cos q/qdiv 2 ✓T
↵0
0 q 1
qdiv
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 17
1. wing divergence
finite element method
We use the principal of virtual work:
Introduce the virtual twist ✓(y) (kinematically admissible, small, but otherwise arbitrary).
Multiply the equation for local equilibrium by ✓(y) and integrate over the span.
Z s Z s
dT
✓(y) dy = l(y) e c ✓(y) dy
dy
|0 {z } |0 {z }
Wint Wext
Z s 2 Z s s
d ✓ d✓ d ✓ d✓
Wint = GJ ✓(y) dy = GJ dy GJ ✓(y)
0 dy 2 0 dy dy dy 0
The last term vanishes due to the boundary conditions.
Z s
d✓ d ✓
Wint = GJ dy
0 dy dy
Z s
Wext = q e c2 a ↵0 + ✓(y) ✓(y) dy
0
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 18
1. wing divergence
Subdivide the span into N finite elements:
N
X N
X
(e) (e)
Wint = Wint and Wext = Wext
e=1 e=1
✓2
✓1 ✓3 = ✓T
We use linear shape functions.
✓0 = 0 y
0 1 2 2 3 3
1
example with N = 3
s
In each element:
✓i ✓j
✓(⇠) = (1 ⇠) ✓i + ⇠ ✓j
i e j
✓(⇠) = (1 ⇠) ✓i + ⇠ ✓j
0 1 ⇠
dy le
y(⇠) = (1 ⇠) yi + ⇠ yj and = yj y i = le
d⇠
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 19
1. wing divergence
Z 1 ✓ ◆ 1 ⇢
(e) d✓ d ✓ dy GJe 1 1 ✓i
Wint = GJe d⇠ = { ✓i , ✓j } ·
0 d⇠ d⇠ d⇠ le 1 1 ✓j
Z 1 ✓ ⇢ ⇢ ◆
(e) dy 1 2 1 ✓i ↵0 1
Wext = q e c2 a ↵0 + ✓(⇠) ✓(⇠) d⇠ = { ✓i , ✓j } · q e c2 le a +
0 d⇠ 6 1 2 ✓j 2 1
Thus, using ✓0 = 0 and ✓0 = 0 , we obtain
2 8 9 3
>
> ✓1 >
N ⇣
X ⌘ 6 < > = 7
(e) (e) ✓2
0 = Wint Wext = { ✓1 , ✓2 , ..., ✓N } ·6
4(A q B) q ↵ 0 r7
5,
>
> ... >
e=1 : > ;
✓N
| {z }
{0, 0, ..., 0}T
where A , B and r are N-dimensional global matrices and vectors, which are assembled
from the element matrices and vectors. If e, c, a and GJ vary along the span, they are
different in each element. Since ✓e , e = 1, ..., N are arbitrary, every component of the
expression in the brackets must be zero.
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 20
1. wing divergence
Hence, for given q and ↵0 , the twist angles are obtained by solving the system of
linear equations.
T
(A q B) {✓1 , ✓2 , ..., ✓N } = q ↵0 r
The divergence pressure qdiv is obtained from det (A qdiv B) = 0 .
ee c2e le ae
Defining ze = and using N = 3 elements, A , B and r are, for example,
6
GJ1 GJ1
l1 l1 0 0 2 z1 z1 0 0 3 z1
GJ1 GJ2
l1
GJ1 GJ2
l1
+
l2 l2 0 z1 2(z1 +z2 ) z2 0 3(z1 +z2 )
GJ2 GJ2 GJ3 GJ3
0 l2 l2
+
l3 l3 0 z2 2(z2 +z3 ) z3 3(z2 +z3 )
GJ3 GJ3
0 0 l3 l3 0 0 z3 2 z3 3 z3
A B r
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 21
1. wing divergence
If the elements are of equal length and all parameters are constant along the span, we obtain
the following solutions:
exact N =1 N =3
✓ e c2 s2 a
for q =1 0.851 0.750 0.838
↵0 GJ
e c2 s2 a
qdiv 2.47 3.000 2.52
GJ
WGD EGEM07 Fluid-Structure Interaction 22
