UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES

C.M. Recto Ave., Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City

COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Electronics Technology Department

Electronic Devices 1
(ET121)

COURSE LECTURE MANUAL

Prepared and Compiled by:

Mr. Troadio M. Barbosa

Faculty, ECT Department

Name of Student : ________________________________________________

Course : ________________________________________________

Year / Section : ________________________________________________

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SUBJECT : ELECTRONICS DEVICES 1

MODULE NO. :5
TITLE : BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

In This Module:

ILO1.Describe the basic structure of the bipolar junction transistor.

ILO2.Explain the biasing of a transistor.
ILO3. Discuss transistor parameters and characteristics and using these to analyze a transistor
circuit.
ILO4.Discuss how a transistor is used as an amplifier, switch and as Regulator.
ILO5. Identify various types of transistor package configurations

INTRODUCTION

Transistors make excellent electronic switches. They can turn currents on and off billions of
times per second. Digital computers use transistors as a basic mechanism for storing and
moving data.

PRESENTATION

1. VACUUM TUBE - the main device used for amplifying weak signals before 1951.

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1.1 It has an internal filament or heater, which requires 1 W or more power.

1.2 It only lasts a few thousand hours before its filament burns out.
1.3 It takes up a lot of space.
1.4 It gives off heat that raises the internal temperature of the electronic equipment.

Anode Anode Anode

Grid Grids Grids

Cathode Cathode Cathode

TRIODE TETRODE PENTODE

2. TRANSISTORS - invented by Shockley in 1951.

- has no filament or heater; requires much less power.
- can last indefinitely because it is a semiconductor.
- takes up much less space because it is so small.
- produces much less heat.

USES: Amplification, Oscillation, Switching, regulation. It is also used as switching transistors that turn on
LEDs

APPLICATIONS: amplifier, tv, radio, power supply etc.

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2.1 Basic Types of Transistors

2.1.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) - both holes and electrons are the current
carriers.
2.1.2 Field Effect Transistor (FET) – either holes or electrons are the current
carriers.

2.2 Uses of Transistors

2.1.1 In communication system, the transistor is the primary component of the

amplifier.
2.1.2 In digital electronics, the transistor is used as a switch.

2.3 Polarity of a BJT

2.3.1 NPN Transistors

collector c c

n
base p b b
n

emitter e e

(a) The schematic symbol of an NPN transistor shows the emitter lead arrow Not
Pointing iN.
(b) The P-type semiconductor region is located between two N-type regions.
(c) The emitter and collector are N-type materials and the base is a P-type
material.

2.3.2 PNP Transistors

collector c c

p
base n b b
p

emitter e e

(a) The schematic symbol of a PNP transistor shows the emitter lead arrow is
pointing in.
(b) The N-type semiconductor region is located between two P-type regions.
(c) The emitter and collector are P-type materials and the base is an N-type
material.

NOTE: (a) Both transistors have the same basic operating characteristics.
(b) The primary difference lies on the polarity of the biasing voltages and the

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direction of the terminal currents.

(c) The NPN types are more popular.

2.4 Terminal Leads of a BJT

2.4.1 Emitter - emits the current carriers.

- sends its current carriers into the base region and then on to the
collector.
- very rich in current carriers because it is heavily doped.
2.4.2 Base - acts as the control region.
- can allow few or many current carriers to flow from the emitter to the
collector.
- very lightly doped.
2.4.3 Collector - collects the current carriers.
- lightly doped.

2.5 PN Junctions of a BJT

2.5.1 Base-Emitter Junction - the junction between the base and the emitter.
- referred to as emitter diode.
2.5.2 Collector-Base Junction - the junction between the base and the collector.
- known as collector diode.

NOTE (a) The resistance of the base-emitter junction is very low (100 ) compared to the
resistance of the collector-base junction (10 K).
(b) The large difference in junction resistance makes the transistor capable of power
gain.
(c) The transistor is a current controlled device. The base current controls the
amount of emitter current and therefore the collector current.

3. BIASING THE TRANSISTOR JUNCTIONS

3.1 When the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased, the transistor is said to be operating in the active region.

RE RC RE RC

VEE Forward Reverse VCC VEE Forward Reverse VCC

biased biased biased biased

NPN PNP

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3.1.1 The collector-base junction is reverse-biased when

NPN - the collector is positive with respect to the base.
PNP - the collector is negative with respect to the base.
3.1.2 The emitter-base junction is forward-biased when
NPN - the emitter is negative with respect to the base.
PNP - the emitter is positive with respect to the base.
3.1.3 The transistor is used as an amplifier. The circuit is called linear circuit because
changes in the input signal produce proportional changes in the output signal.
3.2 When both the emitter-base and the collector-base junctions are forward biased, the
transistor is said to be operating in the saturation region.

3.2.1 Saturation is the condition of the bipolar junction transistor when there is
maximum current from the emitter to the collector.
When VCE = 0; IC is maximum
3.2.2 At saturation, the transistor is like a closed switch.

3.3 When both the emitter-base and the collector-base junctions are reverse biased, the
transistor is said to be operating in the breakdown region. This will likely destroy or
degrade the transistor.

3.4 When the base current is zero, the transistor is said to be operating in the cut-off
region.

3.4.1 Cutoff is the condition of the bipolar junction transistor when there is
approximately zero current from the emitter to the collector.
When IC = 0; VCE = VCC
3.4.2 At cutoff, the transistor is like an open switch.

4. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSISTORS

4.1 The current equation of transistor: IE = IC + IB

IC IC
IE = emitter current IB IB
IB = base current
IC = collector current
IE IE

CONVENTIONAL FLOW ELECTRON FLOW

4.1.1 With no base current, there will be no emitter current and no collector current
because the base-emitter junction must be forward-biased for the emitter to emit.
Base current controls collector current and emitter current. When IB =0, then IC
=0 and IE = 0
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4.1.2 Most of the current carriers coming from the emitter cannot find carriers in the
base region to combine with. This tends to make the base current much lower
than the emitter current.
4.1.3 In most transistors, more than 95% of the emitter current carriers flow into the
collector and less than 5% flow out through the external base lead.
4.1.4 The base is very narrow and the collector bias attracts the carriers coming from
the emitter. This tends to make the collector current almost as high as the emitter
current. IC = IE

4.2 The voltage equation of transistor: VCE = VBE + VBC

VCB RC VCB RC
RB RB
VCE VCC VCE VCC

VBB VBE VBB VBE

NPN PNP

VCE = the voltage across the collector and the emitter.

VBE = the voltage across the base and the emitter.
= 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium
VCB = the voltage across the base and the collector.

4.2.1 VBB forward biases the emitter diode and VCC reverse biases the collector diode.
4.2.2 If VBB is greater than the barrier potential (0.7 V), the emitter electrons will enter
the base region. Only few of these free electrons will flow out of the base and
most of these free electrons will flow into the collector because the free electrons
have a long lifetime in the base region

4.3 The power dissipation of the transistor: PD = VCE x IC

4.3.1 The power dissipation causes the junction temperature of the collector diode to
increase. The higher the power, the higher the junction temperature.
4.3.2 Exceeding the maximum power dissipation will burn out the transistor.

Transistor operation

 Both PNP and NPN transistors are composed of different materials and current flow of these transistors
is also dissimilar.
 In an NPN transistor, the current flows from the collector (C) to the Emitter (E), whereas in a PNP
transistor, the current flows from the emitter to the collector.
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 PNP transistors are made up of two layers of P material with a sandwiched layer of N The NPN
transistors are made up of two layers of N material and sandwiched with one layer of P material.
 In an NPN transistor, a positive voltage is given to the collector terminal to produce a current flow from
the collector to For PNP transistor, a positive voltage is given to the emitter terminal to produce current
flow from the emitter to collector.
 The working principle of an NPN transistor is such that when you increase current to the base terminal,
then the transistor turns ON and it conducts fully from the collector to emitter. When you decrease the
current to the base terminal, the transistor turns ON less and until the current is so low, the transistor no
longer conducts across the collector to emitter, and shuts OFF.
 The working principle of a PNP transistor is such that when the current exists at the base terminal of the
transistor, then the transistor shuts OFF. When there is not current at the base terminal of the PNP
transistor, then the transistor turns ON.

(a) NPN
* thin P material sandwiched between N type materials.

Figure 2.2 Current flow ofNPN transistor

(b) PNP
* thin N material sandwiched between P type materials.
* the sandwiched material is the Base and the outer two are the Emitter and the Collector.

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Figure 2.3Current flow ofPNP transistor

Operation

* theE-B junction is forward bias.

* theC-B junction is reverse bias.
* charges move from the Emitter to
the Collector for PNP.

5. TRANSISTOR DC CURRENT GAIN - Beta (DC or hFE)

5.1 DC - the dc current gain from the base terminal to the collector terminal. A typical
value is 100, but it varies considerably.
5.2 The value of DC varies with temperature and among transistors with the same part
number. For example, if three identical 2N2712 transistors are checked for DC, values
of 98, 137, and 267 might be obtained.

5.3 DC - the ratio of the collector current to the emitter current.

5.4 Relationship of DC and DC

IC IC DC DC
DC = ---- DC = ---- DC = --------- DC = ---------
IB IE DC + 1 1 - DC

6. LEAKAGE CURRENT - the flow of minority carriers in transistors under the condition of
reverse bias.

6.1 ICBO - the current that flows across the collector-base junction under conditions of
reverse-biased and with the emitter lead opens.

6.2 ICEO - the current that flows across the collector-emitter junction under conditions of
reverse-biased and with the base lead opens.

ICEO = DC x ICBO

NOTE: ICEO is the largest leakage current because it is an amplified form of I CBO.

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7. TRANSISTOR TESTING

7.1 Curve Tracer - used to show the characteristic curve of a transistor.

7.2 Dynamic Testing - the transistor is placed in a special fixture or test circuit which
makes the device operate with real voltages and signals.

7.2.1 It is valuable in very high and ultra-high frequency.

7.2.2 It reveals power gain and noise figure under real conditions. Noise figure is a
measure of a transistor's ability to amplify weak signals.

7.3 Ohmmeter Test - used to identify the polarity of a transistor (NPN or PNP) and the
three leads (emitter, base, collector).
- usually limited to test out-of-circuit transistors.

7.3.1 Set the selector range switch of the ohmmeter to R x 10.

7.3.2 Find the two leads showing high resistance with both polarities applied. The
remaining lead is the base lead.

7.3.3 With the positive lead on the base, a low resistance should be found to either of
the two remaining leads if the transistor is NPN.
7.3.4 With the ohmmeter across the emitter-collector leads, connect a resistor (10K)
from the positive lead to the base for an NPN unit. Reverse the emitter-collector
leads. The lowest resistance is obtained when the positive lead is on the
collector.

NOTE: SANWA Testers have reversed polarity. The red test probe is plugged to the -COM
socket and the black test probe to the + socket of the tester.

OTHER TECHNIQUES OF OHMETER TEST

Determining Base Lead and Type Polarity (any brand of Japanese multitester tester)

1. connecting meter prod to terminal one and two of the transistor lead
2.find the two forward resistance
(a) the lead to which the meter prod is connected in Step (1) is the Base.
(b) if the meter prod connected to the Base is negative, the transistor is NPN.
(c) if the meter prod connected to the Base is positive, the transistor is PNP.

Determining Emitter and Collector Leads using SANWA mulitimeter

1. touch the base of the transistor

2.Connect the meter prods to the 2 undetermined transistor leads to obtain a forward resistance reading
(range setting may need to be changed to a higher range setting)
3. Apply forward and reverse connection and choose low resistance,
if the transistor is NPN, the lead to which the positive prod is connected is the Emitter, the
remaining undetermined lead is the Collector.
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4.if the transistor is PNP, the lead to which the negative prod is the Emitter, the remaining
undetermined lead is the Collector.

Troubles and Tests

(a) Emitter-Base shorted
* VOM reads zero
* reversing meter prods still reads zero

(b)Emitter-Base Open
* VOM reads infinity
* reversing meter prodsstill reads infinity.

(c) Collector-Base Shorted

* VOM reads zero
* reversing meter prods still reads zero.

(d) Collector-Base Open

* VOM reads infinity
* reversing meter prodsstill reads infinity.
e) Emitter-Collector Shorted
* VOM reads zero
* reversing meter prods still reads zero.
(f) Emitter-Collector Open
* VOM reads infinity
* reversing meter prodsstill reads infinity.
(g) Leaky Junction
* forward and reverseresistance readings ofjunction do not differ much.

7.4 In-Circuit Transistor Testing

7.4.1 In-Circuit Transistor Tester

7.4.2 Voltmeter - voltage analysis
7.4.3 Oscilloscope - signal tracing
7.4.4 Signal Generator - signal injection

8. TRANSISTOR APPROXIMATIONS

8.1 Ideal Transistor - adequate in troubleshooting.

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8.1.1 There is no saturation, cut-off, and breakdown regions

8.1.2 The emitter diode has no barrier potential and bulk resistance.
VBE = 0

8.2 Second Approximation - good in troubleshooting and design. The emitter diode has a
barrier potential, VBE = 0.7 V but has no bulk resistance.

8.3 Third Approximation - used in design. The emitter diode has both barrier potential
and bulk resistance.

9. TRANSISTOR CATEGORIES

9.1 General-Purpose/Small-Signal Transistors

9.1.1 These are used for low or medium power amplifiers or switching circuits.
9.1.2 The packages are either plastic or metal cases.
9.1.3 Certain types of packages contain multiple transistors. Some of these such as
the dual in-line (DIP) and the small-outline (SO) are in the package as that of the
integrated circuits.
9.1.4 Power dissipation is half a watt or less.

9.2 Power Transistors

9.2.1 These transistors are used to handle large currents (typically more than 1
amp) and/or large voltages. For example, the final audio stage in a stereo
system uses a power transistor amplifier to drive the speakers.
9.2.2 In most application, the metal tab or the metal case is common to the collector
and is thermally connected to a heat sink for heat dissipation.
9.2.3 Power dissipation is more than half a watt.

9.3 RF Transistors

9.3.1 These transistors are designed to operate at extremely high frequencies and are
commonly used for various purposes in communications systems and other high
frequency applications.
9.3.2 Their unusual shapes and lead configurations are designed to optimize certain
high-frequency parameters.

10. TRANSISTOR DATA SHEET

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10.1 Data Sheet and volumes provide data sheets covering the mechanical, thermal, and
electrical characteristics of the parts they make.
10.2 Substitution Guides provide information about a particular transistor.
10.3 Substitution Guides are not totally accurate, but they do provide a good, general idea
about the device.
10.4 Substitution Guides and Parts Catalog often list transistor as audio types, VHF types,
switching types, or general-purpose types.
10.5 It is possible to choose a replacement transistor by considering polarity,
semiconductor material, voltage and current levels, and circuit function.

11. TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT DEFECTS

11.1 Open/Shorted junctions - BE, CB, or CE junction

11.1.1 When the collector-emitter (CE) junction is open, all the transistor junctions
are open.
11.1.2 When the collector-emitter (CE) junction is shorted, all the transistor junctions
are shorted.

11.2 Low ßDC - less than 20

11.3 Excessive leakage currents

11.4 External opens and shorts on the circuit board

SWITCHING TRANSISTOR

Led Application Touch switch appilcation

Below are the four transistor operation modes:

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 Saturation – The transistor acts like a short circuit. Current freely flows from collector to
emitter.

 Cut-off – The transistor acts like an open circuit. No current flows from collector to emitter.

 Active – The current from collector to emitter is proportional to the current flowing into the

base.
 Reverse-Active – Like active mode, the current is proportional to the base current, but it flows
in reverse. Current flows from emitter to collector .

Figure 2.4switching transistor

analysis

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Transistor Amplifier

A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage applied to the
emitter base junction, makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward bias is maintained regardless
of the polarity of the signal. The below figure shows how a transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.

The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an appreciable change in the
output. The emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the collector current, which when flows
through the load resistor RL, results in a large voltage drop across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large
output voltage, which shows that the transistor works as an amplifier.

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Example

Let there be a change of 0.1v in the input voltage being applied, which further produces a change of 1mA in the
emitter current. This emitter current will obviously produce a change in collector current, which would also be
1mA.

A load resistance of 5kΩ placed in the collector would produce a voltage of

5 kΩ × 1 mA = 5V

Hence it is observed that a change of 0.1v in the input gives a change of 5v in the output, which means the
voltage level of the signal is amplified.

Determining Alpha, Beta ,and Gamma [3]

Alpha - current gain of a Common Base circuit

Formula: Alpha = Ic/Ie
= 3 ma/3.06 mA
= .98
(dynamic) Alpha= deltaIc
deltaIe
* alpha is always less than 1 because Ic s always less than Ie
* Ie is the sum of Ic and Ib - Ie = Ic + Ib

Beta - current gain of a Common Emitter circuit

Formula: Beta = Ic/Ib
= 3 mA/60 uA
= 3 mA/.06 mA
= 50
(dynamic) Beta = deltaIc
deltaIe
gamma of a transistor
* current gain of a common collector circuit.
Formula:
gamma = Ie
Ib
Calculation Gain
1. Voltage Gain - ratio of the AC output voltage to the Ac input voltage

Formula: Av = AC output V
AC input V
= 7.2 V
100 V
= 7.2 V
.1 V
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= 72
2. Current Gain - ratio of the AC output current to the AC input current
Formula: Ai = AC output I
AC input I
= 3.6 mA
80 uA
= 3.6 mA
.08
= 45
3. Power Gain - product of Voltage Gain and Current Gain
Formula: Ap= Av X Ai
= 72 X 45
= 3240

Transistor as a regulator

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically ‘regulate’ voltage level. It basically steps down the input
voltage to the desired level and keeps that in that same level during the supply. This makes sure that even when
a load is applied the voltage doesn’t drop.

Thus, a voltage regulator is used for two reasons:-

1. To regulate or vary the output voltage of the circuit.

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2. To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in-spite of variations in the supply voltage or in
the load current.

Series-regulator

Shunt regulator

REFERENCES:

[1] Electronics devices and circuit theory, 5th Edition by Robert Boylestad, Chapter 16, pp. 669-704.
[2] “Audio amplifier”. https://www.electroschematics.com/552/lm386-audio-amplifier/. Retrieved: 11/3/2019
[3] “Vacuum tube”. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube/. Retrieved: 11/3/2018.

[4] “Transistor”. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor. Retrieved: 11/3/2018

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