Smart Cities and

Construction Technologies
Edited by Sara Shirowzhan and Kefeng Zhang
 Smart Cities and
Construction Technologies
Edited by Sara Shirowzhan
and Kefeng Zhang

Published in London, United Kingdom

Supporting open minds since 2005
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86103
Edited by Sara Shirowzhan and Kefeng Zhang

Contributors
Faham Tahmasebinia, Anqi Shi, Sara Shirowzhan, Samad M.E. Sepasgozar, Alireza Kaboli, Mohammad
Mojtahedi, Laurence Kimmel, Jack Peacock, Reyhaneh Karimi, Behnaz Avazpour, Alan McNamara, Farhad
Soheili, Aman Kumar, Jasvir Singh Rattan, Mohsen Ghobadi

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 Meet the editors

Dr Sara Shirowzhan is a lecturer of City Analytics at the Faculty

of Built Environment, University of New South Wales, Australia.
She completed her PhD in Geomatic Engineering at the School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New
South Wales, Australia. Sara started teaching in built environ-
ment disciplines from 2007 and currently teaches GIS, BIM,
and major project courses at undergraduate and postgraduate
levels. She has supervised 22 Master’s students and has been involved in university
and government funded research projects. She has developed her skills in advanced
technologies for sustainable and smart built environments such as laser scanning,
nD BIM, nD GIS, GIS based app and dashboard creation, digital twins, big data
analysis, VR, and AR.

Dr Kefeng Zhang is a senior research associate at Water Research

Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW
Sydney. Dr Zhang received his PhD from Monash University in
2015 and developed a framework for the validation of micropo-
llutant removal in passive stormwater treatment systems. He has
been working mainly in the area of urban stormwater manage-
ment, including stormwater quality monitoring and modelling,
green technologies (e.g., stormwater bio-retention systems and green walls) that are
developed under the concept of Water Sensitive Urban Design (also called Sponge
City, Low Impact Development, and Natural-based Solution), as well as develop-
ment of integrated urban water modelling.
Contents

Preface XIII

Section 1
Smart City Studies 1

Chapter 1 3
A Journey from Conventional Cities to Smart Cities
by Aman Kumar and Jasvir Singh Rattan

Chapter 2 17
Earthscraper: A Smart Solution for Developing Future Underground
Cities
by Faham Tahmasebinia, Kevin Yu, Jiachen Bao, George Chammoun,
Edwin Chang, Samad Sepasgozar and Fernando Alonso Marroquin

Chapter 3 35
Floating Cities Bridge in 2050
by Faham Tahmasebinia, Yutaka Tsumura, Baichuan Wang, Yang Wen,
Cheng Bao, Samad Sepasgozar and Fernando Alonso-Marroquin

Chapter 4 51
A GIS-Based Risk and Safety Analysis of Entrance Areas in
Educational Buildings Based on Students’ Experience
by Sara Shirowzhan, Laurence Kimmel, Mohammad Mojtahedi,
Samad Sepasgozar and Jack Peacock

Chapter 5 65
The Effect of Place Attachment on Educational Efficiency in
Elementary Schools
by Farhad Soheili, Reyhaneh Karimi, Behnaz Avazpour
and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar

Chapter 6 95
Effective Factors on Desirability of Private Open Spaces: A Case
Study of Kuye Nasr Residential Buildings, Tehran
by Reyhaneh Karimi, Behnaz Avazpour and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar
Section 2
Technology Applications in Construction 117

Chapter 7 119
Automating the Chaos: Intelligent Construction Contracts
by Alan McNamara

Chapter 8 139
5D BIM Applications in Quantity Surveying: Dynamo and
3D Printing Technologies
by Anqi Shi, Sara Shirowzhan, Samad M.E. Sepasgozar and Alireza Kaboli

Chapter 9 157
An Investigation of Virtual Reality Technology Adoption in
the Construction Industry
by Mohsen Ghobadi and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar

XII
 Preface

Smart technologies are increasingly used in different businesses and industries. A

wide range of these technologies and digital innovations are applicable to smart
cities. In addition, the construction industry also uses the advantages of disruptive
technologies to enhance productivity and safety. At some point, cities, infrastruc-
tures, and construction processes can share the data collected at different stages,
and help to increase sustainability, decrease emissions, and improve efficiency.
These concepts refer to a broad range of subtopics, practices, and technologies
that cannot be collected by a book or journal. Therefore, this book is limited to two
sections, which include nine chapters covering some of the subtopics that will be
useful for scholars in the field of smart cities and construction technologies. Each
section will be described in the following two paragraphs, and details of each topic
are available in the full chapters.

Section 1, Smart City Studies

This section begins with a review chapter on a journey from conventional cities
to smart cities. In this chapter, changes of conventional cites to smarter cities
through improvements of residents’ lifestyles and reduction of waste and pollution
are explored. Another chapter discusses earth scrapers as an alternative building
method for underground city development that requires less surface area and has
lower heating and cooling costs. An analysis of thermal comfort seems promising
as it shows internal temperature of such buildings ranging from 20 to 38 degrees,
which is within the comfort zone temperature range. In another chapter, the
structure of floating cities bridge is analysed to determine the amount of load,
stress, and deflection of the structure. The floating bridge is defined as a connector
between cities where the population is high and there is significant land scarcity
for urban developments. In another study, a GIS based risk and safety analysis
is conducted for designing smarter buildings in the future. The study presents a
set of innovative evaluation criteria to assess the perceived safety in educational
buildings. The feelings of safety are mapped within a GIS environment to identify
the most problematic locations in terms of perceived safety. In a different chap-
ter, effective factors in students’ sense of attachment to school and educational
efficiency are explored. Additionally, omission of certain open spaces such as
courtyards in cities has been explored and identified as factors contributing in the
reduction of residents satisfaction in their apartments so the factors affecting the
satisfaction related to the open spaces in apartments are discussed for enhance-
ment of the quality of life, health, and wellbeing in future smart cities.

Section 2, Technology Applications in Construction

In Section 2, construction technologies such as intelligent construction con-

tracts, 5D BIM for 3D printing, and adoption of Virtual Reality are discussed.
Automated intelligent contracts (i.e. “iContracts”) as the protocols for facilitation,
verification, or enforcement of the negotiations are proposed for minimising
the need for conventional human management. In the era of smarter cities, the
construction industry is also transforming the processes to digital construction.
Building Information Modelling (BIM) plays a key role in digital construction.
Dimensions of BIM are being introduced to make calculations and visualisations
more effective and efficient. The fifth dimension of BIM, known as 5D BIM, can
be defined as BIM based cost estimation and it is currently very important for
quantity surveyors in construction processes. The application of 5D BIM for 3D
printing of building and infrastructure components is discussed in this section.
Virtual Reality (VR) is another emerging technology being increasingly used in
construction and smart cities. While the application of this technology is proven
for training, education, and safety modellings, the adoption of VR in construction
is still questionable and one of the chapters of this book explores this.

Sara Shirowzhan
Faculty of Built Environment,
University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia

Kefeng Zhang
Water Research Centre,
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia

XIV
 Section 1

Smart City Studies

1
Chapter 1

A Journey from Conventional

Cities to Smart Cities
Aman Kumar and Jasvir Singh Rattan

Abstract

In the 1990s, all the cities were conventional cities because at that time there was
no concept of the Internet. In the last decade, the concept of smart city has been
spread all over the world with the advancement of Internet, and it puts an impact
on both small and large cities. In the present scenario, the urban areas affected by
various problems and smart cities are only the solutions. The definition of smart
cities depends on the word of “smart,” which means a digital city, intelligent city,
and sustainable city. The basic concept of the smart cities is that the city should be
“green,” more “accessible,” and more “liveable.” This chapter explores the changes
made in the conventional cities to become the smart cities, which helps to improve
the lifestyle of city people and reduce waste and pollution.

Keywords: smart cities, smart environment, digital city, sustainable urban

development, conventional cities

1. Introduction

On the inception of civilization, when man decided to settle and abandon a

wandering lifestyle, his immediate requirement was a suitable shelter. Firstly, he lives

Figure 1.
Main goals of Small City projects.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

in caves, then shifted to man-made huts, from man-made to villages and lastly shifted
to conventional cities. The conventional cities defined as the cities in which people
live without using the latest technology in all aspects. The latest technology related to
the smart infrastructure, smart traffic arrangements, and smart living standards of
life. But in present scenario, with the fast growth in population, create challenges to
the government as well as public sector. So, smart cities provide the best solution in
such cases for the better life of urban areas. The first smart city of the world, which

Figure 2.
Different types of cities.

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was introduced in the year of 2014 is in Seoul the capital of South Korea [1, 2]. The
strategic goals of Seoul smart city projects are Sustainability, Advanced Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) and Competitiveness as shown in Figure 1 [3].
The developing country like India, the question is not that what to build, but where to
build. The land resources are very limited and population growth at a very fast rate. In
the case of Singapore from the independence of 1965, they reclaim the land about 23%
using the sea. As the urban populations rise the world will face unprecedented chal-
lenges, like house, transport, and food. In the future as the rural population decrease
ensuring food stability will be key. Singapore adopts good way to grow the food in the
urban environment [4]. Traditional land farming grows produce outside on a flat linear
area. But sicinius system grows food inside in any building expanding agriculture’s
footprint up into the sky. This is called vertical farming. Vertical farming is good for the
areas which have land scarcity [5]. As populations age and incidence of diabetes con-
tinue to across the developed world, so, it is important to encourage the citizens to eat
smart and well [6]. The main objectives of this chapter are: (a) the difference between
smart cities and conventional cities (b) artificial intelligence in smart cities (c) various
definitions of smart cities and (d) smart city indexed parameters (Figure 1).

2. Literature review

2.1 Types of cities

The various types of cities which include Learning, Cities, Virtual City, Digital
City, Knowledge City, Intelligent City, Information City, green City and Sustainable
City are defined in Figure 2.

2.2 Definitions of smart cities

The various definitions of the smart cities have been described in Table 1, which
are taken from the various research papers from the origin of the smart cities concept.

Reference Definition

Hall [7] In smart cities the author Hall mainly focused on the good condition of building and
infrastructures with the addition of security of city people.
California The California institute describes the smart city on the basis of smart community. The
Institute [8] smart community is that community which is ready to work with the latest technology.
Caragliu et al. [9] Caragliu defined the smart city on the foundation of human being, smart capital and
modern IT infrastructure which are the fuel of sustainable city and also provide high
quality life to the urban civilization.
Su et al. [10] Smart City is the product of Digital City combined with the Internet of Things.
Batagan [11] A Smart City well-performing built on the “smart” combination of endowments and
activities of self-decisive, independent and aware citizens.
Lu et al. [12] Smart City is a city in which it can combine technologies as diverse as water recycling,
advanced energy grids, and mobile communications in order to reduce environmental
impact and to offer its citizens better lives.
Dameri [13] AAuthor defined the smart cities on the basis of geographical area in which he include
various parameters such as: quality of life, intelligence development, use of green and
eco-friendly resources and able to state the rules and policy for the city government
and its development.

Table 1.
Definitions of smart cities from literature.

5
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

3. Conventional cities

These cities have very intricate systems of organized people, business, “trans-
portation”, “communication networks”, “services”, and “utilities” [14, 15]. As the
city grows, they create the technical, social, economic and organizational pressures
that put economic and environmentally sustainability in jeopardy. The conventional
cities use the non-renewable resources of energy. In these cities, there is no proper
management for garbage and control pollution [3]. The typical type of conventional
city shown in Figure 3.
In conventional cities the people are suffering from many problems such as
water issues, insufficient of electricity, poor traffic management, poor lifestyle [16],
conventional education system, the hospitals are not well equipped, lack of employ-
ment, safety, and security, people are not much aware of the facilities and rule and
regulations and growth of uncontrollable population [17]. To overcome these all the
problems, the conventional cities take the transformation to the smart cities.

Figure 3.
Image of conventional city which is situated in India.

4. Smart city

The smart cities can be defined as “it is the future of the urban population/cities,
made safe and secure and having good environment” [18]. The material used for the
construction of smart cities should be eco-friendly and the city having tracking and
decision making algorithms [19]. Smart cities demand carefully planning at early
ages, it is important the city will fulfill the requirements of government and citizen.
A clear strategy must address two key factors: “functions” and “purposes,” the func-
tion refers to aesthetical appearance and operations of a city, and “purposes” refers
to the benefits promised by a smart city model [20].

5. Background of smart cities

With the increase in the population and the growth of urban cities, cities have
been endowed unprecedented power on politics, economic and technology and
play a crucial role in the world. As reported in history, every global crisis related to
finance or energy always triggers a technical revolution, and the winner will lead
the economic development as shown in Figure 4 [21]. Traditional city development
pattern based on straightforward use of non-renewable sources such as coal-fuel,
petroleum, and natural gas, which results in pollution and creates a problem for

6
A Journey from Conventional Cities to Smart Cities
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Figure 4.
Background of smart cities.

people who work in that area. The “sustainable development”, “Smart Growth”,
and “Intensive Development” have been proposed by the government mostly in
all the countries [22]. The concept of the smart city has been proposed by the IBM
company at the end of 2009 following “smart earth” and it receives attentions of
governments, scholars, and citizens.
In developing countries, the word “smart” is related to the mental ability of the
people to understand the technology and use it in a right way. To prepare the urban
population in such a way, so they can deals with the problems smartly and find the
perfect solution in an eco-friendly way. The major problem in the urban cities is
energy crises. So, in smart cities foremost focus of the government is that to promote
the quality of urban operations and the policies of the urban development [23].

5.1 Basic requirement for a city

The basic components for every city are Land, People, Government, and
Infrastructure.
Land: Land is the same for both cities conventional and smart cities. The land is
that area, where the city is to be growing.
People: The people in conventional cities are different from smart cities. In
conventional cities, people are not much aware of the latest technological features.
But in smart cities, people are aware of smart technology such as the Internet of
Things (IoT), wireless communication and cashless technology.
Government: Support of the government is very important and it is the respon-
sibility of the government to introduce the latest technology in the smart cities and
also provide awareness among the citizens.
Infrastructure: Now in this present era, the land space is very limited, and it is
essential to place the infrastructure in such a way so every citizen has comfortably
sufficient space for their living.

5.2 Applying the smart cities

Currently, the construction of the smart cities is on-trend, more than 50 coun-
ties work on the concept of smart cities. There are many problems in the urban
areas such as environmental issues, overpopulation and traditional methods are
not able to cope up from that problem [24]. From the last decade, all the countries
begin to start working on Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, networking
and other innovative technologies which helps to make the cities intelligent for the
purpose of energy conservation and improving their long-term benefits for future
[25]. The world’s most top 10 smart cities are London, New York, Amsterdam,

7
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Paris, Reykjavik, Tokyo, Singapore, Copenhagen, Berlin and Vienna reported by

IESE Cities in Motion in the year 2019. The representation of these cities with their
location is shown in Figure 5.
The distribution of the cities is shown on the world map in Figure 5. As per
indexing of IESE 2019, they indexed 165 smart cities in all over the world depend-
ing on their dimensions such as “Economy”, “Human Capital”, “Social Cohesion”,
“Environment, Governance”, “Urban Planning”, “International outreach”,
“Technology”, “Mobility” and “Transportation”.

5.3 List of smart cities continent wise

The given table shows the countrywise list of the smart cities which are
indexed by the IESE smart system 2019. This table categorized the countries
according to their continent with their ranks. In Asia the Tokyo city of Japan
placed in first rank as per the smart city index and in Australia the Sydney city

Figure 5.
Top 10 smart cities in the world (indexed by IESE smart system).

Figure 6.
Geography distribution of smart cities (continental wise).

8
A Journey from Conventional Cities to Smart Cities
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of Australia placed in the first rank. Similarly, the other cities with their country
name placed rankwise, indexed in Table 2 [26]. And the geographical distribu-
tion of smart cities shown in Figure 6.

5.4 The framework of smart cities

The framework of smart cities is divided into six parts such as smart mobility,
smart environment, smart people, smart living, smart governance, and smart
economy as shown in Figure 7 [27, 28].

Continent Cities (countries)

Asia Tokyo (Japan), Singapore (Singapore), Hong Kong (China), Seoul (South Korea), Taipei
(Taiwan), Shanghai (China), Osaka (Japan), Tel Aviv (Israel), Nagoya (Japan), Beijing
(China), Dubai (United Arab Emirates), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), Bangkok (Thailand),
Guangzhou (China), Istanbul (Turkey), Shenzhen (China), Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam),
Jerusalem (Israel), Tbilisi (Georgia), Doha (Qatar), Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates),
Almaty (Kazakhstan), Baku (Azerbaijan), Ankara (Turkey), Jakarta (Indonesia), Kuwait
City (Kuwait), Amman (Jordan), Bangalore (India), Tianjin (Chin), Manama (Bahrain),
Mumbai (India), Manila (Philippines), Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), New Delhi (India), Kolkata
(India), Lahore (Pakistan) and Karachi (Pakistan).

Africa Casablanca (Morocco), Tunis (Tunisia), Douala (Cameroon), Cape Town (South Africa),
Nairobi (Kenya), Cairo (Egypt), Johannesburg (South Africa), Rabat (Morocco) and Lagos
(Nigeria).

Australia Sydney (Australia), Melbourne (Australia), Wellington (New Zealand) and Auckland (New
Zealand).

Europe London (United Kingdom), Amsterdam (Netherlands), Paris (France), Reykjavik (Iceland),
Copenhagen (Denmark), Berlin (Germany), Vienna (Austria), Stockholm (Sweden), Oslo
(Norway), Zurich (Switzerland), Helsinki (Finland), Madrid (Spain), Munich (Germany),
Barcelona (Spain), Basel (Switzerland), Bern (Switzerland), Geneva (Switzerland), Frankfurt
(Germany), Hamburg (Germany), Goteborg (Sweden), Dublin (Ireland), Milan (Italy),
Rotterdam (Netherlands), Lisbon (Portugal), Edinburgh (United Kingdom), Prague (Czech
Republic), Brussels (Belgium), Dusseldorf (Germany), Cologne (Germany), Stuttgart
(Germany), Lyon (France), Eindhoven (Netherlands), Valencia (Spain), Birmingham (United
Kingdom), Glasgow (United Kingdom), Tallinn (Estonia), Warsaw (Poland), Bratislava
(Slovakia), Antwerp (Belgium), Budapest (Hungry), Vilnius (Lithuania), Rome (Italy),
Seville (Spain), Manchester (United Kingdom), Leeds (United Kingdom), Malaga (Spain),
Riga (Latvia), Nice (France), Moscow (Russia), Linz (Austria), Palma de Mallorca (Spain),
Marseille (France), Duisburg (Germany), Porto (Portugal), Ljubljana (Slovenia), Liverpool
(United Kingdom), Wroclaw (Poland), Nottingham (United Kingdom), Lille (France),
Zaragoza (Spain), Zagreb (Croatia), A Coruna (Spain), Bucharest (Romania), Murcia
(Spain), Athens (Greece), Bilbao (Spain), Florence (Italy), Turin (Italy), Minsk (Belarus),
Kiev (Ukraine), Sofia (Bulgaria), Naples (Italy), Belgrade (Serbia), Saint Petersburg (Russia),
Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Skopje (North Macedonia) and Novosibirsk (Russia).

South Santiago (Chile), Buenos Aries (Argentina), Montevideo (Uruguay), San Jose (Costa Rica),
America Panama (Panama), Bogota (Colombia), Rosario (Argentina), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil),
Brasilia (Brazil), Sao Paulo (Brazil), Mexico City (Mexico), Medellin (Colombia), Santo
Domingo (Dominican Republic), Cordoba (Argentina), Lima (Peru), Curitiba (Brazil),
Asuncion, (Paraguay), Cali (Colombia), La Paz (Bolivia), Belo Horizonte (Brazil), Guayaquil
(Ecuador), Guatemala (Guatemala) and Caracas (Venezuela).

North New York (USA), Los Angeles (USA), Chicago (USA), Toronto (Canada), San Francisco
America (USA), Washington (USA), Boston (USA), Montreal (Canada), Ottawa (Canada), Miami
(USA), Phoenix (USA), Dallas (USA), Denver (USA), Philadelphia (USA), Vancouver
(Canada), Houston (USA), Quebec (Canada), Seattle (USA), San Diego (USA), San Antonio
(USA) and Baltimore (USA).

Table 2.
List of smart cities (continent wise by their ascending order).

9
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Figure 7.
The framework of smart cities.

6. Artificial intelligence for smart cities

Artificial intelligence is an interdisciplinary science and technology founded

on many disciplines such as Computer Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics,
Mathematics, and Engineering [29]. The leader of artificial intelligence John
McCarthy defined AI as “The science and engineering of making intelligent
machines, especially intelligent computer programs” [30]. Artificial Intelligence is
that technology, in which we program the machine in such a way, that they think
intelligently and works accordingly human intelligence. AI works on the basis of the
human brain, how the human brain thinks, decide to work and find the solution of
the problems [31]. In smart cities artificial intelligence plays a crucial role because in

Figure 8.
The infrastructure of smart cities.

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smart cities, the data is big so we need big data studies by using artificial intelligence
[32]. The infrastructure of smart cities with various parameters shown in Figure 8.

7. Smart cities indexed parameters

By IESE Cities in motions, they defined nine parameters, on the bases of

these parameters we indexed the smartness of the cities. These nine parameters
are: Economy of the city, Human Capital of the city, International relation of the
city, Medium of the Transportation inside the city and with connected cities,
Environmental conditions, advanced technology, urban planning, governance,
interaction of the people and Infrastructure as shown in Figure 9 [33].

7.1 Economy

The economy plays an important role to make the city smart with their advance-
ment in the public sector. The economic dimension includes; plans of local eco-
nomic development, initiatives by entrepreneurs and plans by industry.

7.2 Human capital

The main focus of the smart cities to improve the human capital. The human
capital includes following parameters such as: higher education, research programs,
business school, Museum and art gallery etc, [34]. A smart governance only works
if the human capital retaining that talent and promoting creativity.

7.3 International outreach

The international outreach means that the smart city has that brand so that
become the favorite place for the tourists. The international outreach also contains
the foreign investments and representing the city in global level.

Figure 9.
Smart City indexed parameters.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

7.4 Mobility and transport

The future cities are facing two problems in the area of mobility and trans-
port: (a) access to public areas and (b) movement inside the city. The mobility
and transport contain both the vehicle and infrastructure parts. So, that in smart
cities use those types of vehicle which having low CO2 emissions. And as per the
infrastructure point of view, it should be free and traffic jams and well organized.
The main smart cities mobility and transport parameters are: traffic index, metro
length, metro stations, flights, high-speed trains and gas stations.

7.5 Environment

The environment should be green, clean and free from all types of pollutions. To
clean the environment from the pollution by planting the anti-pollution trees, sup-
port green buildings system and use alternative sources of the energy. The indictor
of the environment which showing their index in smart cities are: CO2 emission,
renewable water resources, solid waste management and pollution index.

7.6 Technology

The technology is not only the important aspect of the smart cities, but it is the
backbone of the cities that make them “smart” [35]. Technology puts an important
impact on the smart cities, it increases the quality of life, provides safety and
security. The various indicator of technology are social media, smart mobile phone
used by city people, WiFi supported city and Camera Security.

7.7 Urban planning

Urban planning mostly contains all types of infrastructure which includes build-
ings, railway lines, airports or seaports. The indicators of the urban planning are:
no. of household uses sanitation facility, high-rise buildings and number of people
per household.

7.8 Governance

Governance describes the effectives of the people to solve the city problems.
The governance indicators are research centers, embassies, government buildings,
government development index and democracy [36, 37].

7.9 Social cohesion

Social cohesion defined as “it is a sociological dimension of the city, as the

degree of consensus among the members of a social group or as the perception of
the belonging to a common situation or project” [38]. The indicator of the social
cohesion is rate of crime, health, hospitals, happiness index, price of property,
mortality and terrorism [39].

7.10 Infrastructures

The infrastructure contains all types of building structures, and other city
structures. The material used during the construction should be eco-friendly and
after destruction, it is useable for other construction purposes (Figure 9).

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8. Conclusion

In this era, we are mostly dealing with the Internet which is becoming smarter
and more intelligent than ever. As per the definitions of the smart city, it should
be including efficient water, primary health, smart grids, wireless Internet access,
efficient waste, road safety, clean energies, transportation and education, and
e-governance. The security of the smart city is very important and it depends
mainly on the factor such as city governance, socio-economic and technological
dependence. The primary role of these factors to resolve the security-related issues.
ICT technology plays an important role to form a smart city. This does not only help
to solve the infrastructure-related problems, but also take care of security-related
problems. The ultimate mission of the smart city is to brave innovative creativity by
the government and commercial sector to initiate the financial progress and develop
day -to day quality of life by empowering local development and connecting latest
technology to benefits the residents. The key parameters of smart cities are small
buildings, smart energy, ease of mobility and personal security. This chapter
discusses how conventional cities converted to smart cities using latest technology.
In smart cities, various technologies adopted to make citizen life comfortable
and healthy. But it is also the duty of country citizens to maintain that facility
properly. The smart city concept is very good and unique, which provide all the
basic amenities for urban citizens. The contribution of this chapter in the area of
smart cities is that, it provides the various parameters which decide the ranking of
the smart cities in all over the world. The major key points are: advancement in the
area of artificial intelligence, work with smart technology for smart cities and basic
components of sustainable development. The future scopes of the smart cities will
be work on “smart citizen” to provide the digital solution in the field of healthcare,
education and other government policies.

Conflict of interest

“The authors declare no conflict of interest”.

Author details

Aman Kumar1* and Jasvir Singh Rattan2

1 Indo-Global of Engineering, Mohali, India

2 National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research, Chandigarh, India

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

13
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

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16
Chapter 2

Earthscraper: A Smart Solution for

Developing Future Underground
Cities
Faham Tahmasebinia, Kevin Yu, Jiachen Bao,
George Chammoun, Edwin Chang, Samad Sepasgozar
and Fernando Alonso Marroquin

Abstract

This chapter reports on the finite element analysis of the “earthscraper,”

proposed by BNKR Arquitectura. It was proposed as an alternative building method
for the future, as it requires less surface area and lower operating costs than an
equivalent aboveground structure. A 2D model of the cross section of the structure
was created using Strand7 for steady-state thermal analysis. This solver gave
internal temperature ranging between 20 and 38°C between the bottom apex and
the surface, respectively. This provides a comfortable temperature by default,
displaying the lesser dependency on heating and cooling costs. A 3D model was also
created to analyze the effect of lateral earth pressure by the use of the linear static
solver. Results give a maximum lateral displacement of 527 mm and 19.8 mm on
the exterior and interior walls, respectively. The model was used for earthquake
analysis in accordance with AS/NZS1170.4, requiring the natural frequency and
spectral response solvers. Twenty-five modal frequencies were found, with 99.6%
of the mass of the structure contributing to the direction under analysis. The
maximum horizontal displacement of the structure under the designed earthquake
loads was found to be 19.2 mm.

Keywords: earthscraper, future cities, underground development,

numerical modelling, finite element analysis

1. Introduction

The United Nations has projected that the world population will reach 9.7 billion
by 2050, with the increase of 2.5 billion as to date. The increased pressure on
housing solutions to accommodate for the growing population while reducing the
carbon footprint has led BNKR Arquitectura [1], based in Mexico City, to formulate
a radical solution called the “earthscraper.”
Such a building is an inverted pyramid with the ability to accommodate 100,000
while using a small surface area, allowing easy implementation into developed
cities. In addition, its founding into the soil eliminates any wind loading while also
ensuring a constant warm temperature imposed by the surrounding soil, reducing
the energy consumption for heating and cooling.

17
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Figure 1.
Conceptual design of earthscraper.

The projected populated rise in Sydney is forecast as between 2 million [2], while
urban sprawl is limited by the surrounding Blue Mountains, countryside, and ocean
[3] (Clarke, 2016). As such, the main objective of this project will investigate the
feasibility of implementing the earthscraper in Sydney’s geology and climatology.
The theoretical loads imposed by earth pressures, thermal loads, and earthquakes
loads will be determined, and the structures response will be modeled using
Strand7, a finite element method processor.
Post-processing of the results will give the displacement of the building under
each respective load, providing an insight into the expected structural performance.
The possibility of such a structure as an addition in the future cities of 2050 shall be
determined in this chapter (Figure 1).

2. Structural members

Below is the description of the members of the structure:

Floor system: reinforced concrete one-way floor slabs, 0.3 m thick with N16
reinforcement, sitting on steel beams and acting compositely.
Beams: steel beams of varying length extending from bottom of the exterior wall
to the top of the interior wall, interconnected to form a truss system. Steel
360UB44.7 beams supporting the concrete slabs.

18
Earthscraper: A Smart Solution for Developing Future Underground Cities
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87217

Details of the structural Suggested structural element size Suggested design

elements standards

Steel columns 460UB82.1 AS4100 [4]

Reinforced concrete floor system 40 MPa, thickness 0.3 m, N20 AS3600 [5]
rebars

Reinforced concrete interior wall 40 MPa, thickness 2 m, N20 rebars AS3600 [5]

Reinforced concrete exterior wall 50 MPa, thickness 2 m, N20 rebars AS3600 [5]

Truss beams 360UB50.7 AS4100 [4]

Perlucor ceiling Thickness 0.1 m AS1288 [6]

Table 1.
Structural elements.

Columns: steel UB360.44.7 column spacings at 6.5 m, with floor-to-floor height

of 5 m. Steel columns replaced by truss system at locations of intersection.
Walls: reinforced concrete with 1.5–2 m thickness and N20 reinforcement, act-
ing compositely.
Foundation: concrete on rock-concrete pads for columns extruding into the
concrete.
Cables: rock bolts to tie back structure.
Ground: water table at 60 m depth, soft soil of unit weight 17 kN/m3 from depths
0–10 m, and then Hawkesbury sandstone with unit weight 24 kN/m3 from depths
10–300 m.
Ceiling: perlucor glass ceiling with improved strength and heat insulation com-
pared to normal glass.
Soil: spring dampeners on the exterior of the structure to simulate the soil and
the structure’s deformations within the soil.
Table 1 shows the general element sizes used in the design of the structure.
Element sizes were chosen based on design standards and structural strength,
combined with numerical analysis to determine the most appropriate member size
for the expected loads.

3. Structural system

Figure 2a shows the dimensions of the structure, with a Perlucor glass ceiling
and reinforced concrete walls and a reinforced concrete core running through the
center of the structure. The green lines represent the outline of the interior concrete
core, the black lines are the outline of the whole structure, the dark blue lines
represent the floors, and the light blue lines on the top represent the Perlucor glass.
Figure 3a and b shows the interior design of the structure for the first level, with
the steel cables forming a truss system between the exterior wall and the interior
core to provide buckling and bending resistance from the lateral earth pressure
loads and earthquake loads.
Figure 3c shows the spring dampeners with fixed restraints at the end away
from the wall and free restraints at the connection with the wall to simulate the
behavior of the structure within the soil mass.
The concrete floor slabs use N16 reinforcement bars at a spacing of 100 mm,
while the reinforced concrete wall and core use N20 reinforcement bars at a spacing
of 100 mm. The reinforcement helps the structure resist tensile loads due to the
large bending moments caused by the lateral earth pressure.

19
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Figure 2.
(a) CAD rotated section view of entire structure and (b) CAD plan view from ground level.

Figure 3.
(a) CAD section view of first level, (b) CAD plan view of first level and (c) spring dampeners.

The system resists vertical loads through load transfer from the roof and floor
slabs into the columns, through the beams and truss system. The vertical loads
within the columns are then transferred into the surrounding sandstone. The beams
and columns of each individual floor have been omitted from the design, and the
60 floors of the 300 m deep structure have been simplified to 6 floors, as the vertical
loads are not the focus of this structural design, since the surrounding Hawkesbury
sandstone will be able to withstand the dead and live loading of the structure.
The system resists lateral loads with the truss system and floor slabs acting as
struts, reducing the overall deflection of the structure and distributing lateral loads
throughout the floor and into the surrounding bedrock. The floors resist loads by
transferring vertical live and dead loads into the support steel beams, and the slabs
resist lateral loads by transferring the loads either into the interior wall or exterior
wall. The beams resist loads by transferring horizontal and vertical loads into
nearby columns or walls. In addition, the beam truss elements provide different
load paths and brace the structure to further reduce the stress concentrations on
members. The columns resist load by transferring horizontal and vertical loads into
the base pads and then into the surrounding bedrock.
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Earthscraper: A Smart Solution for Developing Future Underground Cities
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87217

Since the structure and its 50 floors are very complex to design for using
Australian design codes, it was simplified into 6 larger floors to consider overall
trends of stresses and deflections. This was done to locate areas of significant
stresses and deflection and where the structure is most likely to fail. Strategies
were then implemented to counteract these problem areas, such as increasing wall
thickness or concrete strength.

4. Loads

4.1 Lateral earth loads (earth pressure)

The loads imposed onto the earthscraper by the surrounding soil and water were
calculated using effective earth pressures, which are shown below and expanded in
Appendix A:

σ 0h ðzÞ ¼ K 0 σ 0v ðzÞ, (1)

K 0 ¼ 1 � sin ðϕÞ, (2)

Eq. (1) shows the relationship between vertical effective pressure and lateral
earth pressure through the at-rest coefficient of earth pressure, K0. Eq. (2) gives an
expression for K0, given by Jaky [7] as a function of the internal friction angle ϕ.
These lateral earth pressures act on the exterior wall, causing horizontal deflection
of external and internal wall after load transfer.
Figure 4 shows the lateral pressures varying linearly, with a change in gradient
at 10 m depth with the change from soft soil to Hawkesbury sandstone. At a depth
of 60 m is the water table, introducing pore water pressures and increasing the
lateral loading on the structure. This representation of earth pressures.

4.2 Thermal loads

The thermal loads imposed onto the structure include the solar heat flux, the
convection currents between the structure and outside fluid, and the external
ambient pressure of the surface. The ambient temperature surrounding the
earthscraper was determined through research of past studies. The topsoil temper-
ature was averaged across 1980–2006 for the top 20 cm, determined as 19.65°C [8].

Figure 4.
Vertical profile of lateral earth pressure—a combination of soil pressure and water pressure.

21
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

The temperature of the soil is taken to linearly increase with depth, with a deter-
mined thermal gradient of 0.07°C/m.
The ambient temperature of the surface was chosen as the mean temperature at
the Sydney Observatory Hill Bureau Weather Station since 1859, determined as
22.1°C [8]. However, due to the incoming solar radiation, the heat flux also contrib-
utes to the heat transfer to the Perlucor ceiling. Calculations for an absorbing black-
body give a heat flux of 1:37 kW=m2 ; however, due to cloud albedo, atmospheric
absorption, and radiation reflection, the solar exposure is taken as 69:44 W=m2 [8].

4.3 Earthquake loads

The response of the structure under earthquake loads requires the use of
dynamic analysis, as the earthscraper falls into the earthquake design category III
(EDCIII), as determined in Appendix C. This method shall comply with AS/
NZS1170.4 [9] Section 7 with the use of a modal response spectrum analysis.

5. Structural design

The initial analysis was undertaken with all concrete wall elements and floors as
the same plain concrete with 40 MPa strength and 0.5 m wall thickness. Upon linear
static and spectral analysis, it was found that horizontal deflections along the sec-
ond, third, and fourth floors were much greater than the first, fifth, and sixth floors.
As a response, concrete reinforcement was added throughout the structure to better
resist the lateral loads, and the concrete wall thickness was increased to 2 m for the
second, third, and fourth floors. In addition, the concrete strength used was
increased to 50 MPa for the second, third, and fourth floors. The first, fifth, and
sixth floors were also increased in wall thickness to 1.5 m.
To further combat the deflections and stresses found within the structure, a steel
beam truss system was created to connect the exterior wall to the interior wall,
providing additional strutting and load transfer throughout the structure.
360UB44.7 beams were chosen for their relative light weight and strength. Perlucor
glass was chosen for the ceiling design for its superior strength and thermal prop-
erties compared to standard glass and to fulfill the need to have a transparent ceiling
material for light transfer downwards into the structure.

6. Strand7 models

6.1 2D model

A two-dimensional model was created to model the temperature within the

structure. A quad 4 plate was created with the thermal properties of air and the
dimensions of a vertical cut through the middle of the structure. The structure was
then subdivided, and the top layer of plates was changed to the structural properties
of glass with the thermal properties of Perlucor. The sidewalls were then converted
to the structural and thermal properties of concrete (Figure 5).

6.2 3D model

The model was formed by creating tri-3 elements as the exterior and interior
walls. The floors and ceiling were then created using quad 4 elements. The truss

22
Earthscraper: A Smart Solution for Developing Future Underground Cities
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87217

Figure 5.
2D model of the earthscraper created using Strand7 cross section showing the perlucor ceiling (red), green
concrete exterior walls (green), and the air inside (blue).

Figure 6.
Stages of 3D model creation—exterior walls, interior walls and floors, and beam truss (from left to right).

beams were then made using beam 2 elements. Each element type was then sepa-
rated into six groups for their respective floors. The plate elements were then
subdivided. Finally, spring dampener beam 2 elements were created by selecting the
nodes on each face of the structure and then extruding by increment of 1 m in the
negative Z direction or the face’s equivalent axis perpendicular to the vertical axis
pointing outward. Fixed conditions were then applied to the base node of the

23
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

structure (tip of the pyramid), as well as the node of the spring dampeners not
attached to the structure (Figure 6).

7. Numerical analysis

7.1 Thermal analysis

The transfer of thermal energy occurs in two thermal paths. The Perlucor ceiling
at the surface ambient temperature absorbs the solar radiation, transporting the
heat internally through conduction and heating the internal air through convection.
In addition, the walls of the structure also at the ambient temperature of the
surrounding soil conduct this energy through the wall system and expel this energy
through convection within the structure.
An ambient temperature of 22.1°C was applied at the top surface, and the
linearly increasing ambient temperature of the soil was applied along the sidewalls.
A convection coefficient of 11 and 23 W/mK was applied along the Perlucor ceiling
and sidewall, respectively, and heat flux from the sun of 69.44 W/m2 was applied
along the top surface. The results of the static thermal solver are shown below,
alongside the model used.
Figure 7 shows a maximum temperature of 38°C at the bottom vertex, a region
designed to harness geothermal energy. This, however, will not be sufficient for
energy production according to the thermal analysis. Otherwise, the building
reaches thermal equilibrium at comfortable temperatures. Ranging between 19
and 25°C for the upper third of the structure almost eliminates the need for
cooling or heating costs. Although the lower section exceeds standard room
temperature (25°C), the cooling costs would be lower compared to a standard
aboveground structures.

Figure 7.
Temperature contour of steady-state heat solver.

24
Earthscraper: A Smart Solution for Developing Future Underground Cities
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87217

7.2 Earth pressure analysis

7.2.1 Linear static solver

The 3D model shown in Figure 6 was used to analyze the horizontal displace-
ment of the earthscraper under lateral earth pressures. To achieve this, the model
was run under the linear static solver, with the following results produced. Figure 8
portrays the horizontal displacements under lateral earth pressures. The internal
walls experience a maximum deflection of 28 mm, whereas the external walls
experience 527 mm of deflection.

7.3 Earthquake analysis

Dynamic analysis can be used to calculate the response under earthquake loading.
€ and displacement vector, U, of a structure under the
The acceleration vector, U,
action of a time-dependent force, F(t), are given by the matrix element equation:

€ þ KU ¼ FðtÞ,
MU (3)

where M is the mass matrix and K is the stiffness matrix of the structure in
Eq. (3). This can be solved using the transient solver; however, it is quite computa-
tionally demanding. Alternatively, the Strand7’s spectral response solver coupled
with the natural frequency solver can be used to determine the structure response
under an external loading.

7.3.1 Natural frequency solver

The natural frequencies of the structure can be found by removing the external
and damping forces and introducing an oscillatory function, U(t), shown below in
Eq. (4). This yields the characteristic equation showed in Eq. (5):

U ðtÞ ¼ U 0 ejwt , (4)

 
K � w2 M ¼ 0, (5)

Figure 8.
(a) Interior deflection contour and (b) exterior deflection contour.

25
26
Mode Frequency (Hz) Mode Frequency (Hz) Mode Frequency (Hz) Mode Frequency (Hz) Mode Frequency (Hz)

1 0.0933 6 0.5729 11 0.7063 16 0.7847 21 0.8881

Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

2 0.0983 7 0.5829 12 0.7144 17 0.7847 22 0.8882

3 0.0986 8 0.5829 13 0.7144 18 0.8305 23 0.9295

4 0.2818 9 0.5829 14 0.7342 19 0.8312 24 0.9295

5 0.5729 10 0.5830 15 0.7473 20 0.8673 25 0.9960

Table 2.
Frequency and modes of the natural frequency solver.
Earthscraper: A Smart Solution for Developing Future Underground Cities
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87217

where w is the natural frequency and the solution gives a polynomial function of
w2 with order equal to the degrees of freedom of the structure. The number of
degrees of freedom equals to the number of modes, and the modal shapes are found
by normalizing the vibrational modes, shown below in Eq. (6):

U i T MU i ¼ 1, (6)

The natural frequency solver uses this method to find the modal shapes and the
respective frequency, wi, with the modes and respective frequencies found tabu-
lated below. This is as specified by Clause 7.4, with 25 modes found to have con-
verged. Table 2 shows the different modes and their respective frequencies.

7.3.2 Spectral response solver

The method of spectral response involves determining the peak response of the
structure due to an applied acceleration, which is given by the acceleration response
shown in Eq. (7):
� �
Sa ðwi Þ ¼ �S€ðtÞ�max , (7)
ðt
sin ðwðt � τÞÞ
S i ð tÞ ¼ g ð tÞ dτ, (8)
0 w

The spectral response acceleration was input into Strand7 in compliance with
AS/NZS1170.4 Clause 7.2, in which the horizontal design spectrum, Cd(T), was
determined and is plotted in Figure 9.
The maximum displacement is then found by method of square root of the sum
of the squares (SRSS) satisfying Clause 7.4.3, in which the contribution of each
mode is superposed such that
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Xndof ffi
2
U max ¼ ϕ
i¼1 i, max
, (9)

ϕi, max ¼ Γi Sðwi Þ, (10)

where Γi is the mass participation factor, a measure of the contribution of mode

i. A detailed explanation is given in Appendix C. The displacement contour was
plotted using the SRSS method. It is shown in Figure 10 that the maximum dis-
placement due to earthquake loads is 19.8 mm, insignificant relative to the scale of
the structure. It should be noted, however, that the design standard AS1170.4 [6]
used to generate the numerical analysis does not account for liquefaction,

Figure 9.
Design response spectrum.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Figure 10.
(a) Exterior deflection under earthquake loads and (b) internal deflection under earthquake loads.

settlement, or fault rupture effects on the soil and as such may be underestimating
the effects of earthquake loads on underground structures.

8. Conclusions

This chapter provides a 3D linear static and spectral analysis, as well as a 2D

thermal analysis of an inverted pyramid structure modeled off the architectural
design of the firm BNKR Arquitectura [8].
Both the 2D and 3D models have been successful in determining the loading
conditions of the structure, as well as identifying key structural areas of increased
stress, deflection, and heat. Using this analysis, modifications to the structure were
made to reduce the effect of these loads and bring the structure within an accept-
able level. A final design with a simplified six-floor system arrived upon to allow a
sufficiently accurate model while maintaining the viability of 3D modeling within
the finite element analysis software Strand7.
While the results found are encouraging, further research should be undertaken
to investigate the liquefaction effect of earthquake loads on underground structures
and soil. In addition, more detailed structural modeling could be undertaken to
investigate the minutia of detail for each individual story, rather than simplifying
into six larger general floors.
Therefore, the structure could feasibly be considered in 2050, with a rapidly
increasing sophistication of software and material engineering. The demands of the
human population in 30 years may necessitate such an ambitious design.

Appendices

A. Earth pressure analysis

Figure 11 portrays the soil pressures experienced by the external walls of the
structure, with the relevant values kept parametrized for the determination of Eq. (10).
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For substitution in Eq. (10), the parameters and their respective values are
shown in Table 3. These values were found through literature review and govern
the lateral earth pressures experienced by the structure.
The lateral pressure is given as

σ h ðzÞ ¼ σ 0h ðzÞ þ uðzÞ, (11)

where u(z) is the pore water pressure, given as the hydrostatic water pressure
shown below

uðzÞ ¼ γ w hz � dw i, (12)

and σ 0h ðzÞ is the effective lateral pressure, expressed as

σ 0h ðzÞ ¼ K 0 σ 0v ðzÞ, (13)

where K 0 is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, given by the following

expression given by Jaky [7]

K 0 ¼ 1 � sin ðϕÞ, (14)

and σ 0v ðzÞ is the effective vertical earth pressure. This is the contribution of the
different soil layers less the effect of pore water pressure, given as

σ 0v ðzÞ ¼ γ ss ðz � hz þ dss iÞ þ γ hs hz � dss i � γ w hz � dw i, (15)

The Macaulay brackets seen above operate as follows:

(
n
0, z<a
hz � ai ¼ n
, (16)
ðz � aÞ , z ≥ a

This allows one expression for earth pressure at any depth. Replacing all the
relations together gives

σ h ðzÞ ¼ K 0 ðγ ss ðz � hz þ dss iÞ þ γ hs hz � dss iÞ þ ð1 � K 0 Þγ w hz � dw i, (17)

Figure 11.
Earth pressure profile.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Parameter Value

Internal friction angle, ϕð°Þ 47.2

At-rest coefficient of earth pressure, K 0 0.26627

3 17
Soft soil unit weight, γ ss ðkN=m Þ

Water unit weight, γ w ðkN=m3 Þ 10

Hawkesbury sandstone unit weight, γ hs ðkN=m3 Þ 24

Depth of soft soil, dss ðmÞ 10

Depth of water table, dw ðmÞ 60

Table 3.
Earth pressure parameters.

At the bottom of the structure, i.e., z = 300 m, the lateral earth pressure is
calculated as 3.66 MPa, shown below in Eq. (10) using the parameters in Table 3:

σ h ð300Þ ¼ 0:26627ð17 ð10Þ þ 24ð300 � 10ÞÞ þ ð1 � 0:26627 Þ10ð300 � 60Þ ¼ 3:66 MPa
(18)

B. Thermal analysis

The thermal properties of the materials used in the structure are given in
Table 4. These parameters determine the conductivity and transfer of heat
throughout the structure. The reinforced concrete conducts a relatively higher
amount of heat compared to the Perlucor ceiling, both absorbing external heat from
the soil and surface, respectively.
The heat flux on the Perlucor ceiling can be estimated for a blackbody using
Stefan-Boltzmann law. The heat flux generated at the sun’s surface, qsun , is given by
 
qsun ¼ εσ T sun 4 � T space 4 , (19)

Hence, for radius, R, of the sun and distance D from the sun to the earth, the
heat flux experienced by earth is
 
 4 4
 R 2
qearth ¼ εσ T sun � T space , (20)
D

The parameters needed for Eq. (17) are shown in Table 5, giving the value of
 
  6:957 � 105 2 kW
qearth ¼ 1 � 5:67 � 10�8 57804 � 34 ¼ 1:361 2 , (21)
1:5 � 108 m

Material Reinforced concrete Perlucor Air

Coefficient of thermal energy ðW=m KÞ 1.37 0.78 0.0257

Specific heat capacity ðJ=kg KÞ 880 840 1005

Table 4.
Material thermal properties.

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Parameter Value
2 4
Stefan � Boltzmann constant, σ (W=m K Þ 5:67 � 10�8

Temperature of Sun, T sun ðKÞ 5780

Temperature of space, T space ðKÞ 3

Distance from sun, D ðkmÞ 1:5 � 108

Radius of sun, R ðkmÞ 6:957 � 105

Radiation coefficient of sun, ε 1

Table 5.
Heat flux parameters.

Figure 12.
Thermal conditions.

This however assumes the earth acts as a blackbody, absorbing all incoming
radiation. Measurements by the Bureau of Meteorology have shown that the
incoming solar radiation is of the value of 69.44 W/m2, significantly lesser than the
blackbody value. This is due to solar irradiance, cloud reflection, atmospheric
absorbance, and the reflection of the earth surface. The thermal boundary condi-
tions are shown in Figure 12.

C. Earthquake analysis

Pells (2004) determined the bearing capacity of Hawkesbury sandstone as 20–

103 MPa and 6–14 MPa for laboratory tests and field tests, respectively. Taking the field
tests as true, this classifies the rock as subsoil Class Be (AS/ZS1170.4 Clause 4.2.2).
Using AS/NZS1170.4, the hazard factor, Z, in Sydney is 0.08. For an important
factor of 3 (BCA 2016), the structure has an annual probability of exceedance of
1/1000 (BCA 2016).
AS/NZS1170.4 gives the probability factor of 1.3 for an annual probability of
exceedance of 1/1000.
AS/NZS1170.4, for a structure height of 300 m, the earthquake design category
is EDCIII. Structural ductility factor (μ) and structural performance factor (Sp) are
found as 2 and 0.77, respectively (AS/NZS1170.4).

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

The spectral shape factor, Ch ðT Þ, is found by using AS/NZS1170.4 Clause 6.4.

This requires the period of vibration of the structure, which was found using the
natural frequency solver. The horizontal design response spectrum,Cd ðT Þ, is found
using AS/NZS1170.4 Clause 7.2, given as

Sp 0:77
Cd ðT Þ ¼ kp Z Ch ðT Þ ¼ 1:3 � 0:08 � Ch ðT Þ ¼ 0:04004Ch ðT Þ, (22)
μ 2

The scaling factor is multiplied by the gravitational acceleration to give the

horizontal acceleration in terms of m/s2. This process is summarized in Table 6,
showing the modes, the respective frequency and period, then the calculated and
design spectral response factor, and then the mass participation factor. The total
mass participation of the 25 nodes is 99.461%, satisfying AS/NZS1170.4
Clause 7.4.2.

Mode Frequency (Hz) Period (s) Ch(T) Cd(T) (g) Cd(T) (m/s2) Γi ð%Þ

1 0.0933 10.7209466 0.011484383 0.000459835 0.004510978 0.516

2 0.0983 10.1726597 0.012755718 0.000510739 0.005010349 88.177

3 0.0986 10.1378712 0.012843411 0.00051425 0.005044794 0

4 0.2818 3.5484392 0.104833282 0.004197525 0.041177716 0

5 0.5729 1.7455268 0.433232339 0.017346623 0.17017037 0.001

6 0.5729 1.7455268 0.43323234 0.017346623 0.170170371 0

7 0.5829 1.7156367 0.448459526 0.017956319 0.176151493 0

8 0.5829 1.7155891 0.448484434 0.017957317 0.176161277 0.019

9 0.5829 1.7155890 0.448484477 0.017957318 0.176161294 0

10 0.5830 1.7154045 0.448580981 0.017961182 0.1761992 0

11 0.7063 1.4159108 0.621508079 0.024885183 0.24412365 0

12 0.7144 1.3998054 0.628658824 0.025171499 0.246932408 0.018

13 0.7144 1.3998053 0.628658855 0.025171501 0.24693242 0

14 0.7342 1.3620201 0.646099116 0.025869809 0.253782822 0

15 0.7473 1.3381278 0.657635248 0.026331715 0.258314127 0

16 0.7847 1.2744305 0.690504491 0.0276478 0.271224916 0.007

17 0.7847 1.2744305 0.690504508 0.027647801 0.271224923 0

18 0.8305 1.2041558 0.730802435 0.029261329 0.287053642 0

19 0.8312 1.2031179 0.731432875 0.029286572 0.287301275 0

20 0.8673 1.1530177 0.763214655 0.030559115 0.299784916 0

21 0.8881 1.1259461 0.781564952 0.031293861 0.306992773 10.722

22 0.8882 1.1259172 0.781585013 0.031294664 0.307000653 0

23 0.9295 1.0758671 0.81794486 0.032750512 0.321282524 0

24 0.9295 1.0758671 0.817944861 0.032750512 0.321282525 0

25 0.9960 1.0040134 0.876482347 0.035094353 0.344275605 0

Table 6.
Natural frequency results and spectral response.

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Earthscraper: A Smart Solution for Developing Future Underground Cities
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87217

Author details

Faham Tahmasebinia1,2*, Kevin Yu1, Jiachen Bao1, George Chammoun1,

Edwin Chang1, Samad Sepasgozar2 and Fernando Alonso Marroquin1

1 School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

2 Faculty of Built Environment, The University of New South Wales, Sydney,

NSW, Australia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
–NC
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

33
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

References

[1] Sol Robles J. La Redención del

Ornamento: Recuperando la Dimensión
Simbólica de la Arquitectura.
RevistArquis. 2012;1(2):26-35

[2] McDonald P, Kippen R. Projecting

future migration levels: Should rates or
numbers by used? People and Place.
2002;10:82-83

[3] Morse JM et al. Developing

Grounded Theory: The Second
Generation. New York: Routledge; 2016

[4] Trahair N, Bradford MA. Behaviour

and Design of Steel Structures to
AS4100: Australian. New York: CRC
Press; 2014

[5] Gilbert R. Creep and shrinkage

models for high strength concrete–
Proposals for inclusion in AS3600.
Australian Journal of Structural
Engineering. 2002;4(2):95-106

[6] AS AS. Glass in Buildings-Selection

and Installation. Standards Association
of Australia. 1989

[7] Jaky J. Pressure in silos. In:

Proceedings of 2nd ICSM. Japan: ICSM;
1948

[8] Hudson D et al. ACCESS-S1: The new

Bureau of Meteorology multi-week to
seasonal prediction system. Journal of
Southern Hemisphere Earth Systems
Science. 2017;67(3):132-159

[9] Sharma R, Richards P. The influence

of Helmholtz resonance on internal
pressures in a low-rise building. Journal
of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics. 2003;91(6):807-828

34
Chapter 3

Floating Cities Bridge in 2050

Faham Tahmasebinia, Yutaka Tsumura, Baichuan Wang,
Yang Wen, Cheng Bao, Samad Sepasgozar
and Fernando Alonso-Marroquin

Abstract

A floating cities bridge is designed to connect two floating cities or nearby land
to resolve the problem of shortage of construction land due to an increase of
population and sea level. The Yumemai floating bridge is referenced as a sample
structure; the member sizes and dimensions are modified to suit the need of the
project. A finite element structure is built using Strand7, which includes dead load,
live load, tidal wave, and wind load. Based on the loads, both static and dynamic
analyses are conducted to determine the stress and deflection of the structure. The
report outlines the modeling techniques, element types, and analysis solvers used in
modeling and analyzing the structure. This report discusses the results obtained
from the analysis. The advanced material with low density applied is introduced,
which has a good resistance of corrosion and high strength. The main objective of
the current chapter is to suggest and design the procedure which can be used as
floating structural elements in the future.

Keywords: floating cities bridge, finite element structure

1. Introduction

According to the UN DESA report [1, 2], it is estimated that the world popula-
tion will reach 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100. This exploding growth of
the population brings a great pressure on the demands of construction land. In
addition, an increasing sea level aggravates the pressure on the shortage of the land.
Sea level will rise as much as 50 cm by 2050 as the report of midrange projections
indicated. Floating cities are required to release the intensity of using lands and
under such circumstance, and bridges will be an essential infrastructure connecting
floating cities. Since floating cities are a mobile structure, the bridge also needs to be
mobile and flexible in terms of placement; the solution proposed in the report is a
floating bridge which can move around with floating cities and be rapidly deployed
when needed. The bridge is designed as modular bridge; thus multiple bridge
module can be connected to achieve the desired length depending on the distances
required. A floating bridge has a number of advantages over the conventional
bridge, for example, marine environment remaining undisturbed; easier construc-
tion, as most of construction process can be done onshore; and floating structures
being immune to earthquake.
A successful floating bridge, Yumemai Bridge in Japan [1], is referenced as a
basic model. Dimensions and sizes are modified to suit the need of the project. The

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

behavior of isolated bridge module is investigated as an initial step to model the

bridge. The report presents the Strand7 model, the introduction of the new mate-
rial, and analysis results associated with the static and dynamic behaviors of the
bridge.

2. Structural system

In Figure 1, the length of one bridge module is 382 m, width is 38.8 m, and
height is 65.5 m, respectively. The number of lanes is designed as four. The pontoon
size is 7.5  58  58 m. The bridge is comprised of a bridge deck which is supported
via six columns at each end. The bridge deck between pontoons is hanged by
vertical members at 23.3 m intervals. The vertical members are necessitated for this
larger-span floating bridge to decrease deflection in the center of the bridge. To
control the deflection, the deck itself has a parabolic shape which has a 640 mm rise
in the center. The vertical members are supported by the larger-span arch struc-
tures. The loads applied to the bridge deck in service are transferred into the vertical
member and then passed into the arch structure which carries the load in compres-
sion. Finally, the load is carried by the pontoon via the load paths of columns.

Figure 1.
Dimensions of the bridge.

3. Materials

In a floating offshore structure, the self-weight and corrosion resistance are the
two most critical parameters that decide the material to be used in the structure.
New novel materials are adopted in this floating bridge, which has characteristics of
light, high corrosion resistance, and high strength. These materials enable to reduce
the self-weight and increase the durability in aggressive ocean environment. The
two main materials used in the floating bridge are nanocrystalline steel and carbon
fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP).
Nanocrystalline steel is chosen as it has an extremely high yield strength. It
contains a significant volume fraction of interfacial regions separated by nearly
perfect crystals [3]. Since the atomic structure of the grain boundary differs greatly
from the inside of the grain, such steel full of grain boundary shows properties that
are quite different from those full of conventional metals [4]. The deformation of
the metal material is carried out by a sliding motion of lattice defect called as
dislocation. In the bulk nanocrystalline metal, the individual crystals are strongly
bound by the grain boundaries, and the energy of the dislocation also changes; its
behavior surpasses any metals available today. Bulk nanocrystalline steel shows

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Material used Yield strength (MPa) Yong modulus (GPa) Density (kg/m3)

Bulk nanocrystalline steel 2000 200 7850

Concrete (40 MPa) 40 34.5 2400

CFRP 1300 300 16.5

Table 1.
Material properties.

strength which is four times higher than that of conventional metal which is cur-
rently developed [4]. It is used for all metal structures of the bridge [3] and is
assumed to have a yield strength of 2 GPa which is four times greater than the
current structural steel. Such high-strength material allows to reduce the self-
weight drastically, by enabling to reduce the cross-sectional area of the member.
And also nanocrystalline steel has an excellent corrosion resistance which makes it
the ideal material for an offshore floating structure.
Another material used is carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites (CFRP). It
is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon
fibers. The yield strength of the CFRP in tension and compression are 1600 and
1300 MPa, respectively, Young’s modulus 300 GPa, and Poisson’ ratio 0.3 with a
density of 1.65 g/cm3 [5]. This material is utilized in the pontoon. Convectional
40 MPa concrete is also used in the columns. The properties of the materials used
are summarized in Table 1.

4. Loads

4.1 Load analysis

When designing a floating bridge, it is necessary to consider the effects of dead

load, live load, wind load, and tidal wave load on the behavior of the bridge. The
vertical load resulted from self-weight, and live load is counteracted via buoyancy
force. The buoyancy force is generated by using the large pontoons. The live load is
caused by traffic, and the truss bridge deck carries the traffic load directly. Wind
loads are perpendicular to the face of the members; on the other hand, wave load is
applied to the face and side surface of the pontoon, and both wind and tidal wave
loads are time-dependent load and hence vary with time.
The bridge deck is supported by the six columns and the vertical cables. And the
cable is hanged from two main arch structures. Six columns are supported via large
pontoons. The pontoons also support the two main arch structures.

4.2 Calculation of loads

4.2.1 Dead load

Dead load is the self-weight of the floating bridge, since all the used materials’
sizes, densities, and other properties are inputted in Strand7; the dead load is
calculated automatically by Strand7 under the effect of gravity g = 9.81 m/s2.

4.2.2 Live load

The floating bridge is catered to connect two floating cities with four lanes for
carrying traffic. The estimated traffic loading is determined in according to the AS

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

5100.2 clause 7.2.4 [6]. The load model M1600 was chosen to determine the traffic
load, which is considered as the worst case. This load model means that the bridge is
fully loaded with trucks. The uniformly distributed component of the M1600 mov-
ing traffic load shall be continuous under the axle group loads and shall be consid-
ered as uniformly distributed over the width of a 3.2 m standard design lane.
To make the calculation simple, the total load was applied on the bridge deck as a
pressure load. According to the standard, the initial step is to calculate the traffic
load for a portion of the bridge and then determine the total load being applied in
the whole structure. The load, given for the load model of M1600 from the code,
includes the axle group loads of 360 kN and uniformly distributed load of 6 kN/m.
There are four lanes of traffic this load multiplied with 4. The total length of the
bridge is 382 m, and the bridge is subdivided into 16.4 segments. For each segment,
the load with 6360 kN is applied according to the standard. Finally, the total load is
10 kPa in that the load for each segment is multiplied by 15.3.
Length of each segment

L ¼ 1:25 � 8 þ 3:75 þ 6:25 þ 5 ¼ 25m (1)

Number of segment in the signed bridge

382÷25 ¼ 15:3 (2)

Total load on the bridge

ð360 kN � 4 þ 6 kN � 25Þ � 15:3 � 4 ¼ 97308 kN (3)

Equivalent pressure

97308÷25÷382 ¼ 10 kPa (4)

4.2.3 Wind load

The design wind load speed is determined based on the AS1170 [7], which is
57.8 m/s ARI of 1000-year designed wind speed. The wind load is applied on every
member as a pressure load including the deck face that is perpendicular to the wind
direction.
Designed wind speed

V des, θ ¼ V R � Md � ðMz, cat � Ms � Mt Þ ¼ 46 � 1:2564 � 1 � 1 � 1 ¼ 57:8 m=s

(5)

Pressure on the side of the deck

P ¼ ð0:5ρair Þ½V des, θ �2 Cfig Cdyn (6)

Cfig ¼ Cdyn ¼ 1 (7)

Side
  
1:2kg 57:8m 2
P¼ 0:5 � ¼ 2:005 kPa (8)
m3 s

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4.2.3.1 Bridge deck uplift and downlift

The wind load applied in the bridge deck is simplified, and the external coeffi-
cients (Cp,e) are �1.3 (up) for top bridge deck and �1.2 (down) for bottom bridge
deck which is not varied with position assumedly.

Cfig ¼ Cdyn ¼ �1:3 (9)

 
Puplift ¼ 0:5 � 1:2 kg=m3 ð57:8Þ2 � ð�1:3Þ ¼ �2:606 kPa (10)
 
Pdownlift ¼ 0:5 � 1:2 kg=m3 ð57:8Þ2 � ð�1:2Þ ¼ �2:405kPa (11)

4.2.4 Tidal wave load

The ocean water flows through the pontoon and causes two types of load that are
the frontal drag force and the side drag force.
In order to consider worst case, assuming full pontoon is subjected to tidal wave
load and this scenario cause the maximum adverse load. According to the AS5100
[6], the load is calculated as below. The velocity of water is assumed typical wave
speed under severe storm condition, 14.8 m/s [7] .
Design drag force (in front of pontoon)

Fd ¼ 0:5Cd V 2 Ad (12)

where Cd ¼ drag efficient and Ad ¼ wetted area of  the pontoons normal to the

water flow.

Cd ¼ 1:4 ðsquare shapeÞ (13)

Ad ¼ 7:5m � 58m ¼ 435m2 (14)
P ¼ 0:5Cd V 2 ¼ 0:5 � 1:4 � ð14:83m=sÞ2 ¼ 154Pa (15)
2 2
F D ¼ 0:5Cd V As ¼ 154 � 435m ¼ 66968N (16)

4.2.5 Side drag on pontoon

FL ¼ 0:5Cs V2 AL (17)

where Cs ¼ drag efficient and AL ¼ wetted area of  the pontoons normal to the

water flow.

Cs ¼ 0:9, for θw ≤ 30° (18)

2
AL ¼ 58m � 7:5m ¼ 435m (19)
P ¼ 0:5 � ð0:9Þ � ð14:83m=sÞ2 ¼ 100Pa (20)
FL ¼ 0:5Cs V 2 AL ¼ 100 � 435m2 ¼ 43051N (21)

4.2.6 Maximum buoyancy

This floating bridge, compared with normal sea bridge, is dependent on the
buoyancy force to support the structure instead of installing pile foundation at the
seabed. A pontoon built below the column of the bridge is submerged in the ocean,
and it generates a buoyancy force that can balance the opposite vertical load. These
vertical loads result from self-weight, wind load, live load, and traffic load. The size

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

of the pontoon is 58 � 58 � 7.5 m; the specific weight of the seawater may be taken
to be 10.05 kN/m3. The maximum buoyancy of the pontoon is calculated as follows:

V ¼ 7:5m � 58m � 58m ¼ 10765m3 (22)

F buoyancy ¼ ρgV ¼ 10:9kN=m3 � 10765m2 ¼ 108188kN (23)

5. Modeling element and material

5.1 Mesh and mesh quality

The bridge deck is made by plate elements, and all the others are made by using
beam elements. All the elements are subdivided to the shape as square as possible;
the deck and columns as well as the columns and pontoon have to align with each
other to ensure they are entirely connected to each other to get an accurate result
and avoid any mesh discontinuity.

5.2 Nodal constraints

The boundary conditions for the left end which are connecting Sydney land, the
DX, DZ, RX, and RY are fixed. The other side which is connecting the floating city
or next bridge module is free in both translation and rotation. To carry out linear
static, natural frequency, and harmonic response analysis, the base of the pontoon is
assumed to be fixed in DY, otherwise static condition cannot be established. In
nonlinear transient dynamic analysis, the constraints at the base of the pontoon are
removed, and pontoon is free in all directions; the constraints are replaced with
buoyancy pressure to simulate the dynamic behavior of the bridge on the water.

5.3 Element types

5.3.1 Bridge deck

To comply with AS5100 deflection control and minimize deflection, the deck
itself has a parabolic shape with a 640 mm rise in the center. This allows to reduce
the deflection under both serviceability and ultimate states. To simplify the model,
the truss deck is modeled as a plate element; the truss is assumed to have a relative
density of 0.025, and the effective elastic modulus is obtained by the following
formula [8]:
1
EL ¼ ρL E0 (24)
9

where ρL is the relative density and E0 is the elastic modulus of parent material.
The pontoon relative density is set as 0.05 and the same procedure is applied.

5.3.2 Main arch

The dimension of the main arch is decided first by solving the simple arch
structure applying only live load calculated above; once the maximum force is
obtained by simple statics, the required cross-sectional area to carry the applied load
is calculated. Outer dimension of the member is based on the referenced structure
Yumemai Bridge, and the thickness of the member is calculated by distributing the
area required around four sides of the square hollow section member. Then the

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member thickness is modified to control deflection, and, finally, the main arch was
modeled using a beam element with the dimension of 3  3  0.03 m RHS.

5.3.3 Vertical members

There are 11 vertical members connecting the main arch and the bridge deck on
both sides; the height of the members is changing along the bridge with the differ-
ent positions under the arch; the cross section is 1.5  0.75  0.015 m. Beam
element is used.

5.3.4 Cross member

Between the two main arches, the cross member was applied by using the beam
element with the dimension of 0.75  0.75  0.01 m RHS.

5.3.5 Column

The deck and pontoon were connected by six columns on each end of the bridge;
the columns are a 3  3 m solid concrete which was modeled using a beam element.

5.3.6 Pontoon

The size of the pontoon is 58  58  7.5 m cuboid modeled by a solid element in

Strand7. Initial submerged depth is set as 4.5 m, i.e., 3 m from the top of the
pontoon; the bridge will then adjust itself to gain equilibrium with water pressure,
and the final submerged depth will be 4 m.
Dimension and material properties of each element are summarized in Table 2.

Modeled Modeling shape FEM Material used Yong Density Geometric

element element modulus (kg/m3) properties (m)
(GPa)

Main Beam Bulk 200 7850 3  3  0.03

arch nanocrystalline
steel

Vertical Beam Bulk 200 7850 1.5  0.75  0.015

member nanocrystalline
steel

Cross Beam Bulk 200 7850 0.75  0.75  0.01

member nanocrystalline
steel

Column Beam Concrete 34.5 2400 33

(40 MPa)

Deck Plate Bulk 0.556 196.25 2 m thickness

nanocrystalline
steel (Truss)

Pontoon Solid CFRP 1.67 82.5 58  58  7.5

Table 2.
Element properties.

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6. Numerical analysis

6.1 Linear static analysis

The linear static solver is used to analyze the effects of different combination
load cases. According to AS1170, the combination load cases are calculated basing
on the dead load, live load, and wind load; two critical load cases 1.0G dead load
only (serviceability state) and 1.2G + 1.5Q (ultimate state) are considered to check
the adequacy of the structure.
By comparing the results for different combination load cases, it is found that
load case 2 (ultimate state) has significant effects on the structure. Figure 2 shows
that the maximum displacement under ultimate state is 1600 mm. Note that the
bridge deck is raised by 640 mm, so under the ultimate condition, the deflection of
the bridge deck is 960 mm that is below the flat level. It is also found that the
maximum stress is 254 MPa compression which is located in the root of the main
arch structure. In Figure 3, under serviceability state (1.0 G), the maximum
deflection of the deck is 505 mm which is 95 mm above the flat level. AS5100 [6]
limits the deflection under serviceability condition to be “deflection/span < 1/600”;
the bridge complies the deflection limit. The maximum stress under serviceability
condition is found to be 82.7 MPa.
The linear static analysis showed that the material dimensions are satisfactory,
both in terms of strength and deflection, under serviceability and ultimate states.

6.2 Natural frequency analysis

The natural frequency is defined as free vibrations of an elastic body. If the

frequency of the applied load is identical as the natural frequency of the structure,
hence the amplitude of vibration increases manifold. It is significantly important to
find the critical frequency that causes the maximum deflection. Two hundred
different natural frequencies under 12 Hz are found of which 173 of them are

Figure 2.
Stress and deflection under ultimate state.

Figure 3.
Stress and deflection under serviceability state.

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converged; the minimum mass participation factor is 85.08%. The typical ocean
wave has a frequency ranging from 0.1 to 5 Hz [8]. The analysis covers this area of
the frequencies. These frequencies found are used to conduct harmonic response
analysis. The first 20 modes of natural frequencies are listed in Table 3.

6.3 Harmonic response analysis

In floating structure the effect from the earthquake is minimal as the water acts
as a base isolation material; hence any ground movement will not be transferred to
the structure, but what matters to the structure is the daily wave and wind load. As
mentioned previously, the typical wave has a frequency between 0.1 and 5 Hz.
Natural frequency analysis in Figure 4a showed that there are a number of natural
frequencies within this range; when the wave frequency coincides with the natural
frequency, the effect on the structure could be significant and cause devastating
damage. Thus it must be investigated. Harmonic response solver is used to test the
effect of sinusoidally varying the load under 7.5 Hz; the dominant varying load will
be the wave load, however, to be conservative, and wind loads are also assumed to
be a varying load.
The deflection at the center of the deck versus different frequencies is plotted in
Figure 4a. The harmonic response analysis has shown the frequency of 0.51789 Hz
produced the largest deflection, and it can be said that the structure is most sensi-
tive to this frequency. Figure 4b shows deflection contour under such frequency;
the maximum displacement due to the frequency is found to be 0.456 m since the
deflection caused by the load is relatively small considering the large span of the
bridge, and it also complies the 1/600 deflection limit. The bridge will still be able to
serve its purpose.

6.4 Nonlinear transient dynamic analysis

The nonlinear transient dynamic solver is used to analyze the effects of the
combination dynamic loads on the floating bridge. Under transient dynamic cir-
cumstance, the effects of the wind load, wave load, and buoyancy force have a
significant impact on the bridge deflection and the maximum stress within the
structure. Both wind load and wave load are varied with time and utilizing load

Mode Natural frequency (Hz) Mode Natural frequency (Hz)

1 0.0461395 11 1.83116

2 0.349325 12 1.84217

3 0.517894 13 1.96018

4 0.778749 14 2.06939

5 0.929989 15 2.20666

6 1.01908 16 2.29274

7 1.16268 17 2.36013

8 1.21482 18 2.44297

9 1.46656 19 2.52935

10 1.51455 20 2.61975

Table 3.
Natural frequency of the bridge.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Figure 4
(a) Displacement versus frequency. (b) Displacement contour under varying load f = 0.51789 Hz.

factor variation. The buoyancy force is varied depending on the vertical position of
the bridge.
The applied loads, wave load, wind load, and live load, vary with respect to
time in nonlinear transient dynamic analysis, and their variation is shown in
Figure 5a–d. Variation is expressed as a load factor from 0 to 1, one meaning
maximum designed load. Tidal wave load is considered as a simple harmonic
motion. The designed wave velocity is the typical velocity (14.83 m/s) under
storm condition, period of 14.3 s (0.699 Hz), wavelength of 212.6 m, and
amplitude of 7.4 m [5]. The wind speed variation is considered as a storm day
wind profile in Sydney harbor on October 05, 2017 [8], and shrunk into 140 s as
shown in Figure 5c; load factor is the ratio between designed wind speed and
applied wind speed. One means applied wind speed = designed wind speed
(i.e., 58 m/s). The traffic load also varies the simulating traffic condition on the
bridge as shown in Figure 5d. The trapezoidal loading curve simulates the
accumulation of traffic caused by red traffic light and clearing off when the light
turns green.
Normal pressure is applied at the bottom of the pontoon to simulate the buoy-
ancy. One kilopascal is applied and factored by its vertical position. Load factor is
shown below.

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Figure 5
(a) Load factor versus position (buoyancy). (b) Load factor versus time (wave load). (c) Load factor versus
time (Wind load)—storm day wind profile in Sydney harbor on 10/05/2017. (d) Load factor versus time
(Traffic load)—simulates the accumulation of traffic and clearing off.

7. Results

The behavior of the bridge under dynamic condition is modeled for 2 minutes.
The bridge must satisfy the following criteria for it to be successfully designed.
Firstly, the maximum stress on the member does not exceed the member capacity.
Secondly, the buoyancy provided by the pontoon is able to carry the maximum
designed load. And finally, the deflection under serviceability condition complies
AS5100 [6].

7.1 Pontoon displacement

As shown in Figure 6, the initial oscillation from 0 to 30 s is due to bridge

adjusting itself to an equilibrium position; after 30 s the pontoon submerged due to
increasing live load and stays at a constant around 2.2 m. At 75 s the pontoon starts
float back up as live load is decreased, and about 90 s the bridge is at equilibrium
with its self-weight; the small oscillation observed from 90 to 120 s is due to the
applied wave load and wind load. As the water level is set at 3 m and the top of the
pontoon is 0 m. The maximum displacement of the pontoon can be found at 45 s
with a displacement of 2.4 m; at this point the top of the pontoon is 0.6 m above
the water level. The bridge is in equilibrium when the pontoon is submerged 4.5 m
in the water, and there is 3 m of extra buoyancy, for live, wind, and wave loads,
which is equivalent to 200,000 kN of force. When fully designed live load is
applied, there is still 0.6 m of extra buoyancy which is equivalent to 40,000 kN, and
therefore the size of the pontoon is satisfactory providing sufficient buoyancy
under all condition.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Figure 6.
Displacement at the top of pontoon.

Figure 7.
Deflection at the mid-span of the deck versus time.

7.2 Deck deflection

By comparing the relative displacement of the pontoon and the deck, the
deflection due to self-weight, wave load, and wind load can be isolated.
As shown in Figure 7 (90–120 s), without traffic load, the deflection of the plate
is around 900 mm. Given that the deck has risen by 640 mm in the mid-span, the
deck is 260 mm lower than the flat level, and it complies with serviceability deflec-
tion of AS5100 [6]. Hence the deflection is also satisfactory. It can be seen that
when designed traffic load is applied (45–75 s), the deflection of the plate will
increase to 2 m meaning the deck is 1360 mm lower than the flat level. This is
greater than the deflection limit of AS5100 [6]. However such case is regarded as an
ultimate state; hence the 1/600 deflection limit does not apply.

7.3 Maximum stress

The maximum axial force is found at the root of the main arch structure. Axial
force for the member is shown in Figure 8. It is observed that the axial force
changes with time. The maximal tension (positive) is approximately 5000 kN, and
the maximal compression force (negative) is 80,000 kN. The maximum stress can
be calculated by dividing the cross-sectional area of the main arch, and hence the
maximum stress is 225 MPa.

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Figure 8.
Axial force versus time.

Loading condition Maximum stress (MPa) Maximum deflection (mm)

Linear static analysis (1.2G + 1.5Q) 254 960

Nonlinear transient dynamic (45–75 s) 225 1360

Linear static analysis (1.0G) 82.7 100

Nonlinear transient dynamic (90–120 s) 112 260

Table 4.
Maximum stress and deflection under different loading condition.

The applied dynamic loads include the traffic load, wind load, and tidal wave
load which are 10, 2.5, and 0.15 kPa, respectively. The dominant load is the live
load. In the figures related to load factor, it is observed that both wind load and tidal
wave load are consistently being applied to the structure. After 30 s, the live load is
increasingly imposed to the structure. The figure of displacement and stress can
show the effects of the load.
Initially the deflection and stress are caused by the movement of the bridge
adjusting the position. Then, the live load starts to influence on the bridge after 30 s.
Since the traffic load is significantly larger than other dynamic load, the effect on
the displacement and stress is dominated by the traffic load. It is observed that the
displacement and stress stay almost constant when the traffic load factor becomes 1
(i.e., when fully designed traffic load is applied) and kept constant from 45 to 75 s.
After the traffic load is fully cleared at 90 s, the displacement and stress observed
are solely due to wind load and tidal wave load. The stress and displacement
fluctuate at the period of the wave load. However, the variation is fairly limited as
the bridge contains a large mass and the effect from projected area pontoon is small.
Comparison between worst-case static analysis and dynamic analysis is shown in
Table 4.

8. Discussion

It is interesting to note that in worst-case scenario in linear static analysis which

is ultimate load case of 1.2G + 1.5Q produced largest stress in the main arch with
254 MPa with 960 mm of deflection at the mid-span of the deck. On the other hand,
in dynamic analysis, the maximum stress is found to be 225 MPa which is lower

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

than the static analysis, and yet the deflection is found to be 1360 mm which is
much greater than the linear static analysis. This larger deflection can be explained
by the superposition effect that is the sum of response of each stimulus individually.
When the peak of wind/wave load coincide with the each other, and since wave
load is modeled as sine function with frequency of 0.699 Hz and as natural fre-
quency solver has shown that the one of the natural frequency of the bridge is
0.69798 Hz and is very close to the frequency of the applied wave (0.699 Hz). As a
result, the bridge will resonate with the wave loads and produce a larger deflection.
This is also evident in the maximum stress in the member; the maximum on the
member is fundamentally the function of the load applied; in ultimate state the total
applied load 1.2G + 1.5Q produces a greater total load which results in a higher stress
in the member. This means the large deflection is not caused by applied load but
rather oscillation of the bridge, resonating the wave load.
The maximum stress presented in a member is 254 MPa; the conventional
structural steel will be sufficient under such load. However in an aggressive marine
environment, the corrosion of the member will be a large issue, and therefore
nanocrystalline steel is still the preferred option. However knowing that the stress is
in such magnitude, nanocrystalline aluminum will also be an ideal candidate as it
is three times lighter than steel. And by the utilizing nanocrystallization, the low
yield stress of conventional aluminum could be overcome, and also aluminums are
inheritably a more resilient corrosion than steel. There is a drawback of using
aluminum such as them having lower elastic modulus; since nanocrystallization
does not influence the elastic modulus of the material, the deflection could be a
significant issue. Hence size and dimension of the member need to be modified to
compensate for the lower elastic modulus.

9. Conclusions

The floating bridges are a practical infrastructure connecting floating cities,

which resolve the potential issue of the land shortage due to an increasing popula-
tion and sea level. The pontoon is utilized to support the structure instead of pile
foundation being fixed in the seabed which greatly contributes mobility and
thereby feasibility of the floating cities. The primary concept of the designed bridge
is “flexibility.” The modular design allows easy adjustment to meet specific local
demands of a wider range of situation, which renders the structure a suitable
solution to the floating cities bridge.
The investigation on effects of static loading and dynamic loading (wind, wave,
and traffic loads) on the structure was performed. And it was found that dynamic
load produced the largest deflection due to superposition effects and the static loads
produced the largest stress. In either case, the design of the bridge fulfills the
requirements of deflection, pontoon displacement, and maximum stress. This
floating bridge can be referenced for future real project.
In addition, the software analysis cannot conduct the analysis of the influence of
the turbulence caused by fluid flowing through the bridge, including wind and
water. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) modeling can be done, and/or a
prototype of a floating bridge is necessarily built to simulate a real scenario of wind
and ocean wave. Also, the marine environment provides many uncertainties
affecting the durability of the bridge. For instance, the salty water and air
accelerate the corrosion of the structure. More research should be conducted in the
next step.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87216

Author details

Faham Tahmasebinia1,2*, Yutaka Tsumura1, Baichuan Wang1, Yang Wen1,

Cheng Bao1, Samad Sepasgozar2 and Fernando Alonso-Marroquin1

1 School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

2 Faculty of Built Environment, The University of New South Wales, Sydney,

NSW, Australia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
–NC
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

49
Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

References

[1] Watanabe E et al. Yumemai floating

swing arch bridge of Osaka, Japan. In:
Large Floating Structures. Singapore:
Springer; 2015. pp. 61-90

[2] You D et al. Global, regional, and

national levels and trends in under-5
mortality between 1990 and 2015, with
scenario-based projections to 2030: A
systematic analysis by the UN Inter-
agency Group for Child Mortality
Estimation. The Lancet. 2015;
386(10010):2275-2286

[3] Bhadeshia H. Bulk nanocrystalline

steel. Ironmaking & Steelmaking. 2005;
32(5):405-410

[4] Tsuji N. Unique mechanical

properties of nanostructured metals.
Journal of Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology. 2007;7(11):3765-3770

[5] Pham QP, Sharma U, Mikos AG.

Electrospinning of polymeric nanofibers
for tissue engineering applications: A
review. Tissue Engineering. 2006;12(5):
1197-1211

[6] Standard Australia, AS5100.2-2004.

Bridge design—Part 2: design loads.
Sydney, Australia: Standards Australia;
2004

[7] Standards Australia. SAA Loading

Code Part 2: Wind Loading. Australia:
Standards Australia; 1989

[8] Zhang Q et al. A study of the

effective elastic modulus of a lattice
truss panel structure by experimental
and theoretical analysis. Composite
Structures. 2017;165:130-137

50
Chapter 4

A GIS-Based Risk and Safety

Analysis of Entrance Areas in
Educational Buildings Based on
Students’ Experience
Sara Shirowzhan, Laurence Kimmel, Mohammad Mojtahedi,
Samad Sepasgozar and Jack Peacock

Abstract

The architecture of educational buildings is required to meet the contemporary

needs and follow regulations concerning safety issues in an intelligent, resilient, and
systematic manner. However, the current literature generally neglects to identify
geo-referenced risks within GIS environment based on the users’ perceptions of edu-
cational environments. This research aims to present a newly formulated risk evalu-
ation criteria for assessing the spaces within and outside educational buildings. This
chapter investigates students’ experience of using different micro-spaces, architects’
predesign assumptions and expectations of the spaces, and post-design assessment
of the spaces. Two case studies of educational spaces within University of New South
Wales campus in Kensington, Sydney was selected, and the questionnaire method
was employed to collect data from students, who routinely use the selected areas. By
comparing the results of the two buildings and mapping them in GIS, it is suggested
that feelings of safety and security can be increased via improving the building fea-
tures and enhancing the building control and security control, for example, install-
ing CCTV and other security infrastructure. Data-driven findings mapped into GIS
create a prototype for the identification of problematic areas on a map. The results
help decision-makers to understand risks and strengthen risk reduction strategies.
This work is also a step towards smarter buildings and enhanced preparedness for an
effective response to a security threat, both minimal and extreme.

Keywords: smart cities, resilient cities, safe buildings, public building, GIS

1. Introduction

Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is an established

design methodology that aims to reduce the opportunity for crime, fear, and
disorder within the built environment. Pioneered by US architect Randall Atlas, this
method for designing recognises the intended use of a space in a building and the
opportunity to use design elements to achieve security goals without the imposition
of traditional security mechanisms (e.g. alarms, gates, and locks). It is important
to note that this method can be applied not only to new design projects but also ret-
roactively for existing sites [1]. The CPTED establishes a framework for assessing a

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

program or building, aiming to consider and classify assets, threats, vulnerabilities,

and countermeasures, working to establish the security needs and requirements
of a site. Through this site assessment, architects and designers should be able to
follow guidelines that ensure the safety of clients and users from a range of security
threats, from basic petty crime to more extreme terrorist attacks [1].
However, this design methodology is a general guideline and does not provide
specific, analysed case studies nor those showing a mapping of how crime and
unsafe areas are linked to user perception. This study aims to provide a methodol-
ogy for mapping an area or location and addresses questions of perceptions of
safety in a public, educational environment. The first question aims to identify
whether a student feels safer in an outside public space in front of the building or
inside the building. What are the factors that would make one access feel safer than
another? Do students feel safer if they are more visible by other students and by
staff members (directly or indirectly through closed-circuit TV or CCTV cameras)?
Outside the building, it is assumed that students have clear vision of the surround-
ing areas and have the possibility to take different paths if they notice something
unusual in the area. The interior of the building could be perceived as more pro-
tected, but it is more constraining and generally more difficult to locate a safe space
when faced with a threat inside a largely open-plan public building.
Within the interior of the ground floor, what are the factors that would make
one location feel safer than another? Considering the factors that might influence
the response of students (e.g. gender, time of day or night studying, cultural back-
ground, familiarity with area), is it possible to have a map that represents the feel-
ing of safety of the community of users of a building? If yes, what is the accuracy
of this map? This study will provide guidelines to help designers and stakeholders
in evaluating the perception of safety of the users of their public buildings and also
assist them to identify areas in a public building where the perception of safety is
low, in order to enhance the well-being of the users.

2. Literature review

This section reviews relevant papers in three main areas to develop an interdis-
ciplinary framework to be a base for conducting a systematic survey. Three main
areas are selected, and relevant papers are reviewed as follows.

2.1 Resiliency in public buildings and international frameworks

Safety and security in public buildings is a considerable phenomenon that has

been widely debated. The aim is to anticipate hazards in order to alter the frequency
and intensity of hazards and disasters within public buildings. This can affect
considerably built-up, urban environments, particularly public buildings such as
university campuses (Basher, 2006; Tozier de la Poterie and Baudoin, 2015). Disaster
risk management studies have focused on natural disaster risks such as fire, floods,
and storms, when man-made disasters such as a terrorist attack have been neglected.
Using a review of existing literature, this study explores international frameworks
for disaster risk reduction (DRR) and resiliency enhancement in public buildings.
Methods exist to significantly reduce the number of disaster risks and loss of life,
livelihood, and health in the economic, physical, social, cultural, and environmental
assets of persons, businesses, communities, and countries [2]. International frame-
works for disaster risk reduction and resiliency have very ambitious targets to reduce
global hazard incidents in terms of the number of people affected globally and direct
disaster economic loss in Gross Domestic Product and the number of countries with

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high national and local disaster risk [2]. Hence, this research will review disaster
risk reduction and building resiliency associated with safety and security within the
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 (SFDRR), analysing how
public buildings such as university campuses are addressed.
In Australia, local councils are responsible for approving the development of
most projects and building plans [2–4]. They are important for reducing risk in
planning and building; they must pass bylaws on building regulations and prepare
land use plans and emergency response plans. This research seeks to measure public
buildings’ approaches and synergies with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015–2030. Local councils have emphasised the need to focus on urban
resilience; however, there have been insufficient tools and techniques to measure
public buildings’ resilience efforts with clear quantitative decision-making tools [5].
There are four main priorities explained in the Sendai Framework. These follow-
ing priorities are split into national/local levels and global/regional levels. It enables
effective macro- and micromanagement to tailor towards different areas:
Priority 1: Understanding disaster risk.
Priority 2: Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk.
Priority 3: Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience.
Priority 4: Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build
Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
These priorities of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction are the
background framework of this chapter investigating a connection between safety in
building and resilience.

2.2 Safety-oriented design

Resilience in the case of a university building means that the design is keeping users
and assets safe, and at the same time, users are not anxious in their everyday life by
the safety-oriented design. The university building stays open and welcoming to staff,
students, and temporary guests. Australia’s current counterterrorism guidelines focus
on securing crowded places, and universities are considered in this category, especially
during special events like open days.1 While the application of the guidelines to a
particular site is informed by criteria set out in [6], the strategies adopted in specific
cases—including the extent to which “openness-friendly” measures are adopted—rely
on relevant design stakeholder engagement. The outcome of the literature review on
safety-oriented design in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States2 is that
two broad approaches to securing public spaces can be identified: enclosing and layering.
Enclosing, also known as “fortressing” (or “traditional target hardening”), is a
defensive strategy that focusses predominantly on denying access to a target through
exclusion. In its most elementary form, enclosing secures public domains via physical
or artificial barrier techniques such as bollards and security walls ([1]: 5, 13).

1
As of 29 June 2019, Australia’s ANZCTC has published 16 counterterrorism related guidelines and
reports: https://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Media-and-publications/Publications/Pages/default.aspx
2
As of 29 June 2019:
• 13 counterterrorism related guidelines and reports have been published in the US (FEMA website).
Those of most relevance to the present discussion are those published by Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA): FEMA 426 Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks
Against Buildings [7] and FEMA 430 Site and Urban Design for Security [8].
• 25 counterterrorism related guidelines and reports have been published in the UK (gov.uk website).
The CPNI (Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure) issues guidelines for important and
sensitive assets (CPNI website). Those of most relevance to the present discussion are the guidelines
issued by HM Government [9, 10] and by the Royal Institute of British Architects [11].

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Typically, the implementation of this design strategy sees significant standoff

distances between entrance points and the building, facades constructed of hard-
ened materials, and the building’s interior protected by both secure outer and inner
perimeters ([12]: 2.23).3
Enclosing has proved a common strategy under the US counterterrorism guide-
lines for many years, notably in the safeguarding of schools and college campuses.4
While its implementation offers a very direct (and efficient) enhancement of
safety, in design terms it poses significant challenges to maintaining physical and
psychological openness. As Randall I. Atlas notes, “[c]onsider the 1970s fortressing
in schools and the windowless and sterile physical structures that emerged. That
fortressing sent a message of paranoia and fear” ([1], 283).
In contrast to enclosing, layering is a security strategy that focusses on protect-
ing a site by introducing multiple layers of complementary protective measures.
The strategy capitalises on redundancy in a site’s security design: if implemented
correctly, it ensures that the failure of any single layer—which may consist of
different security measures—will not significantly compromise the overall security
of the building. Rather than reducing the likelihood of a security threat, the goal
of layered security is to reduce the likelihood of a successful threat. Also known as
“security in depth” ([15], 14), strategies of layering consider a building’s security
both in its proximate context and in its internal layout. Under the US counterterror-
ism guidelines, FEMA outlines a layered security comprising three layers:

• “First Layer of Defence”: comprises barriers (commonly at a property line or

sidewalk/curb line) ([7], 2–12). In the context of HV mitigation in front of a
building, this first layer may take the form of permanent or removable (but
well-designed and integrated) bollards.

• “Second Layer of Defence”: extends from the perimeter of the site to the exte-
rior face of a building ([7], 2–12). “The most basic elements of architecture are
themselves part of the security systems for buildings: walls, doors” ([16], 16).

• “Third Layer of Defence”: commonly comprises the building’s interior and

separates unsecured from secured areas ([7], 2–12).

More nuanced a security strategy than the defensive “shield” of enclosing,

layering—in principle—aligns more naturally with objectives of openness in public
building security and thus with objective of resilient design.

2.3 Mapping of perception of safety

Existing research mainly focuses on crime mapping and safe zone mapping in
public spaces. Crime mapping is one of the main purposes of recent crime analysis.
However, the use of maps for criminology relates to predigital and satellite mapping
techniques, when maps were 2D and containing less information.
Since the early 1980s, there has been a resurgence in the interest for three-
dimensional analysis of unsafe places and crime areas in order to identify high-risk
areas and to visualise information on unsafe areas [17, 18]. When geographical
information systems (GIS) were developed in the 1990s, policy makers, including
law enforcement departments, started learning more about their capabilities. Policy

3
Among others, the enclosing strategy has encouraged forms of perimeter protection such as ‘Forced-
Entry-Ballistic Resistant’ (FE-BR): see Whole Building Design Guide [13].
4
FEMA has published guidelines specifically in relation to school security [14].

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makers started learning the basics of location analysis and spatial information in
order to identify and develop methodologies to prevent and protect public areas
from crime.
The recent literature recommends the use of location-based systems and GIS to
detect high-risk areas and the possibility of quick responses to the crimes [19, 20].
Emerging technologies such as advanced sensors, apps, and advanced GIS
features are helpful for safety and crime analysis. Different layers of GIS can show
the historical or current high-level crime areas and unsafe locations. Relevant data
seeks to identify spatial patterns related to space, people activities, location fea-
tures, and time. However, the utilisation of such technologies now updated [21, 22]
and the upscaling to advanced technologies is slow. Several unanswered questions
are mentioned in the literature and are knowledge gaps such as [17, 21, 22] what
methods such as univariate methods can be used to extrapolate location-based
patterns in small public areas. Crime and safety location analysis and mapping
demonstrate, measure, analyse risks, and evaluate or rate locations. The analysis
also helps to interpret what should be done in high-risk areas, what should be the
priorities, and what should be improved. Locating, mapping, and geo-referencing
may reveal patterns that can be used to model space and time in predicted future
situations [17, 20].
The development and utilisation of GIS for crime and safety analysis is a slow
process. The literature gives a couple of reasons for such a slow process, such as the
costs, hardware, and software available to public place managers, and the com-
plexity of the system development process [17, 23, 24]. However, it is known as a
powerful tool to support crime and unsafe place analysis including the day-to-day
activities of place users [23]. At the technical level, GIS uses vector data represent-
ing the fundamental units of spatial data such as points, lines, and polygons. The
point is a discrete position similar to a pin or flag on a 2D drawing. The line also
represents more than two points on a map which is the same as a normal line or a set
of points in one line representing the boundaries and walls. The complicated feature
can be a polygon representing a geographic area in the selected public building
with a set of line segments [25]. Buildings, parks, or lakes are just a few examples.
The GIS environment includes a series of elements corresponding to a data bit or
a record which should be previously defined as an attribute. Figure 1 shows the
proposed workflow to select the area, collect data, and populate the geodatabase for
the safety and crime analysis in this paper.
Since the safety and crime analysis is a complicated analysis, the vector data is
not enough for modelling and accurate interpretation. Therefore, the second type of
data is required, namely, raster data model. Raster data is RGB or pixel-based data

Figure 1.
The proposed workflow for creating and updating the maps in GIS environment.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

such as an image. This type of data can be collected from different sources such as
aerial or satellite photos. Similar to the vector data, the data record has an attribute;
it means that each pixel linked to an attribute value. The combination of both vector
and raster data sets will enrich the designed GIS model by including the qualitative
data related to geographical data.
Since the public space is selected in an educational area, the literature in the
education is also reviewed. The student feelings and attitudes that are obtained by
a university’s environment can be called the university climate in terms of safety
(Loukas, 2007). This is related to the concept of safety and safe learning environ-
ment. The quality of the physical environment and a safe university helps students
to flourish socially and emotionally.
Previous studies focused on several factors influencing the safety climate in an
education place (Loukas, 2007). However, details of the physical environment have
been largely ignored. Furthermore, different zones in a large university have differ-
ent attributes, and the student’s feelings are not the same. A question has remained
on what main factors potentially influence the university climate. Particularly, what
characteristics may contribute more in making feeling higher safety in buildings by
students (Table 1).
Previous studies explained that the quality of the educational building and
infrastructure may affect the student achievement; additionally, this also could affect
both students and teachers’ attitude towards learning and teaching, respectively.
Many papers investigate the relationships between various building design types
and features and students’ outcomes (Earthman, 2002, 2004; Higgins et al., 2005;
Lemasters, 1997; Schneider, 2002, Buckley et al., 2004). For example, Buckley et al.
(2004) suggests that the buildings’ shape affects the learning outcomes. As another
example, Uline and Tschannen-Moran (2008) find that building age, climate control,
indoor air quality, lighting, acoustical control, design classifications, and overall
impression are key factors. While these studies make relationships between the
level of safety and students achievements, they rarely provide detailed information
of perceived safety from students’ points of view in the corners and other interior
spaces of the educational buildings. Also, mapping the perceived safety for better
identification of problematic areas within universities has remained scarce.

ID Variable References

SAF The level of safety in my study place [26, 27]

PVC The level of privacy in my study space [28, 29]

SPS Feel as safe in an enclosed more private study place [30, 26]

SRV You feel if your workspace wasn’t monitored by surveillance cameras [31, 32]

BUR Bollards potentially lowering the threat of unsafe reactions [33]

VAS Access influence, e.g. visibility, accessibility, or safety reasons [34]

COA affect your choice of access/circulation point [35]

BLA Building layout and architecture [36]

CRA Card readers/swipe card access [37, 38]

ASO Awareness and availability of the security office who monitor the security [39]
camera footage

AWH Awareness and availability of help points [40]

Table 1.
A summary of key variables for conceptualization, Shirowzhan, S 2018.

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A GIS-Based Risk and Safety Analysis of Entrance Areas in Educational Buildings Based…
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3. Research methodology

This paper is based on an empirical study on two selected educational buildings.

A series of semi-structured questionnaires were designed based on the literature.
The questionnaires assisted the researchers to translate the information given by the
participants into maps and to evaluate the spaces at two relative local or global levels
considering other spaces around the selected areas. A group of participants from
each building was interviewed, and the results analysed. A comparison method
was chosen to compare two selected educational building cases. The Red Centre
and the Tyree Building are situated on the UNSW campus in Kensington, Sydney
(See Figure 2). Both of these buildings allow data to be collated regarding safety,
security, and defence at larger scale due to the size of each building. The buildings
themselves are open to the public during the day (no swipe access at main entrances
and to public parts at each level), and the boundaries are large glass facades on the
ground floor. What protects these glass facades from a potential car/truck is a set
of stairs between the University Mall and the interiors. The survey enables to make
distinctions between both buildings.
As the appreciation of perception of safety on a scale from 1 to 5 is different for
each person, we asked the students to compare one location with another. The infor-
mation about the differences of perception of safety from one location to another is
more accurate than the absolute value itself for one location.
The comments added by the students in the semi-structured sections of the sur-
vey enable to appreciate the level of anxiety or well-being of the student better: two
students defining the level of safety 3/5 might not have the same level of anxiety.
The information in the textbox aims to highlight these differences.
To get a better understanding of the level of safety ranked by the students for
the entries of the two buildings, we visualised the average perceived safety level for
each entry in ArcGIS and for a better communication with users, and to enhance
accessibility to the data, we visualised the GIS layer in Google Earth. To map these
ranks, we considered a range of 5 to 1 for mapping feeling of safety where 5 demon-
strates feeling of distressed using the entry and 1 reveals feeling totally safe using
the location as chosen entry.

Figure 2.
Red centre and Tyree building at UNSW and the studied entrances in this research.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

4. Findings and discussion

Figures 3 and 4 show the feeling of unsafety, for Red Centre and Tyree
Buildings entries in different day and night times.
Figures 3 and 4 show the average for each entry gate at different time. Figure 4
shows that students perceptions in terms of safety for entry 3 (Tyree) are always the
same, while entry 1 and 2 may not be safe sometime. Similarly, the same feeling at
night time where some lighting facilities are available in front of the case building.
Figure 5 also shows that case 1 has received consistent scores which are average
and high. However, the second case entries do not allow students to have a consistent
safe feeling at different times, and they may need to change their choices of paths
and entries. Based on the evaluation and the available data, the risk map was created
indicating the main spots. Average level of safety is demonstrated in different colours in
a map created in ArcGIS. The layer is exported into Google Earth, and as can be seen in
Figure 6, the values of average safety for each entry can be seen and compared. Indeed,
this kind of mapping can be used for identification of the problematic areas. In addi-
tion, it could be used as a safety base map for the security teams to enhance intervention
activities or monitoring facilities for the entries identified to have lower levels of safety.
The facade design was a consistent comment across a number of the students
also, suggesting that glass or transparent facades lead to more secure buildings/
increased feelings of security. The entrances/exits and circulation were also men-
tioned in responses from students, suggesting that the design of these has a major
impact on the safety of these buildings (particularly in the RC which has a single
main entrance/exit point).
The Tyree Building has greater variation across the locations, with Location 03
(from back of building) generally regarded as the least safe option, particularly at
night, and Location 02 (from University Mall) regarded as the safest at both times
of day. Location 03 is regarded as least safe.
In terms of design we investigated that in Question 9f: Do you think the building
layout and architecture (accesses, evaluation of facades, and close surroundings up
to 200 meters) have an impact on the level of criminal acts and their nature? The
interviewers state that: The configuration of spaces manipulates places for the human
condition and consciousness to use it for their benefits. Criminals acts are not the only
factor.” And also “the RC has a clear facade and so is quite open. There is also essentially
1 entrance as well.” Or another participant clarifies that “the facade of the Red Centre
building for the exhibition space and mezzanine are very visible so this may discourage
criminal activity; however, the upper floors consist of long corridors and closed off areas
may allow for more criminal activity. The concentration of major circulation routes and
inefficiency of emergency exits may also encourage this type of activity.” And finally,
“more advanced designs on facades makes building appear more safe and secure.”

Figure 3.
Day and night time feeling of unsafety for red centre building.

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Figure 4.
Day and night time feeling of unsafety for entrances of TYREE building.

Figure 5.
The average score for each entry gate at night and daytime. Note to figure: Red refers to RC (case building 1)
and Blue refers to TB (case building 2). The RC received scores above the median. The TB has received totally
different scores for each entry.

Figure 6.
Demonstration of the rate for a feeling of safety (AvrSafety value in the demonstrated attribute table on the
map) for entry 1 of TYREE building.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

5. Conclusion and further research

This study aimed to develop a novel method for evaluating and demonstrating
risk spots in an educational campus using geographical information systems. The
study addressed the following key questions: Which student feels less safe than
others, which entry is reported unsafe, and how is daytime safety perceived dif-
ferently than night time safety? The results show that the Red Centre building is
generally regarded as safer than the Tyree Building, during both daytime and night.
There are no major differences across both sites during the day; however, the major
differences occur for the night rating. Findings indicate that students feel less safe
working in the building than the RC work zones. It might be due to the proximity of
the TB to the main road (Anzac Parade) and main walkways. One side of the TB is
in line with the main road.
Across the two locations, the perception of safety in the RC is consistent dur-
ing both day and night; however, it was regarded to be slightly safer inside than
external location. Across responses to the RC, students either responded with 1 or 5
(extremes of safety or danger), with no responses landing in the middle; it suggests
extreme feelings of comfortability on campus or the opposite. Location 01 regarded
as most safe, and Location 03 regarded as least safe.
By comparing the results for the two buildings, it is suggested that the openness
of buildings is valued by users to feel safe. Glass facades, when designed with safety
glass, have a positive impact on the feeling of safety. Safety of university buildings
can be achieved through access control coupled with the maintenance of visual links
between interior and exterior of the building, i.e. symbolic openness.
The tools developed for this research enable to assist designers and stakeholders
in the planning of university buildings. Safety-oriented design, based on the two
main strategies of enclosing and layering, can be developed by stakeholders by con-
sidering the existing and future users’ feeling of safety. Design solutions coupling
feeling of safety and architectural quality can be identified and then developed and
reused in future projects.

Author details

Sara Shirowzhan, Laurence Kimmel, Mohammad Mojtahedi*, Samad Sepasgozar

and Jack Peacock
Faculty of Built Environment, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89752

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Chapter 5

The Effect of Place Attachment

on Educational Efficiency in
Elementary Schools
Farhad Soheili, Reyhaneh Karimi, Behnaz Avazpour
and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar

Abstract

Close attention to education and its effects on the identities of societies has been
ingrained in the history of studies. Nowadays, a considerable amount of criticism in
the field of education is related to inefficient and obsolete educational scheduling,
with a large number of researchers exploring new learning methods. Logically,
these new methods require new architectural environments, which can meet the
needs of a new generation with the approach of positively affecting students’
learning efficiency. The main purpose of this research is to identify effective factors
in students’ sense of attachment to school. First, this research finds factors on the
sense of attachment by studying past literature. Second, a number of questions and
hypothesis are developed. Third, in order to validate the effective factors and
answer the developed questions, a questionnaire is devised and distributed among
278 students of 10 state primary schools of Shahriyar, Iran. The collected data are
then analyzed using SPSS software. The findings indicate that there is a meaningful
relation between students’ educational efficiency and their sense of attachment to
school. It also shows that important factors, such as social activities and connection
with natural elements in design, can have a noticeable impact on the students’ sense
of attachment to school and consequently their educational efficiency.

Keywords: elementary school, place attachment, sense of attachment,

educational efficiency

1. Introduction

In recent years, attention has been drawn to the importance of education in

developing countries. The reason for this is a rise in global awareness of this issue.
Each year, many countries in the Persian Gulf region allocate significant expendi-
ture toward improving schools and universities according to the most up-to-date
methods and equipment. In Iran, the conditions seem to be different. In spite of the
formation of various educational organizations, each with a systematic program to
improve the quality of education, the situation in reality seems to be different. In
order to clarify the subject, we propose a few questions:

• Do Iranian students go to school every day with the interest in new lessons and
teachings?

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

• Do the environments of schools lead students to become successful people?

• Are the thought concepts in schools permanent and effective, or are they
forgotten after completing the exam period and do they remain intact at the
community level?

• What are the key issues in students’ effective learning? Are they high self-
esteem, high sense of collective participation, creativity, etc.?

Answers to the above questions are critical in better understanding the learning
process and its impact on individual student identities. According to many scholars,
the identity at early ages is the foundation for the future identity of communities.
Students attending school early in their childhood typically show enthusiasm for
learning; however, after a short period of time, the passion suddenly subsides. They
spend time in school environments that do little to increase their willingness to
learn. It is likely that such environments have been stagnant in their pattern of
construction for almost half a century and have not, in essence, been successful
even with the development of its educational programs. The importance of
addressing this issue from a variety of perspectives must be considered. At the
current time that many institutes in different parts of the country are building
schools in high numbers, the quality of these schools and the impact they make on
the future of each individual and, more generally, on society require close attention.
Students and children are a very important factor in building and making pro-
gress for any society and the way they make decisions can impact the society, which
is vital by various institutions in today’s developed countries. And to attain the
ability to compete with other communities, children are instructed and trained in
schools that implement appropriate and useful approaches in educational program
areas as well as in school architecture design. It is obvious that the designed envi-
ronment has the potential to affect individual behaviors and can continue to influ-
ence personality through the continuation of the same process. Therefore, it is
important to address the issue of building schools by adopting a suitable approach
focused on designed environment.
By their nature, individuals’ identities form and vary throughout their life.
Children between the ages of 6 and 9 are at a critical period in this personality
formation and find their character comparable to others [1]. Hence, it is expected
that the role of elementary schools in children’s lives during these years will be
given greater emphasis and can have a positive impact on the formation of their
individual identities.
The main purpose of the present research is to extract effective factors in
creating a sense of attachment in students to the school. Such factors, instrumental
in designing and creating a sense of attachment, can have a positive impact on
students’ educational efficiency. By asking questions such as “Does increasing the
sense of belonging to the school increase educational efficiency?” and “What factors
in school design can increase the sense of attachment to the school?”, the study
explores the following hypothesis: “the sense of attachment to school has a positive
impact on their educational efficiency.”

2. Literature review

In reviewing the past studies on designing educational spaces, and in particular

the design of schools, it is evident that designing schools has been of great importance
to the researchers for many years. John Dewey addresses the subject about a century

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The Effect of Place Attachment on Educational Efficiency in Elementary Schools
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ago, stating that the environment of schools must be considered as one of the primary
societies. He further emphasizes the importance of these types of societies. In his
view, the general atmosphere governing the school environment and the activities
that take place can directly reflect the general public’s perceptions [2].
Burke and Grosvenor in a book entitled “The School I Love” were trying to find
the school-specific characteristics of their students. The first line of this book begins
with questions that ask about the ability of schools to meet the needs of children and
adolescents. In this book, which is full of children’s views in the form of poetry,
painting, and interviews, there are some points about the interaction between
children and school environment, their expectations of learning, and the problems
of educational systems [3]. The Guardian magazine hosted a contest entitled “The
School I’d Like” in 2001 and invited children to comment on their favorite school.
The school we like is this: a beautiful school, a comfortable school, a safe school, a
listener school, a flexible school, a school associated with us, a respectable school, a
school without a wall, or a school for everyone. Burke and Grosvenor discuss school
buildings, classes, courtyards, and other spaces, and comments from students are
presented in each section, after reviewing relevant studies by scholars. Many of
these comments refer to the extracted subsets of the sense of belonging to the school
space. For example, an eight-year-old girl named Hannah describes her school as:
“The school I love is a beautiful park in the valley passing by a river” [3].
This description notes the interest of students in communicating with the natu-
ral environment, called the “interaction of the active environment.”
School buildings, their environments and landscapes, open spaces and class-
rooms, layout, and decorations all are referred to as the third teacher [4]. In the
opinion of many scholars, there is a need for school to be a guide, and a part of it
should convey some of the shoulds and shouldn’ts to the students [5].
In this context, the term “school exemplary” has been used by a number of
scholars for leading schools. In a research conducted by Christopher [6] with the
aim of extracting the characteristics of primary schools, ten factors are introduced
as the main characteristics of these schools. One of these factors was the perfor-
mance of the school building as a teacher, using design elements in structural units
and facilities, which would have made students curious about how they work.
Another feature of these schools was to provide an environment where users would
feel at home, as well as to develop a sense of participation in social activities in their
students, thereby strengthening the sense of being one and uniting them [7, 8]. The
characteristics of these schools are listed below:

• The buildings of these schools are designed according to the environment and
are part of its assets.

• Paying attention to details of building construction up to its smallest

components.

• Various space experiences for social and individual activities.

• Designing spaces that enhance social skills.

• Providing enough space to provide services to all students.

• Flexible design.

In a study published by the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, it was found that

school design can push students to positive behaviors on their own, and as students

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

derive this spirit from the school space, opportunities for positive influence in their
education and learning are created [5]. He also says that children are highly capable
of observing, and any shortcomings that designers may have in design can give
them the feeling that they are not essentially in an important place.
The comments mentioned above have long concerned researchers trying to
improve the educational environment and have tried to distinguish the building of
schools from barracks and give them an appropriate identity, and transfer this
distinction to the students, an identity that can in turn create positive effects on
student behaviors [9].
In a study by Maxwell and Chmielewski, the role of classroom personalization
by students and its impact on students’ self-esteem were explored. The results of
their research indicate the positive effects of classroom personalization on self-
esteem and personal identity of primary school students as well as children in
kindergarten. In their findings, the authors note that the presence of preset spaces
in order to enable students to visualize their works can affect their self-esteem [1].
Ma, in a research on the sense of attachment to the school, states that there is a
direct relationship between students’ self-esteem and their sense of attachment to
the school. In fact, their view of themselves can be generalized to their view of the
school environment. In this regard, the school environment and its design can be
affected, and designers should be diligent in designing the school in order to
increase students’ knowledge of their individual identities [10].
In many studies in the context of the psychology of the environment in relation
to educational spaces, researchers have sought to identify the factors that enhance
the sense of self-esteem in students. In a study entitled “The Role of the Continuing
Presence of Students’ Effects on Their Sense of Self-Esteem,” it was found that
students who were involved in class layout and decoration, and had their works
displayed continuously, had a higher sense of self-esteem and have shown a more
appropriate educational performance [11].
By studying four schools, Upitis, examines issues that increase the sense of
belonging to the school. In his view, the school environment should be seen from
two aspects of the natural environment and artificial environment, an example of
which is shown in Figure 1: a part that is the main building of the school and a part
that is the natural environment where students attend school. By examining case
examples, he shows that the presence of nature and the provision of direct student
interaction with it can have a very positive impact on increasing their sense of
attachment to the school environment [12].

Figure 1.
Artificial and natural aspects of a school environment located in Shahriyar, the photo is taken by authors.

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The school should be a place where students acquire their personal identity,
where educational process takes on a meaningful form, where the educational
experiences students receive turn attractive to them, and where the learning envi-
ronment is welcoming to all. Collectively, such attributes give a particular morale to
the school’s atmosphere, which is subsequently passed onto students [5].
In many writings of scholars on the sense of belonging to the school, the role of
teachers has been emphasized in the creation of this feeling. At this stage, it is
important to note that the appropriate school environment is not just for students
and it affects the behavior of teachers and their training process [13]. This positive
impact can, in effect, directly affect students’ learning and also create a sense of
belonging in them.
In the area of school design, a significant part of the research focused on the
impact of the quality of the educational environment on the student’s educational
situation. The researchers also conducted independent classroom research and
attempted to illustrate the interaction among the classroom conditions, educational
condition, and students’ behavioral conditions. Their studies indicate that the class
environment, depending on its type of design, can have a positive or negative
effect. On the one hand, the classroom environment can lead to positive educational
and behavioral improvements; on the other hand, the classroom may also increase
inappropriate behaviors, increase the desire for isolation and avoiding social
interactions in school, as well as increase stress among elementary students or
preschoolers [14–16].
Knight and Noyes conducted studies on classroom space in relation to the rela-
tionship between class arrangement and student behavior. In their view, such a
study was necessary because most students spend time inside the classroom; that is,
the space, along with its furniture, can play a significant role in students’ behavior.
A sample of class design with various furniture types is shown in Figure 2. Com-
paring the old chairs and new chairs that entered a school, the authors found that
chairs were essentially requiring students to do an activity and its newness per se
cannot be efficient and useful [17]. Other studies regarding classroom arrangement-
behavior include the study of the effect of noise pollution and density in the
classroom and their role in student learning [18–21].
Another part of the study is the school’s overall atmosphere. In a study entitled
“Explaining the Relationship between Achievements of the Students and the
School’s Physical Environment,” the basic assumption was that the pattern of school
environment design influences students’ achievements. In this research, five design
patterns including access, open spaces, visibility and perspective, access to natural
light, and finally the way of placing classes together, were considered as design

Figure 2.
Various furniture types designed for classes, by authors.

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features. The ITBS test, designed and evaluated to assess students’ learning at
school, was used to measure students’ progress. In this test, the various skill levels of
the students can be evaluated. One of the main advantages of this method is the
possibility of comparing students’ educational situations with their peers and, con-
sequently, comparing one school with another school. The results of this study
revealed a very significant relationship between the type of school design and the
student’s learning. This study puts an emphasis on further research on the field of
learning, since there are another key factors contributing to the mentioned field that
need to be investigated, such as: the status and ability of school teachers and their
skills in teaching, students’ economic and social conditions, racial and ethnic
differences, and many other factors [22].
Over the last few decades, the issues of educational spaces and school facilities
have been raised in scholarly debate. Specifically, there was some discussion about
the necessity and importance of building new schools. The origin of these concerns,
on the one hand, was economic issues and, on the other hand, with increasing
population growth, was sufficient time to build. The main question was: could old
schools be restored to new schools instead of building new schools and adding new
ones? McGuffey studied seven case studies and, in almost all cases, students whose
schools had a lower age of construction and had newer equipment showed better
performance [23].
Philips noticed a significant difference in reading and math skills among stu-
dents in new buildings and those in older schools. His research revealed a clear
relationship between the age of the building and its equipment with the quality of
students’ performance. Students who were in the newer building and environment,
with more up-to-date facilities, showed a 7.63% increase in their grades [24].
Another issue that has been addressed by researchers is the impact of school size
and capacity, as well as the size of the classroom on the student’s educational
situation [25]. In his 2008 study in the Danish context, Duke divided schools into
two large and small groups. At high school, both groups of schools had their own
positive benefits [26]. Having said that, Cotton found that in small schools, student
achievement is sometimes more dramatic than that of older school students [27]. Of
course, both scholars in their writings state that the smallness and largeness scale of
schools vary from one region to another.
In the elementary school, this has been given less attention, because the general
belief is that smaller schools provide a more suitable atmosphere for the elementary
school. However, in a study of seven schools in California, schools with more
students than those set for elementary schools were better educated than the
smaller ones [28]. However, it seems that this requires more in-depth research.
Another topic that has been taken into consideration by researchers is outdoor
education. Over the past few years, this has attracted more attention and led to the
design of schools without walls. Research shows that students regularly recall times
that they spent outside the classroom framework as academic visits or student
camps. Falk and Deirking admit that 96% of the subjects in the study group referred
to the memories of their scientific journeys in their early years. He goes on to say
that it’s not just a matter of remembering these times to show that they are useful,
and that even its usefulness does not result in the inappropriateness of training in
ordinary classes [29].
Other researchers have found that educational experiences transmitted to stu-
dents in open environments are far more influential than classroom environments
[30]. This effect is essentially based on the desire of students to learn from the
outdoors. But this interest varies over the age range. Research shows a significant
difference in the tendency of primary and secondary school students to learn in
open spaces. Elementary school students were significantly more enthusiastic than

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high school students after experiencing a scientific journey [31]. Outdoor education
can provide activities that are not possible in the classroom in the form of an
outdoor training workshop. Exterior spaces are environments suitable for activities
that deal with natural elements such as water, soil, and mud and can increase
student motivation; a sample of such a place is shown in Figure 2.
As observed and reported, many researchers have investigated various sectors of
designing a school. Such studies, each with a different approach, examined a part of
the subject of education and the role of architecture in student learning. In a
number of these studies, there are common points in the research approach and the
subject matter.
In the area of Iranian research, scholars have also focused on designing schools
based on different approaches:
Some researchers mentioned several interesting points in an article entitled
“Recognizing the Role of Nature in Educational Spaces.” They emphasize the role of
nature as a factor in the attractiveness of school education to different aspects of
such an impact. From their point of view, examining different aspects of this impact
could lead to more diverse designs. They eventually suggest design patterns such as
creating open spaces and interacting with natural elements, creating eye-catching
dimensions at different points, using open spaces in class design, as well as student
changes in designed gardens [32].
Kamel Nia explores the factors for better environmental quality in schools in a
book entitled “Learning Environment Design Grammar.” He states that because
most educational environments form a narrow line of view for students, it is
necessary to use the horizontal elements to create the appropriate visions and
perspectives along with establishing a more effective external and internal interac-
tion [33]. Figure 3 represents an example of the mentioned elements.
In this regard, another researcher in an article entitled “The concept and func-
tion of open space in traditional and new schools,” historically addresses the differ-
ent roles of these spaces and uses the model of central life as a successful and
effective model of outdoor education [34].
A study entitled “Space perception; a key element in designing children’s spaces”
presents the views of children gathered in the form of painting and opinion polls.
The results show that children essentially paint their school in interaction with
nature, and the details of the chairs and benches, the blackboard, and the overall
form of building the school are very important to them. Also, in terms of the colors
used for the school building, the children are more pleased with the lighter and
brighter colors for their classes [35].

Figure 3.
A sample of horizontal element, designed by authors.

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The issue of flexible design in educational spaces is explored in an important

study entitled “Flexible learning environment.” In the researchers’ view, the
advantage of this type of design is the ability to respond to the different needs of
children in their childhood. On the other hand, it is possible to adapt to the ongoing
changes in educational programs that require different spaces. Subsequently, with
the introduction of the ideal class, they set forth factors of spatial fluidity, internal
and external communication, communication with the community, spatial trans-
parency, and livelihood of communication corridors and transitional spaces to make
the design more flexible [36].
“Criteria for Designing Future Education Space” investigates the changes
needed in design attitudes in the new age. In this article, it is pointed out that the
architecture of today’s schools is very similar to its original examples in the country
and has not adapted itself to changing lifestyle and educational system. Then, he
identified and studied the factors needed in the field of school education and
architecture, and tried to provide solutions for architectural harmony and imple-
mentation of new educational ideas in schools. One of the characteristics that is
mentioned at the end of this article is the issue of flexibility in design, which can be
adapted to the new educational needs of the curriculum as an important factor [37].
The article “Study of the environmental components of learning space and its
impact on student behavior” states that humans are always interacting with their
environment and this interaction is two-way. That is, people affect the environment
and the environment affects people. The environment is effective due to its struc-
ture in shaping the personality and physical and mental development of each indi-
vidual. One of the environments in which human beings spend most of their lives is
a learning environment. The physical space of schools also affects the behavior of
children, which is the future capital of our country, and, as a result, a lack of
attention to design can create the background for abusive behaviors in students.
This research seeks to answer the fundamental question of how the physical envi-
ronment of educational environments affects the behavior of children. In this
regard, understanding the concept of the environment and the interaction between
the child and the environment, we first point out the physical components of the
educational environment and their impact on the cognitive processes and social
behaviors of the students [38].
The article entitled “A Study of the Way to Create a Sense of Place for Restora-
tion of Identity and Confidentiality in Architectural Areas” focuses on space and
location as a theoretical base in various fields. Its fundamental findings include
achieving the recognition of space and methods for semantic quality and its trans-
formation into a place and, consequently, the creation of a sense of place and place
belonging [39].
Finally, the article “The Effect of School Architecture on the Students’ Learning
Process” states that the learning process is ongoing, and this occurs naturally in a
space, and since the environment influences human beings, it can affect the learn-
ing process too. The study highlights factors such as light, color, and furniture
affecting the learning process [40].

3. Theoretical framework of research and key words definition

3.1 Educational outcome

Training is a purposeful and predesigned activity aimed at providing opportuni-

ties to facilitate and speed learning in a breeding system. Training may be
conducted through films, radio, television, and other media, with or without the

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presence of a professor [41]. The meaning of the word efficiency in the dictionary
comes as a result of work and efficiency. Therefore, the goal is to increase the
educational outcome and improve the outcome of the work and the learning activity
that takes place in learning.

3.2 Elementary school

The school is an educational organization that is usually located in a building,

based on official standards and certain criteria. By education system supervision,
the school is responsible for implementing approved programs, offering a variety of
education and training for students at the level or course of study. After graduation,
they will be awarded an official degree. The elementary school is a six-year course
that students enter at the age of seven. After completing the first round (first,
second, and third grades) and the second round (fourth, fifth, and sixth grades) and
if they succeed in the exam, they will receive a certificate of completion of the
elementary school. Public schools are also schools where students can study for free,
and students can study at these schools if they have the required age and residence
range.

3.3 The sense of place attachment

The sense of place attachment is defined as the emotional connection between

the individual and the place [42], which Shumaker and Taylor refer to as a positive
or influential link between individuals and their environment [43]. Hummon
introduces it as an emotional involvement with the environment [44]. Rubinstein
argues that the positive experience that a person acquires from the place is the result
of the positive emotions that are formed between the individual and the place. The
more emotional the relationship is, the more interested a person is in the place [45].
One of the things that is constantly observed in all studies about the sense of place
attachment is the presence of emotion and excitement at the heart of these defini-
tions. The next feature of these definitions is “the desire to stay close to the subject
to which it belongs.” This attribute is implicit in many of the definitions available.
By combining this feature with the definitions mentioned above, it can ultimately
be reached: an emotional and positive relationship between a person and a particu-
lar place that leads to motivation and staying in that particular place [46, 47].

3.4 Factors affecting the sense of place attachment

3.4.1 Cognitive-perceptual factors

Indeed, the greater the individual’s awareness of the place, the more the sense of
place and attachment to the place can increase. An important factor in this case is
time, which means that over time, the person becomes more familiar with the
environment and gets a better understanding of the place. The other two factors are
related to the following perceptual factors:

3.4.1.1 Spatial and physical distinction

School design with a variety of spatial qualities, as well as the use of materials of
varying color and texture, can add to the identity of each part of the overall space.
This affects the students’ perception of the space that they are involved in and
increases their sense of belonging to the place [48].

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3.4.1.2 Environmental legibility

Another factor that positively affects the person’s perception of the environment
is the increase in the level of individual attachment to the location, which is the
cause of the readability of the environment. In his book [49] on the sense of place
attachment as one of the most effective features in design, Kevin Lynch poses the
issue of environment legibility and examines the factors that make this legibility.
Lynch goes on to outline features and body elements, paths, edges, cues, and nodes
as effective in shaping the concept of legibility of the environment [50].

3.4.2 Social factors

As previously stated, a sense of belonging can be the result of the individual-

place interaction or the individual-individual interaction in a particular place. In
fact, just as cognitive factors play a role in creating a sense of place attachment,
social factors can also contribute to the formation of this sense. As mentioned
above, past research has shown that the social dimension of the sense of attachment
is stronger than its physical dimension. Therefore, the environment that makes
these interactions possible is an effective step in creating a sense of attachment. One
of the needs that humans have always sought to answer is to have a proper defini-
tion of their individual identity. Social interactions, in the context of communicat-
ing with family, friends, and relatives, provide an important part of the context for
responding to social needs and acceptability [51]. This need for children is also
demonstrated through communicating with parents and other family members,
teachers, and other adults as well as other children [52].

3.4.3 Environmental-physical factors

3.4.3.1 Personalization of the environment

Existence of personal elements in the environment is another factor in strength-

ening individual identity, especially that of students. For example, providing
spaces, in which students can display their artwork on a permanent basis like a
sample that is shown in Figure 4 or the presence of personal closet and other spaces

Figure 4.
Permanent galleries, where students can exhibit their art works, designed by authors.

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and equipment that convey a sense of ownership of part of space to students, can
significantly enhance a student’s sense of attachment to school. This is one of the
environmental-physical factors that develops a sense of attachment to a school’s
physical dimensions. Riger and Lavrakas also emphasize the role of these physical
factors in their writings [53, 54].

3.4.3.2 Connection with natural environments

One of the most important factors and perhaps the most effective factor in
creating a sense of attachment to a site and, specifically, the school site is the use of
natural elements in design. Likewise, many researchers point to the importance of
this topic in the field of environmental psychology, and it is referred to as a factor in
shaping the active environment interaction, which can furthermore lead to a sense
of attachment [55]. Also, in designing educational spaces, many studies and pat-
terns direct designers to the use of natural elements in the design and creation of
spatial fluidity between the inside and outside and the natural and artificial
environment [56].

3.4.3.3 Answering the functional needs

If an environment does not provide functional requirements to the people occu-

pying it, to whatever extent it offers factors of a sense of attachment, it still fails to
perform its duties toward the individual. This is particularly evident in the design of
places like the school, which remains a central issue for the users.

3.5 Theoretical research framework

According to the main hypothesis mentioned in the research, “the sense of place
attachment for students in relation to the school has a positive impact on their
educational efficiency,” and the sense of attachment to the school space is consid-
ered as an independent variable. The rest of this research attempts to prove that it is
effective on the dependent variable, which is the efficiency of the training. Figure 5
shows the relationship between variables and their components.

Figure 5.
Theoretical research framework.

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4. Research methodology

So far, we have reviewed the extant literature in the field of education, consid-
ering the relevant definitions, general assumptions, and the design of questions. In
these studies, there is a great deal of difference in the attitudes toward education,
school curriculum, and school buildings in developed and developing countries, as
well as regarding the measures taken in these areas within the country. Therefore,
the need to assess the factors that make sense of attachment to the school is evident.
Also, the extent of the impact of the school’s environment and its relationship with
students’ educational efficiency needs to be investigated. In this regard, following
the extraction of factors affecting the sense of attachment, based on the extant
literature and the goals of the current research, a questionnaire in the form of online
survey was created. In line with these aims, questions were put together and dis-
tributed among students in a questionnaire. In order to investigate the relationship
between students’ sense of place attachment and their educational efficiency, the
questionnaire was distributed among three groups of students with high, moderate,
and poor educational status. Creating this category allows communication between
students’ sense of attachment and their educational efficiency. Information
extracted from the questionnaire and its analysis can lead to the presentation of
useful factors and patterns in school design.
The statistical population of this study is elementary schools in Shahriyar city,
which consists of 10 schools. All schools selected were public schools, which offer a
higher homogeneity of the schools’ spatial quality allowed for a broader generaliza-
tion in the next step and also for extracting more relevant information. Another
factor that was used as far as possible in the selection of the statistical society was
the economic situation in the families of these students. This was made possible by
choosing a certain range of the city of Shahriyar and also considering the fact that
these schools are public schools. In order to eliminate the gender factor and its effect
on the sense of place attachment, all of these schools were selected from boys’
schools. Figure 6 shows some parts of a selected school.
With regard to similar research and the process that other researchers have
taken, it is important to note that in cases where there was a need to measure the
degree of attachment in elementary students, generally, the third or fourth to sixth
grades were studied. The reason for this was the lack of trust in the views, as well as
the lack of space and time that students had in the first, second, and third grades in

Figure 6.
Images of different parts of a school located in Shahriyar, taken by authors.

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schools. These younger students generally exhibited the initial excitement of

attending school; however, their views and enthusiasm could change reaching
higher grades. This, of course, does not mean that they are generally discredited; it
is merely a decision that has been made by other researchers in terms of research
methodology. Therefore, students of the second elementary school were selected so
that more information could be extracted from the questionnaires.
To determine the sample size using the Morgan table and according to the
number of students in the statistical society, the population size was 278. The
questionnaire was distributed among these students.
The validity and reliability of the questionnaire used in the present study were
evaluated using the views of architectural professors as well as primary school
teachers in order to achieve the best results.
To assess the reliability of the questionnaire and to examine the correlation
between questions that asked common factors, Cronbach’s alpha test was used in
SPSS software. After applying the Cronbach’s alpha test, values above 0.7 were
acceptable (Table 1). The value of Cronbach’s alpha is as follows:
The general hypothesis and questions that shape the purpose of the present
research are as follows, respectively:

1. What factors in school design increase students’ sense of attachment to school?

2. Does enhancing the sense of attachment to the school increase the educational
efficiency?

• Students’ sense of attachment to school has a positive impact on their

educational efficiency.

Further detailed questions and hypothesis examining the theoretical foundations

associated with the sense of attachment variable, and including a wider section of
the main hypothesis and question, are the basis for the preparation of the question-
naire distributed among the statistical population in question. The information
extracted from this questionnaire will highlight important factors in school design
that will give students a sense of place attachment and increase their educational
efficiency. The findings of the questionnaire will also provide a snapshot of the
current relationship between the degree of students’ interest and their sense of
attachment to the school and their educational efficiency. The subhypotheses are as
follows:

1. The existence of a personal locker for each student in school increases the
sense of attachment to the school and, consequently, increases the educational
efficiency.

2. The absence of favorable environmental conditions in the classroom

(comfortable temperatures and appropriate light) reduces interest in
participating in classroom activities and negatively impacts educational
efficiency.

Variable Cronbach’s alpha value

Reliability 0.78

Table 1.
Cronbach’s alpha value.

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3. Providing cozy spaces and offshoots outside the classroom to study or perform
personal activities of students increases their sense of attachment to the school.

4. The presence of green space in the school (in the schoolyard, inside the
building, and in classes) can increase the sense of attachment to the school.

5. Open spaces within the school for students’ gathering and group activities can
increase students’ interactions and increase the sense of attachment to the school.

6. Classes that have larger windows with a suitable perspective are more
appealing to students.

7. The lack of clarity of class design, the closure of its space, and the lack of visual
communication with the outside create unpleasant feelings among students.

The subquestions are as follows:

1. Does the personalization of the environment and having a permanent closet

for students throughout the year increase their sense of attachment to the
school?

2. Does transparency in the design of school buildings and the interconnection

between closed and open spaces increase the perception of space and the sense
of attachment to the school?

3. Does creating a spatial distinction and providing spaces for small and
individual groups in the school affect student interest in school?

4. Are public spaces more influential in increasing student interactions and

enhancing their sense of attachment to the school?

5. Does the presence of green space and vegetation in the school environment
(courtyards, public spaces, and classes) increase their sense of attachment to
the school?

6. Does classroom environment inappropriateness (sufficient light and comfort

temperature) have a negative impact on students’ educational efficiency?

4.1 Data analysis

In order to analyze the information obtained in each section, according to the

hypothesis formed, a suitable method is chosen for each one and after analyzing it
using a selective approach to accept or reject the hypothesis, the analysis is
performed.
For displaying descriptive data, numerous tables and percentages are used, and
for inferential data, analytical tests are used as follows:
The first subhypothesis was analyzed using one-dimensional chi-square test, the
ninth hypothesis was analyzed using the Spearman test, and the rest of the hypoth-
eses were analyzed using the single-variable chi-square method. To exclude more
accurate analysis, each section of the analysis of hypothesis includes intersection
tables as well as associated diagrams. All data import operations were performed
and tested in SPSS software.
A summary of the analysis methods carried out is shown in Table 2 as follows:

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Type of Application Statistical methods and tests

statistical
method

Descriptive Describing demographic variables, Frequency and rate of frequency

statistics describing main questions and variables

Inferential Testing hypothesis Spearman correlation, chi-square test,

statistics single variable chi-square

Table 2.
Summary of statistical methods.

4.2 Descriptive statistics

4.2.1 Qualification level of students

To create the possibility of analyzing the relationship between students’ educa-

tional efficiency and their sense of attachment to the school, three groups of stu-
dents with a high, moderate, and poor level of education were selected; the
frequency of which is shown in Table 3 as follows:

Students’ educational level Number of students

High educational level 93

Moderate educational level 90

Weak educational level 93

Table 3.
The frequency of students’ educational level.

As can be seen, the number of students at different levels is roughly equal and
the possibility of comparison between these three categories is provided.

4.2.2 Grade

The questionnaire was distributed among boy students of elementary school (in
the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades). The frequency of students in different grades is
shown in Table 4 as follows:

Students’ grade Number of students

4th grade 83

5th grade 103

6th grade 90

Table 4.
Frequency of students in different grades.

4.2.3 Inferential statistics

In this section, inferential findings will be considered. These findings will lead to
analyzing hypothesis by using the statistical methods in the SPSS program. Next,
the hypothesis is expressed and, using tables and charts, each of them is analyzed.

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4.2.4 Theories

1. Analysis of the first hypothesis: “The existence of a personal closet for each
student in school increases the sense of attachment to the school and,
consequently, increases the educational efficiency”

In this assumption, we examine the relationship between personal closets for

each student and their impact on their sense of attachment.
The test used in this case is a single-valuable Chi-square test; the results of which
are shown in Table 5 as follows:

Students’ Personalization (personal closet) Total

educational
There is no difference If there is a Yes, I like to
level
between having a personal closet in have a
personal closet in school, it will not personal
school or not. be bad. closet in
school.

High Count 47 13 33 93

Expected count 28.3 17.2 47.5 93.0

Moderate Count 17 19 54 90

Expected count 27.4 16.6 46.0 90.0

Weak Count 16 21 56 93

Expected count 28.3 17.2 47.5 93.0

Total Count 80 53 143 276

Expected count 84.0 51.0 141.0 276.0

Table 5.
Intersection table of (students’ educational level * personalization (personal closet)).

By examining the table above, we find that this need is more pronounced in
educationally poor and educationally moderate students than in students with high
educational status. That is, as many as 54 moderate students and 56 poorly educated
students welcomed the idea of having personal lockers, while this number is only 33
in students with high educational status. This indicates the importance of the issue
of creating individual identity in students who are not in a good educational situa-
tion. The frequency chart is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7.
The frequency of the first hypothesis.

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2. Analysis of the second hypothesis: “The lack of favorable environmental

conditions in the classroom (the comfort temperature and appropriate light)
reduces the interest in participating in class activities and negatively impacts
on educational efficiency”

This hypothesis is based on the inadequacy of classroom environment conditions

and examines the impact on student learning. The mentioned hypothesis is evalu-
ated by asking this question to the students: “Have you ever experienced falling
asleep or dislike listening to teacher because of the uncomfortable temperature or
light of your class?”
The test used for this hypothesis is a single-variable Chi-square test whose
results are shown in Table 6 as follows:

Students’ Functional requirements Total

educational level
Yes, it has It has happened It has never
happened. sometimes. happened.

High Count 13 7 73 93

Expected count 11.1 19.2 62.7 93.0

Moderate Count 9 31 50 90

Expected count 10.8 18.6 60.7 90.0

Weak Count 12 24 57 93

Expected count 11.1 19.2 62.7 93.0

Total Count 34 62 181 276

Expected count 33.0 57.0 186.0 276.0

Table 6.
Intersection table of (students’ educational level * functional requirements).

Table 6 above shows that there is no problem in the classes in terms of com-
fortable temperature from the viewpoints of students. This issue is answered uni-
formly in all three groups of students, and this hypothesis is accordingly rejected.
The frequency chart is shown in Figure 8.

3. Analysis of the third hypothesis: “The availability of cozy spaces and offshoots
outside the classroom to study or perform personal activities of students
increases their sense of attachment to the school”

One of the patterns for personalizing the design of schools is the design of spaces
of varying quality for small groups or individual activities. Therefore, the impact of
these cozy spaces and quiet places on students’ sense of attachment to the school is

Figure 8.
The frequency of the second hypothesis.

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Figure 9.
A cozy and peaceful area of school, where students can study or perform personal activities, designed by authors.

analyzed. An example of such spaces is shown in Figure 9. The mentioned hypoth-

esis is evaluated by asking this question to the students: “Will you like your school
more if there are cozy and quiet places and you can do your favorite activities?”
The test used is a single-variable Chi-squire whose results are shown in Table 7
as follows:

Students’ Functional requirements Total

educational level
Yes, it has It has happened It has never
happened. sometimes. happened.

High Count 13 7 73 93

Expected count 11.1 19.2 62.7 93.0

Moderate Count 9 31 50 90

Expected count 10.8 18.6 60.7 90.0

Weak Count 12 24 57 93

Expected count 11.1 19.2 62.7 93.0

Total Count 34 62 181 276

Expected count 33.0 57.0 186.0 276.0

Table 7.
Intersection table of (students’ educational level * personalization (personal space)).

The results in Table 7 show that none of the three student groups are interested
in having such spaces in the school. A total of 168 out of 276 people reported the
ineffectiveness of such spaces in their degree of interest to the school. The fre-
quency chart is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10.
The frequency of the third hypothesis.

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Figure 11.
Presence of green spaces in the school (in the school yard, inside the building, and in classes), designed by
authors.

4. Analysis of the fourth hypothesis: “The presence of green spaces in the school
(in the schoolyard, inside the building, and in classes) can increase the sense of
attachment to the school.” A few examples are shown in Figure 11.

In many studies, the undeniable role of interacting with the natural environment
has been mentioned in the sense of attachment to the place. To this end, this issue
was investigated. For evaluating this hypothesis, the students were asked to answer
the following question: “Will you feel better about school if several trees are planted
in the school yard or some greenery are added to some places?”
The statistical method used is a single-variable Chi-square model; the results of
which are shown in Table 8 as follows:

Students’ educational level Natural elements (greenery) Total

No Yes Yes, a lot

High Count 8 22 63 93

Expected count 13.1 17.2 62.7 93.0

Moderate Count 11 13 66 90

Expected count 12.7 16.6 60.7 90.0

Weak Count 20 16 57 93

Expected count 13.1 17.2 62.7 93.0

Total Count 39 51 186 276

Expected count 39.0 51.0 186.0 276.0

Table 8.
Intersection table of (students’ educational level * natural elements and (greenery)).

The results in Table 8 point to the great importance of this factor in creating the
sense of place attachment. Of the 276 participants, a total of 237 students expressed
their interest in having vegetation in the school environment.
The frequency diagram of the relationship between the presence of vegetation
and the sense of attachment is shown in Figure 12.

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Figure 12.
The frequency of the fourth hypothesis.

5. Analyzing the fifth hypothesis: “Open spaces within the school designed for
students’ gathering and engaging in group activities can increase interpersonal
interaction and increase the sense of attachment to the school”

The factors that led to increased personal identities and a sense of social and
physical attachment are the possibility of social interactions that are provided by the
environment. This section analyzes the impact of this factor on students’ sense of
attachment to the school. The mentioned hypothesis is evaluated by asking this
question to the students: “Will you feel better about school if the school has a
spacious hall, where you can spend time with your friends instead of going to the
school yard or class?”
The method used to measure this hypothesis is the single-variable Chi-square
test; the results of which are presented in Table 9 as below:

Students’ Interaction with others Total

educational level
I prefer the I have not thought Yes, I like such
yard. about it yet. a place.

High Count 19 35 39 93

Expected count 18.2 28.3 46.5 93.0

Moderate Count 11 22 57 90

Expected count 17.6 27.4 45.0 90.0

Weak Count 24 27 42 93

Expected count 18.2 28.3 46.5 93.0

Total Count 54 84 138 276

Expected count 54.0 84.0 138.0 276.0

Table 9.
Intersection table of (students’ educational level * interacting with others).

The results in Table 9 illustrate that interested students have spaces where they
can spend more time with their friends, separate from the usual schoolyard pattern.
The frequency chart is shown in Figure 13.

6. Analysis of the sixth hypothesis: “Classes that have larger windows with a
suitable perspective are more appealing to students”

The question for evaluating this hypothesis is: “Will you like your class more if it
has larger windows with a suitable perspective?”
Table 10 shows the impact of the proper outlook of the class and its positive
impact on student interest in the class.

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Figure 13.
The frequency of the fifth hypothesis.

Students’ educational Perspective and communication with the Total

level outside

No, I do not There is no Yes, I

like. difference. like.

High Count 4 44 45 93

Expected count 4.0 38.4 50.5 93.0

Moderate Count 5 40 45 90

Expected count 3.9 37.2 48.9 90.0

Weak Count 3 29 61 93

Expected count 4.0 38.4 50.5 93.0

Total Count 12 113 151 276

Expected count 12.0 114.0 150.0 276.0

Table 10.
Intersection table of (students’ educational level * perspective and communication with the outside).

A very limited number of students were uninterested in having a suitable per-

spective (a total of 12); 150 were positive about this. Also, the number of students
with interest in this topic is significant (60 people). The frequency chart is shown in
Figure 14.

7. Analysis of the seventh hypothesis: “The lack of clarity in the design of the
class, the closure of its space, and the lack of visual communication with the
outside create unpleasant feelings among students”

The question for evaluating this hypothesis is: “Do you like your class to be more
spacious and not to be surrounded by walls from every side?”

Figure 14.
The frequency of the sixth hypothesis.

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Students’ educational Transparency in design Total

level
Yes, a If it is, it will not be I like the current
lot. bad. class.

High Count 31 30 32 93

Expected count 34.4 25.3 33.4 93.0

Moderate Count 30 20 40 90

Expected count 33.3 24.5 32.3 90.0

Weak Count 47 25 21 93

Expected count 34.4 25.3 33.4 93.0

Total Count 108 75 93 276

Expected count 102.0 75.0 99.0 276.0

Table 11.
Intersection table of (students’ educational level * transparency in design).

Figure 15.
The frequency of the seventh hypothesis.

In Table 11 below, the effect of the external and internal visual impact on the
sense of attachment of the students has been investigated.
The degree of interest in more open spaces and visual visibility is inversely
correlated with the educational level. The other way around is the case with low
achiever students. The frequency chart is shown in Figure 15.

8. Analysis of the main hypothesis: “The students’ sense of attachment to school

has a positive impact on their educational efficiency”

In this section, the main hypothesis of the research is analyzed (the relationship
between students’ sense of attachment to the school and their educational efficiency
is examined).
Intersection Table 12 presents the results as follows:
The frequency chart is shown in Figure 16.
As it is shown, there is a direct relationship between the students’ educational
efficiency and their sense of attachment to the school. In students with excellent
educational status, there is significant interest in the school, while this has
decreased in low achiever students educationally, and almost half of these students
either do not like the school at all or they have little interest in school. In fact, the
sense of attachment factor can be considered as one of the factors that influences
educational efficiency. At the same time, it is also necessary that the sense of
attachment is not the only factor affecting the level of educational outcome, but can

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90213

Students’ educational level Sense of attachment to school Total

Not at all A little A lot

High Count 4 20 69 93

Expected count 3.0 30.3 59.6 93.0

Moderate Count 5 25 60 90

Expected count 2.9 29.3 57.7 90.0

Weak Count 10 48 35 93

Expected count 3.0 30.3 59.6 93.0

Total Count 19 93 164 276

Expected count 9.0 90.0 177.0 276.0

Table 12.
Intersection table of (students’ educational level * sense of attachment to the school).

Figure 16.
The frequency of the main hypothesis.

be increased by creating an environment with which students have an affinity. This

in turn has a positive effect on their interest in the school environment and learning.
Based on what has been done so far in the topic of effects of place attachment on
educational efficiency in schools, there are opportunities to expand the research on
the following directions:

• Implementing sense of place and identity for cultural sustainability [57]

• Benefits of schools’ attachment and sense of identity among children for smart
cities [58]

• Issues and opportunities for sustainable development of schools to sustainable

development of societies [59]

• The effect of providing the approaches to increase sense of attachment among

students on sustainability in higher education [60]

• Developing a unified framework for academic research on sustainable school

attachment and smart city concept [61].

5. Conclusion

Recently, there is a significant increase toward understanding the importance of

education in developing countries. One of the factors that plays a vital role in

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educational development is known as sense of attachment to the schools’ environ-

ment. The main aim of this research was to investigate effective factors to enhance
sense of attachment among students in schools’ environment through design. Then,
to justify the effectiveness of these factors, the positive impacts of creating sense of
attachment in students were presented. Thus, in this research, a number of ques-
tions and hypothesis are developed. Then, a questionnaire was designed to demon-
strate the effectiveness of factors and to validate them. The survey targeted 278
students of 10 state primary schools of Shahriyar, Iran. The final findings analyzed
by SPSS indicate that there is a meaningful relation between students’ educational
efficiency and their sense of attachment to school. Data analysis also shows that
important factors, such as social activities and connection with natural elements in
design, can have a noticeable impact on the students’ sense of attachment to school
as well as their educational efficiency. The results of the research carried out are as
follows:

1. Primary school students are more interested in social issues and engaging with
others than personal issues (cozy places and personal closets).

2. Transparency in the design and communication between the inside and

outside of the different parts of the school building will make students more
interested in and feel more attached to the school.

3. Communicating with the natural environment, providing open and green

spaces in the school, and directly connecting these spaces with students
represent a very important factor in increasing pupils’sense of belonging to the
school.

4. Students who are low achievers educationally are more inclined to gravitate
toward other topics, such as being transparent in designing and
communicating with the natural environment and using trees; thus, it seems
that these aspects can have more of an impact on them than stronger students.

5. Educational quality and outcomes in students are affected by their sense of

attachment to the school, so that low achiever students are less interested and
stronger students are more interested in school.

Although, in this research, most important factors were investigated through

analyzing the students’ responses, there are still some fundamental aspects of this
subject that need to be covered in future research. The link between these factors to
the cultural and social background of students with the design principles of the
school is a broad subject that can be extended in future studies.

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The Effect of Place Attachment on Educational Efficiency in Elementary Schools
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90213

Author details

Farhad Soheili1, Reyhaneh Karimi1*, Behnaz Avazpour2 and

Samad M.E. Sepasgozar2

1 University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran

2 University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
–NC
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

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Chapter 6

Effective Factors on Desirability

of Private Open Spaces: A Case
Study of Kuye Nasr Residential
Buildings, Tehran
Reyhaneh Karimi, Behnaz Avazpour
and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar

Abstract

The gradual transformation of courtyard houses to apartments has contributed

to the omission of certain spaces. The ill-matching of modern housing, with people’s
lifestyles, has caused undesirable changes to their quality of life, health and well-
being. Providing houses that suit individuals’ lifestyles plays an important role in the
building social sustainability as well as economic and environmental aspects; this
article will investigate, alongside, ways to improve private open areas in apartments.
Two- to six-floor residential buildings in Kuye Nasr neighborhood were chosen to
find factors that can improve the desirability of private open areas. First, a number
of factors were collected by taking photos and conducting field studies. Next, several
residents were randomly asked to share their opinions about such areas. Finally, a
questionnaire examined the reliability of factors, which was then distributed to 100
residents. The final data was analyzed utilizing SPSS23. This study reveals that the
functional aspect of a balcony is the most important item among semantic, percep-
tual, functional, physical, environmental, and beauty aspects. The following factors
can contribute to residents’ satisfaction with balconies: dimensions; use of plants;
connection with sky; peace and comfort; safety; function; and beauty. Findings
additionally suggests the connection of balcony with kitchen.

Keywords: desirability factors, private open area, balcony, residential building,

Kuye Nasr neighborhood

1. Introduction

The insufficiency and high price of land have dramatically increased apartment
living and as well as people’s willingness [1, 2] to settle in residential units over recent
decades [3]. The gradual conversion of courtyard houses to apartments and residential
units has led to changes in the function or removal of spaces embedded in Iranian
lives [3], illustrated in Figure 1. The vacuum created by the incompatibility of new
housing—a significant part of which includes residential complexes and buildings—
has caused unfavorable changes in human life [4, 5]. The land price is a major issue that
limits individuals’ choices, forcing them to buy units of a small size. Due to land prices,
builders and designers prefer to eliminate open and semi-open spaces to increase and

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replace indoor spaces [3, 6, 7]. Thus, spaces such as indoor and outdoor communica-
tion spaces (e.g., balconies) are rarely seen, and the removal of such important spaces
from human life is more prevalent nowadays. This modern norm overlooks the neces-
sity of developing housing that conforms to the lifestyle of its residents. What’s more,
the number of houses that can satisfy all the needs of Iranian families is too restricted.
Thus, this research aims to investigate the removal or negligence of private open spaces
that would ordinarily bring enjoyment to residents. Furthermore, this study seeks to
share insights that will improve the quality of people’s life environments and ultimately
help them benefit more from their home spaces. The research background indicates
a gap on how to design balconies that satisfy the residents of residential buildings. A
scientific study into this area could be utilized in future projects to help enhance the
quality of such home environments (Figures 1–5).
For example, Einifar and Ghazizadeh [10] showed that designing outdoor spaces
is less dealt with by designers; rather, their main focus being the interior space of
the building, without paying enough attention to the spaces between the outdoor
and indoor space. The authors discuss the necessity and importance of designing
the lost and forgotten space of buildings like open space, and recommend that
designers of residential complexes pay more attention to such spaces.
Extant studies on private open spaces consider a range of views on residential
building spaces including behavioral, environmental, physical, perceptual, semantic,
and esthetics. What sets the current research apart from past studies into this
subject is its seeking which one of these factors is more influential in this statistical
population.
Designers are obliged to see all the approaches in designing open spaces while
at the same time pay close attention to the aspects regarded as important by the
residents. One article [11] examined the three categories of perceptual-semantic,
functional-behavioral and physical-environmental factors in a social-cultural
context, with the balcony selected as a private open space between the residential
unit and the residential area. The main question of this research was what factors
affect the quality of the balcony as an intermediate space and what do people expect
from its function in different socio-cultural backgrounds? Based on interview, they
examined three residential complexes and presented a model containing six factors.
The authors concluded that attention to the secondary functions and the multi-
purpose nature of intermediate spaces should be among the primary concerns of
planning and designing to enhance the quality of life in apartment housing.
Badeie [12], on the other hand, expressed her research findings from a philo-
sophical point of view: wall space-separators are not necessarily the only effective
separation and limitation, but the space instruction of walls is characterized by

Figure 1.
Gradual transformation of Iranian traditional courtyard houses to new apartments.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89335

Figure 2.
Samples of Iranian traditional courtyard houses: (a) Abbasi House, Kashan, (b) Tabatabaei House, Kashan,
(c) Pirnia House, Yazd, (d) Navab Vakil House, Yazd, (e) Borujerdis House, Kashan, and ( f) Ameri House,
Kashan; adopted from [8], analyzed by authors.

Figure 3.
The second generation of Iranian houses with yard, adopted from [9], analyzed by authors.

inferential definition of connectivity. Privacy creates protection, security, and

confidentiality in the design of appropriate space frame of artifact environment on
one hand and fortifies the dynamic and diverse capabilities of space components

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Figure 4.
Old apartments designed with terraces or balconies as private open spaces [ref: photos are taken and analyzed
by researchers, 2019].

Figure 5.
Younger than 5-year-old apartments designed with balconies as private open spaces [ref: photos are taken and
analyzed by researchers, 2019].

for coherence on the other hand. The research focused on enhancing the capabili-
ties of walls in creating links and distance; the capabilities resulting from the
concepts of privacy and connection enriched the walls’ functionality area in the
construction of space (Figure 6).
Another research [13] emphasizes the need for intermediate spaces, asserting
that joint spaces like balconies play the roles of both interior and exterior spaces and
are regarded as the distance between outside and inside space. Also, Mir Shahzadeh
[14] examined the role of the linking boundary space, such as balcony and porch,
etc., in producing meaning.
Christopher Alexander reported a British study in the Architects Magazine
(1957) concerning the balconies of apartments and small houses. He stated that
two-thirds of people, for their own reasons, have never used balconies that lack
privacy. And in “a pattern language” [15], a model is presented for balconies accord-
ing to physical characteristics; yet only the quantitative aspect is considered in the
book—for example, a minimum depth of 180 cm is considered for such spaces.

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Figure 6.
Use of walls as space separators, by which links and distances can be made, adopted from [9] and analyzed by
authors.

Pierre Bourdieu, a well-known French sociologist and anthropologist, also

acknowledges that different lifestyles will create a distinction in the living space;
the higher the social hierarchy, the higher the esthetic properties of space than
its functional responses will be. Therefore, we will have distinct spaces based on
necessity-favored need or luxury-favored need, an issue that can be reviewed in the
balconies, but not in the present article [16].
Research by Mazandarani [17] investigating housing developments from past to
present represents the foundations and status of the intermediate space. The impor-
tance of the spaces discussed in the article is underlined by the authors, and general
rulings on the points that should be considered by the designers are presented.
Unfortunately, there is no comprehensive discussion on balconies as discussed in
article [17].
Among other international books in this field is the Book of Life between
Buildings, which deals with the concepts of public open spaces, and the initial
principles that can be used for intermediate spaces [18]. In the book Esthetics in
Architecture [19], regarding the interactive spaces of interior and exterior, the
author divides such spaces into three categories: (1) architecture without interac-
tion with outside; (2) architecture with interaction with outside; and (3) modern
architecture and border distortions.
In another study, in the chapter on zones and thresholds, the importance of
focusing on the scopes that provide a correct definition of outside and inside
space for the user of environment is presented. It is argued that humans create
limits to understand that we belong within this environment and that we are safe.
Furthermore, thresholds and passage spaces are places where the environment
manifests itself. Stairs, the edges of roofs, gates, doors, balconies, windows, etc. are
all regulators of this manifestation and control the penetrability of these borders.
These design factors approve the space separation while at the same time create the
possibility of physical and visual passages for people. Hence, the author expresses
the necessity and importance of addressing such spaces, and expresses the role of
such spaces in three parts: (1) use-oriented role (functional); (2) protective role,
or a controlled space, through which the perspective can be seen. This role can be
divided into two parts, social and physical; (3) the semantic role, being that the
signs of each place, according to the common conventions and social traditions,
have a special behavior in each corner and within the desired range. About the
balconies, the author says: “Balconies are not practically considered as privacy zone
and play the role of seeing and being seen more than the terrace and porches” [20].

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Another book on this subject is the work of Rudolf Arnheim, which states: no
spatial issue is as much an inherent characteristic of an architect’s work given that
they should consider the inside and outside spaces as related concepts. That is,
indoor and outdoor areas should be considered as components of one concept [21].
To summarize, Table 1 includes all the related literature.
Researchers looked at these spaces from different perspectives. But, as it is clear
to every researcher, architecture is not meaningful outside of its context and should
be designed and developed on the basis of its main context and social, cultural, and
physical conditions.
Therefore, this study tries to help architects to define and explode a specific
context in order to have optimal design of open spaces in residential buildings
of a neighborhood. By using factors that have been previously investigated and
extracted by previous studies, this research uses the case study the Kuye Nasr
neighborhood to examine the lifestyle of the residents of the residential buildings.
It considers the physical conditions of the buildings, the instructions and rules for
improving their design quality, and the desirability of open spaces within residen-
tial buildings (balconies). The abovementioned factors will be then evaluated and
the results will be available to designers as executable and functional factors.
It should be noted that during the research process, it was found out that the
residents of residential buildings in Kuye Nasr were more concerned about the

Author or Year Subject or title Theoretical Approach

researcher perspective

Swapan, et al. [22] 2019 Understanding the Front yards as semi- Behavioral
importance of front public-private areas can
yard accessibility for play an important role
community building: a in the residents’ sense of
case study of Subiaco, community
Western Australia
Reuben, et al. [23] 2019 Residential neighborhood The whole study behavioral,
greenery and children’s puts an emphasis on environmental,
cognitive development the contribution of esthetic
surrounding open space
greenery of residential
buildings on the
cognitive development
on the children, who
were raised in such
places.
Azad, et al. [24] 2018 Effect of housing Putting an emphasis Physical-
layout and open space on the vitality of environmental
morphology on residential presence of private
environments—applying or public open spaces
new density indices for and the importance of
evaluation of residential considering them in the
areas case study: Tehran, construction laws.
Iran
Milanović and 2018 Influence of private open The research focuses Behavioral physical
Vasilevska [2] spaces on the quality of on the advantages of
living in low-rise high private open areas
density housing
Einifar and 2010 Typology of residential Importance of paying Physical, behavioral
Ghazizadeh [10] complexes of Tehran with attention to lost spaces
open space measure such as open spaces in
residential buildings

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Author or Year Subject or title Theoretical Approach

researcher perspective

Einifar and Ali 2014 Explaining the concept Considering the Physical-
Niaye Motlagh[11] of outside-inside in secondary functions environmental
in-between spaces of and multi-purpose
apartment housing “the nature, the intermediate
case study of balcony spaces are among the
in three types of Tehran planning, and design
residential complexes needs to improve
the quality of life in
apartment housing
Badeie [12] 2002 Walls-privacy connection Philosophical review of Meaning, behavioral
connection space

Rezakhani [13] 2013 An introduction to Joint etymology Meaning

the concept of joint in
architecture based on
Heidegger methodology of
word etymology
Mirshahzadeh, 2013 The role of boundary Semiotics approach in Esthetic, meaning
et al. [14] space in the creation of boundary-connection
meaning space
Alexander [15] 1977 A pattern language: towns, Physical examination Physical
buildings, construction

Bourdieu [16] 2013 Distinction: A social critique Effect of lifestyle on Behavioral

of the judgment of taste. spaces

Haeri Mazandarani 2009 Home, culture and nature Past developments have Physical
[17] changed for the present
day and represent the
foundations of the space
between them

Gehl [18] 2011 Life between buildings: Expression of the rules Behavioral, physical
using public space of public open space

Grütter [19] 2014 Grundlagen der The division of Physical, perceptional

Architektur- architectural time
Wahrnehmung periods regarding the
relationship between
inside and outside space

Von Mayes [20] 2013 Elements of architecture: The importance Behavioral, physical
from form to place of focusing on the
scopes as the elements
separating inside and
outside

Rudolf Arnheim 1977 The dynamics of Relation between Meaning, behavioral

[21] architectural form inside and outside and
attention to this in
architecture

Bentley [25] 1985 Responsive environments: The strong role of Behavioral, meaning
a manual for designers designers in designing
flexible ways to keep
track of the budget

Lawson [26] 2007 Language of space It addresses the issue of Behavioral, meaning
realm and perceptual
mechanisms in space

Table 1.
Selected papers referring to open spaces and relevant measures.

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functional aspect of balconies. Hence, this component has been emphasized more
than several other factors influencing the usefulness of balconies. The main ques-
tions that this research tackles are what factors can satisfy the residents of the Kuye
Nasr residential buildings regarding their balconies, and what is the association
between the influential factors in the desirability of private open spaces?
To achieve this, the concerns, needs, and opinions of the residents of Kuye Nasr
were determined through a field study and interviews, based on which a number
of factors were extracted. The validity of such factors was then examined by means
of a questionnaire; those factors with a higher statistical weight were presented as
features that should be applied by designers of balconies.

2. Theoretical framework

2.1 The connection between interior and exterior space

The interior of each place is distinguished from the exterior and the sur-
rounding environment by various spatial elements. People have always lived
in both outside and inside environments and must be active between these two
poles. Consequently, both of these currents cannot be separated, but it is possible
that the impact of one of them outweighs the impact of the other. In fact, the
kind of governing relationship between the external and internal environment is
determined by the spatial relationships between these elements. The structuring
and arrangement of these relationships (relations between inside and outside)
result from the contradiction between them; that is to say, the separation of a
protective shelter from the surrounding area on one hand, and the establishment
of the relationship between the two locations on the other hand, are essential for
human life. This contradiction is revealed only when the characteristics of the
inside and outside location are compared. In spite of these contradictions, there
are relations between the inside and outside. According to Christian Norberg
Schulz, the relations and conditions governing these two create the art of
architecture [19].
Many activities take place around low-rise residential buildings with direct
access to the outside. What’s more, there is a flow between the inside and the
outside; for instance, in order to know what is going on outside, residents can
quickly step out or drink a cup of coffee on the stairs. While multi-story buildings,
have less inhibiting them from stepping outside and being among their residential
community [18].
Therefore, the role and influence of the intermediaries of the outer and inner
space (such as the balcony) are not only undeniable, but also quite significant.
Hence, by eliminating or ignoring each of them, the interfacing of the inner
and outer spaces is disturbed and the quality of spatial sequencing is declined.
Therefore, maintaining the identity of such spaces and optimizing their architec-
tural design is of great importance today.

2.2 Private open spaces

The border between the closed space and the surrounding open space can be
understood as the interface of two worlds. The set of elements—the main function
of which is to keep the open space from being enclosed— is called a building and
plays a significant mobilizing role in the integration of the interior and exterior
space. The best example of such spaces is in traditional Iranian architecture. Semi-
open spaces have played an important role in traditional architectural spacing in

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the past and in the Iranian traditional architecture. The appearance and geometry
of these spaces get their models from the features of their own surroundings, and
these areas have hosted a range of individual and social activities. This character
has been constructed simultaneously in the building in past architecture; modern
semi-open spaces do not invite such human interactions and past times as they did
in the past and generally lack architectural value. Today, semi-open spaces can be a
good way to link human life with nature [1].
In Iranian homes, there is always a space between open and closed spaces. Indoor
spaces between closed and open spaces are spaces that provide a variety of facilities
for activities of the home and the community; such a presence offers a new con-
nection with nature, light, and climate. Indoor spaces in Iranian homes have varied
sizes and functions and are as important as open and closed spaces [27, 28]. Having
said that, the presence of indoor spaces in the space organization of contemporary
houses has dropped significantly. In some cases, the presence of a porch toward
the yard creates a usable connector space between the open and closed space. In
the upper floors, the covered terraces and balconies are the covered spaces. These
spaces usually are not used completely, and in many cases they are presented as
an abandoned floor. Although the balconies and terraces today are located along
closed spaces, people prefer not to occupy them due to an undesirable view. Rather,
residents typically use balconies as a storage. Nevertheless, these balconies can
provide both the perspective and light from the northern and southern fronts for
closed areas of contemporary houses [17] (Figure 7).

2.3 Designing private open space (balcony)

Many resources that provide designers with information on how to design spaces
also include a series of criteria and components about the design of balconies; for
example, Neufert et al. stated that balconies are effective factors in increasing the
attractiveness of residential units. Balconies also create a space for some activities,
such as outdoor play area for kids that can be easily monitored [29]. Furthermore,

Figure 7.
Areas that are located between the inner and the outer spaces of Iranian houses are highlighted in the images,
adopted from [9], analyzed by authors.

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balconies can be used to rest, sunbathe, study, eat, etc. In addition to the bio-
functional aspects required, a space for the flower box in each part of the balcony is
needed [30].
According to the Housing Design Handbook on Balconies Under Regulation and
Principles, balconies should cater to the following uses: children’s play space, a space
for drying clothes, a space for sitting, gardening and planting, keeping pets, etc. [31].
Time Savers Standards for Building Types presents residents’ opinions on what
a balcony is ideally used for: people who have discussed much about the balconies
and their positive role have emphasized the pleasure of using and sitting outside. In
addition, they emphasize the visual expansion of life space and the opportunity to
grow plants and use the balconies to store equipment [32].”
Therefore, the following uses are extracted from the studies on the design of
balconies: “children playing, relaxing, sunbathing, studying, eating, keeping flow-
ers and plants, drying clothes, sitting, keeping animals, and warehousing equip-
ment.” However, the factors mentioned are very general and it cannot be said that it
is definitely welcomed by the residents in the specified neighborhood in which the
research is carried out. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain an estimation of these
factors and the factors extracted from the interview section, evaluate them quanti-
tatively in the statistical population, and assess their external validity.

2.4 Description of theoretical model

2.4.1 Influential components in designing private open areas in residential buildings

The collection method of influential factors in the design of private open areas
was discussed in the previous section (interviewing the residents of Kuye Nasr
residential buildings and surveying balcony design studies). All collected factors are
categorized into six groups as dependent variables, which can affect the quality of
a space like a balcony. The components are classified based on a theoretical frame-
work shown in Figure 8.

2.4.1.1 Esthetic aspects

This is a system based on balance and harmony. Regularity, balance, and fit are
perceived and viewed automatically by the viewer and recognized for its beauty
[19]. The beauty factors of balcony and the presence of greenery on the balcony
belong to this category.

2.4.1.2 Behavioral aspects

These aspects include the hierarchical ordering and functional domains, access
hierarchy, spatial hierarchy, and the hierarchy of various functions forming the
communication between inside and outside spaces [33]. The functional structure
of space affects the occurrence of behaviors in the environment and is simultane-
ously affected by the behaviors and anticipation of their occurrence [11]. Hanging
clothes, sitting in the open air, cooking or barbecuing, smoking, using tools, enter-
taining children, enjoying a safe space, and escaping people are in this category.

2.4.1.3 Environmental aspects

The environment and behavior are so intertwined that it is difficult to separate

them. Therefore, human behavior should be defined in an environmental context.
In the past, the environment was considered as an independent variable that

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Figure 8.
Influential components in increasing the desirability of private open spaces.

affected behavior, shaped it, and created it. Consequently, one of the implications
of this traditional approach is that human authority over the environment must be
limited and the environment must be coordinated with people in a constant and
unchanging form. Recently, however, research has been emphasized to have flex-
ible and variable designs for the environments. In fact, people are now the cause
of environmental change and are not limited to environmental influences [34].
Climate factors, tranquility and comfort of the balcony, and balcony orientation fall
into this category.

2.4.1.4 Physical aspects

Physical factors include physical and visual order, balance in open and closed
environments, walls, and physical bordering structure [35]. Proportional factors
and the area of the balcony are included in this category.

2.4.2 Perceptual-semantic aspects

The most common approach to human psychology is one that considers several
inner processes: perceptual reactions to the environment (how people understand
and organize environmental stimuli and react to them), emotional and motiva-
tional states associated with environmental stimuli (psychological pressure and
negative or positive emotions), and cognitive reactions to the environment (esti-
mates of affluence, complexity, and meanings of the environment). This compo-
nent considers humans as beings that have internal processors and deals more with
mental and psychological processes than with obvious behavioral responses [34].
This factor is related to the human mental perception of the living environment.
Visual communication, scale, and proportions, creating the sense place attachment
and the sense of separation from space, visibility, and perspective from outside to
inside and from inside to outside belong to this category of communication. The
perception of sky, earth, buildings, surrounding spaces and, in general, the sur-
roundings and relationship with them actually develop through giving meaning

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Figure 9.
Theoretical model of desirability of private open areas including five main aspects including physical,
behavioral, environmental, perceptual semantic, and esthetic aspects.

Statistical methods and tests Application Type of

statistical
method

Frequency and rate of frequency Describing demographic variables, Descriptive

describing main questions and statistics
variables
Spearman correlation, chi-square test, one Testing hypotheses Inferential
sample chi-square, Friedman rankings statistics

Table 2.
Statistical methods.

to the environment. This component is completely subjective before becoming an

objective one [11]. Factors such as the security of the balcony space and the connec-
tion of the balcony to the sky fall into this category.
Therefore, based on the title of this article, “Effective factors on desirability
of private open spaces in residential buildings”—independent components in a
six-class categorization, in line with the following model in Figure 9— have a linear
effect on the desirability of private open spaces as a dependent variable.
The next section investigates the role of the abovementioned components as influen-
tial independent factors in the design of a desirable balcony and introduces the methods
and statistical patterns used to explore it, a summary of which is shown in Table 2.

2.5 Case study details

Kuye Nasr is the name of one of the northwestern neighborhoods of Tehran

located in district 2. The main street of Kuye Nasr (Gisha), stretching approxi-
mately 1.5 km, directly connects two main highways to each other. Kuye Nasr has
well-organized even and odd streets with English architecture and a complete
grid-system urban structure with a total of 41 streets.
The reason for choosing this neighborhood as the case study of the research is
the systematic grid texture of the district, which caused the lands in this area to
be segmented north-south (regular northern and southern streets). Hence, the
research and presentation of this proposal is more targeted and systematic com-
pared to situations where buildings are studied in organic texture or other urban
structures. Therefore, by distributing the questionnaire in a homogeneous statisti-
cal society, the final result will be generalizable and will have a greater external
validity in the statistical population (Figure 10).

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Figure 10.
Aerial map of the neighborhood, adopted from [9], detailed by authors.

3. Methodology

3.1 Type of research

The present research is categorized as applied research using quantitative

method [36] and, using the results of the study, seeks to help improve and optimize
the behaviors, products, structures, and patterns used by human societies.

3.2 Research method

The researcher photographed residential buildings in the intended texture

to primarily extract the design factors of buildings. Next, using the interview
method, the researcher collected the views and opinions of the residents of the
residential buildings (the statistical population) regarding balconies; the optimal
design factors for such spaces were collected by default. In order to ensure and
assess the validity of the default factors, statistical studies (quantitative research
method through the questionnaire tool and analysis of these data through SPSS 23)
were implemented.

3.3 Research tools

This quantitative research method was adopted, in the form of a questionnaire

distributed among people over the age of 20 who were living in the area. After
the required data was collected, the principles, methods, and results of statistical
analysis were used to study the validity and generalizability of hypotheses in the
neighborhood.

3.4 Statistical population

The statistical population of the study includes the building residents in the
Kuye Nasr neighborhood. The reason for choosing Kuye Nasr as the statisti-
cal population is the systematic grid texture of the neighborhood, which has

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led the lands to be segregated as northern and southern (regular northern and
southern streets); therefore, the research and presentation of this proposal
are more targeted and systematic compared to situations where buildings are
studied in organic textures or other urban structures. Therefore, by distributing
the questionnaire in a more homogeneous statistical society, the final result will
be more generalizable and will have a greater external validity in the statistical
population.

3.5 Statistical sample and sampling method

The research sampling method was a simple random sampling method. That
is, from 20 alleys with even numbers and 20 alleys with odd numbers, two or three
residents were selected randomly. After introducing the researcher and purpose
of the study, the questionnaires were distributed. In total, 100 questionnaires were
completed and analyzed.

3.6 Validity and reliability of the questionnaire

3.6.1 Validity

The validity of the questionnaire was tested by a non-statistical method; specifi-

cally, through confirmation by a number of experts. Experienced professors and
PhD students in the field of architecture reviewed and approved each item on the
questionnaire.

3.6.2 Reliability

Cronbach’s alpha was used for the three-item questions. Cronbach’s alpha coef-
ficient was used to assess the reliability of the questionnaire. The most commonly
used method for calculating reliability is the Cronbach alpha, which is called the
alpha coefficient. The general rule is that the Cronbach alpha value of a scale should
be at least 0.7 [37]. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the questionnaire is indi-
cated in Table 3.
As can be seen, Cronbach’s alpha value of the questionnaire is higher than the
criterion 0.7, which confirms the reliability of the questionnaire.

Variables Cronbach’s alpha

Reliability 0.78

Table 3.
Reliability through internal consistency method (Cronbach’s alpha).

4. Analysis and results

4.1 Analysis of the results obtained from field observations

A field study of the current balconies in the apartments or houses available in

the site (Figures 11, 12) indicates that a large percentage of balconies on the first
floors, which have easier access to the street or alley, are changed due to security
concerns. That is, the balconies have lost their original form, creating a special

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Figure 11.
(a) Northern apartment. (b) Southern apartment.

Figure 12.
(a) Southern apartment. (b) Northern apartment.

irregularity in the facade (as indicated in the figures below). The residents, for
example, have fenced the balconies or have covered the open sides, so that they
are safer and cannot be seen when they are on the balcony. Therefore, it can be
concluded that it is best to design the balconies of the first floors in such a way that
security is considered as a significant point in the design. It should be designed such
that it does not require future changes by residents.

4.2 Analyzing the results of interviews

During their interviews, building residents were asked to identify their primary
concerns regarding the balconies so that the researcher can start designing the
questionnaire with an appropriate initial perception.

4.2.1 A list of primary requirements of residents regarding balconies is given below

The following requirements of residents in terms of using balconies are as

follow: hanging clothes, planting flowers, cooking, having a spare section for
putting kitchen appliances that are better kept in the open air, children’s playing,
having a view to beautiful landscapes, ventilation, and connecting balconies with
kitchen (Figure 13).

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Figure 13.
Sample plan of a balcony connected to the kitchen, drawn by authors.

4.2.2 Connection between balcony and kitchen

The connection between kitchen and balcony is one of the main suggestions and
requests made by Nuye Kasr building residents. During the interview process, the
following reasons were extracted:

• The connection of the open space (balconies are almost the only open space
available to the units) and cooking allows easier access to foodstuff and dining
when barbecuing, as well as better ventilation of the kitchen while cooking.

• A space for sitting and drinking tea, having food, etc.; such a place is better to
be connected to the kitchen.

• Access to kitchen appliances that are best protected in the open air.

• Proximity and easy access of the kitchen to the balcony to irrigate the plants on
the balcony.

• A place for hanging clothes in the open air and easy access to the kitchen;
nowadays, washing machines are embedded in this space.

All of the abovementioned arguments indicate that balconies are better placed and
more efficient when connected to the kitchen. Thus, it can be concluded that in the
intended neighborhood, the functional dimension of the balcony is highly regarded.

4.3 Analysis of the results

• Analysis of questions related to the main research hypothesis indicates that

the presence of spaces, such as balconies, is essential in modern residential

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housing. A total of 99 out of 100 people who answered to the questionnaire

agreed with the necessity of a balcony presence in their residential units. The
results in Table 4 also illustrate that the significance level of chi-square is less
than the assumed value of 0.1, thereby confirming the hypothesis.

• Analysis of the demographic part of the questionnaire shows that tenants and
homeowners do not differ in their need for a balcony, indicating the impor-
tance of designing balcony for residential houses of both types of economic
situations. As shown in Table 5, the significance level of the chi-square inde-
pendent test is 0.507 and is more than the assumed value of 0.10. This means
that there is no significant relationship between the status of the residents of
being tenant or owner and the need for a balcony.

• The activities performed on balconies nowadays are ranked in Table 6.

The comparison of the average ratings (Table 6) shows that the highest average
rating for flowering and planting activity is at 5.55, which means that this is the
most common activity on balconies. The activity of hanging clothes with an average
of 5.43 and sitting in the open air with an average rating of 5.27 are the next highest
ranking activities. The lowest average rating (3.09) is for children’s activity, which
indicates that children playing on the balcony have the lowest activity.

Type of relationship Chi-square value Degree of freedom Significance level

Necessity of balcony 87.36 1 <0.001

Table 4.
Chi-square test: investigating the necessity of balcony presence.

Type of relationship Chi-square Degree of Significance

value freedom level

Between owner or tenant and necessity of 1.356 2 0.507

balcony

Table 5.
Chi-square test: investigating the necessity of balcony from owner or tenant point of view.

Rank Dimensions Average score

1 Plants 5.5

2 Hanging clothes 5.43

3 Sitting in the open air 5.27

4 Enjoying view 5.12

5 Cooking and barbecue 4.80

6 Smoking 3.49

7 Storage 3.25

8 Children’s activities 3.09

Table 6.
Friedman test: ranking of activities carried out on the balcony.

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5. Satisfaction measures for designing private open spaces and

future studies

It should be noted that considerations such as balcony dimension and area,

the presence of greenery on the balcony, the connection of the balcony with the
sky, comfort and tranquility of the balcony area, balcony space security, not being
observable on the balcony, functionality of the balcony, and the beauty of balcony
are the influential factors in the satisfaction of residents of buildings of their desir-
able private open area.
This topic of desirability and sustainability of private open areas can be
extended further based on the following directions:

• Implementing new digital technologies including the Internet of things (IoT)

[38] and geographic information system (GIS) [39–41] for monitoring and
evaluating the space quality;

• Adoption of open space desirability measures in different types of buildings in

dense urban areas [42];

• Challenges and opportunities for sustainable development of private open

spaces to sustainable development of societies [43, 44];

• Investigating the process, factors, barriers, drivers, and decision makers using
NVivo for analyzing the desirability of open spaces [45, 46];

• Analyzing the trend of private open spaces toward sustainable smart cities [46];

• Promoting more integrative strategies between stakeholders to improve the

quality of private open spaces [47, 48].

6. Conclusion

This study tries to find ways to optimize the private open spaces of residential
buildings; to this end, the required results were obtained through the analysis
of the data and with the help of quantitative methods. The results are presented
in the form of logical propositions. Firstly, this study recommends that the
designers of the Kuye Nasr residential buildings consider security issues so that
first-floor residents can use such spaces without the need for changes or exten-
sions to the building’s facade. Secondly, the functional features of balconies are
of great importance to residents, and thus, its desirability factors should be paid
close attention. Thirdly, the kitchen is the best and most welcoming space to be
connected to the balcony. The kitchen offers the most suitable space connec-
tion in the buildings, in line with the functional aspect of the balcony. Fourthly,
neighborhood building residents advocate for desirable factors including the
presence of greenery on the balcony, the connection of the balcony with the sky,
the tranquility and comfort of the balcony space, the security of the balcony, not
being observable on the balcony, the functionality of the balcony, and beauty of
the balcony. Finally, the present study ends with this question for future research-
ers: to what extent will the desirability of different parts of Iranian homes, which
have been forgotten today or lack suitable quality, help improve the quality of
their living spaces.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89335

Author details

Reyhaneh Karimi1*, Behnaz Avazpour2 and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar3

1 University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran

2 University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

3 Construction Management and Property, Construction Project Management,

University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

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 Section 2

Technology Applications
in Construction

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Chapter 7

Automating the Chaos: Intelligent

Construction Contracts
Alan McNamara

Abstract

At the centre of all construction projects is the contract between the client and
contractor and, as any construction project is a relatively complex process, the
industry has demanded contracts of greater sophistication as the sector has evolved.
The construction industry has a reputation for being adversarial and motivating
dispute and the deep-rooted cultural aversion to trust. It is postulated that the solu-
tion to the trust issue is to make contracts trust-less. Truly autonomous, intelligent
contracts would minimise the need for conventional human management. Put
simply, intelligent contracts (or ‘iContracts’) are computer protocols that facilitate,
verify, or enforce the negotiation or performance of a contract, or that obviate the
need for a contractual clause. The proposal of embedding the terms and conditions
of an agreement into a digital entity contrasts immensely from a traditional paper
contract which is generally only used only as a reference when parties are in dispute.
By creating an all-encompassing contract process—that: ensures all parties adhere
to the terms agreed; offers protection of payment, insurance and data; as well as
the potential to increase efficiency and reduce risk—it should make the successful
implementation of iContracts the top priority for the construction industry.

Keywords: iContracts, intelligent contracts, digitalisation, automation, blockchain

1. Introduction

Globally, construction spending is projected to reach US$12.4 trillion by 2022

[1]. In the United Kingdom alone, it is estimated £600bn will be spent over the next
10 years on public and private infrastructure resulting in efficiency and productivity
improvements in the delivery of construction projects becoming strategic priorities
for the UK Government [2]. The construction sector faces many challenges includ-
ing; low productivity, poor regulation and compliance, lack of trust, inadequate
collaboration, information sharing, and poor payment practices [3, 4]. Whilst pro-
ductivity is a major problem it also presents as one of the biggest areas for potential
improvement with McKinsey Global Institute [5] reporting a global productivity
gap of $1.6tr that can be addressed by improving the performance of the industry.
The industry is perceived as slow to innovate, particularly in its adoption of digital
technology but digital transformation is slowly gaining traction with increased use
of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and emerging technologies based on
Blockchain, Internet of Things (IoT) and Smart Contracts being touted as a solution
to the industry’s problems [6]. However, the integration of these digital concepts and
technologies has not yet been achieved due to the embryonic nature of the field with
further developments required to build a case for widespread adoption.

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The construction sector is becoming more digitalised with BIM being the main
catalyst for digital transformation seen in the sector in the last 15 years [7]. Smart
contracts are seen to be one of the key complementary concepts to BIM due to the
increased capabilities the automation of contract clauses will afford any user [8].
New digital technologies are emerging to address some the key concerns hindering
collaboration in the construction industry and have the potential to change the
way the sector operates, leading to better auditability and traceability encouraging
more collaboration and information sharing [9]. In an industry that has histori-
cally lacked technological advancement and innovation, the construction industry
is slowly being dragged into the digital age but there are many challenges to be
addressed before true digital transformation is realised. Examining barriers to
implementation and prevailing stakeholder attitudes are also crucial in envisioning
this departure for construction and engineering contracts.
This chapter will define the iContract technology along with a state of the art of
current research. It will highlight the challenges and barriers implementation of the
concept will face, along with the opportunities it would bring as the construction
industry enters further into the digital age.

2. Background

2.1 Striving for collaboration through contracts—is standardised really the

standard?

The level of collaboration and the nature of a contractual relationship are usu-
ally dependent upon the proximity of the parties. Historically only simple contracts
are adopted where person to person relationships are created and where high levels
of trust already exist. The evolution of society and commercialism has now meant
that more personable relationships are harder to come by or do not exist at all, and
it is necessary to express more aspects of any commercial relationship through more
defined contracts. Open competition and globalisation of contracting activity can
be a barrier to developing trust leading to the creation of more sophisticated and
detailed contractual arrangements in lieu of existing trusting relationships.
Standard forms of contract, so lauded by the construction industry, have the
downside of restricting the freedom to contract upon one’s own terms and there-
fore are contrary to an open market approach. Standard contracts certainly have
their place in bringing consistency to the industry’s contractual practices, but it
must be remembered that most construction projects are a one-off prototype that
require more specific terms. Standardised contracts would have a greater impact
in a more heavily planned and regulated sector, which the construction industry
would certainly benefit from but does not possess. The alternative, to adopt non-
standard forms of contract, produces higher transaction costs and loses the benefits
of familiarisation leading to extended contract formation and negotiation periods.
However, digitalisation offers solutions to these problems and can improve the effi-
ciency and communication process promoting instant collaboration and mitigating
the level of disputes.
The reliance upon looseness of language and implied terms in an attempt to
achieve flexibility, and reduce the content of contracts, is a practice that offers the
double-edged sword of alternative interpretation and opportunity to act against
the spirit of collaboration. A road well worn by construction companies put under
pressure. This practice is only worth considering if the implied terms are such that
they are well known and fully understood by all parties, which is generally only
built from past engagements. Digitally coding such terms may assist but there are

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limits to the help this would offer and the logical coding of flexible arrangements
has its challenges.
There is an apparent trade-off between a standard contract which in a general
sense is understood but does not meet the real needs of the parties, and one that meets
this need by producing a bespoke and detailed contract. Some commentators have
argued that users do not ‘really’ understand standard forms of contract. The compro-
mised situation of producing bespoke contracts with common clauses may actually
improve standardisation and understanding when compared to the current practice
of bastardising a standard form of contract beyond recognition to suit one’s needs.

2.2 Industry 4.0—the digital dawn

Industry 4.0 is the era where computer power becomes more embedded within
society and possibly even inside human beings [10] and has been used to describe
the 4th Industrial Revolution by pointing out its huge technological potential, com-
parable to technical innovations which led to the first industrial revolutions [11]:

1. the field of mechanisation;

2. the use of electricity and;

3. the beginning of digitisation.

In the United States, construction is the least digitalised sector and has been pub-
licly perceived as an industry with poor productivity and a low level of technology
implementation whilst the financial industry and business services show the highest
levels of digitalisation [12]. Construction is one of the largest and most significant
industries in Australia, contributing to economic growth and jobs (ca. 9% of jobs).
In 2010, the industry was considered the fourth largest industry in the country [13].
The Farmer Report [3] outlines a case for digital disruption in the UK construc-
tion industry and sees the following as ‘critical symptoms of failure and poor
performance’:

• Low productivity

• Low predictability

• Structural fragmentation

• Leadership fragmentation

• Low margins

• Adversarial pricing models and financial fragility

• A dysfunctional training funding and delivery model

• Workforce size and demographics

• Lack of collaboration and improvement culture

• Lack of R&D and investment in innovation

• Poor industry image

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This is set against an industry which is not applying for billions of pounds of
R&D Tax Credits, set up by the UK Government to stimulate innovation [14].
Joseph Schumpeter explained the challenges when new innovations disrupt
the traditional way of life as, ‘Creative Destruction… Just as the day Samuel Morse
invented the telegraph was a bad day for the horse back messenger, significant
technological disruptions can be destructive for older more established workflows
that do not adapt’ [15].
From a technical point of view, Industry 4.0 can be described as the increasing
digitisation and automation of the manufacturing environment as well as the cre-
ation of a digital value chain to enable the communication between products and
their environment and business partners [16]. The industry specific definition
of the Industry 4.0 concept for construction comprises a large range of technolo-
gies to enable the digitisation, automation and integration of the construction
process at all stages of the construction value chain. Central technologies like
BIM, Cloud Computing or the IoT are only a few of them some of the main, well
known technologies. Typical base technologies and concepts of Industry 4.0 are:
The IoT/Internet of Services (IoS), Cloud Computing, Big Data, Smart Factory,
3D-Printing and the Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) or Embedded systems. There
are also emerging technologies: Augmented Reality (AR)/Virtual Reality (VR)/
Mixed Reality (MR) and the Human-Computer-Interaction (HCI) are major
components of Industry 4.0 to enable a digitised and automated construction
environment.
These technologies are at different levels of maturity. Scheduling, communica-
tions and BIM, among others, have reached market maturity and thus are currently
available whilst others, such as IoT and AI, are still at the formative prototype
stage. Despite the maturity and availability of many technologies, their widespread
adoption by the construction sector has been slow but there are signs that there
are practical ways for the successful adoption of new technologies to digitise and
automate the construction process. Even though these technologies can have hard to
predict cost savings due to the increasing need for data security and data infrastruc-
ture. From the technical point of view, there are several unsolved problems and
challenges to be met due to the lack of standards for many new technologies and
the higher standard of IT infrastructure required to run them. Regulatory compli-
ance and legal uncertainty are other issues to be considered. Considering all these
challenges, it is clear that companies must be motivated to commit to the adoption
through government initiatives or funding programs [17].
The adoption of the Industry 4.0 concept would help the construction industry
transform to a technology-driven sector and help keep up with other industries in
terms of performance improvement. The Mckinsey Group 2016 report suggests
that, ‘the adaptation of currently demonstrated automation technologies could
affect 50% of the world economy, or 1.2 billion employees and USD $14.6 trillion in
wages. Just four countries—China, India, Japan, and the United States—account for
just over half of these totals’ [18]. The digital revolution is here, and the construc-
tion sector needs to be on board, or it will be left behind.
The increased rate of technology in society today is undeniable with the number
of sensors in devices set to pass 25 billion mark by 2020 [19]. As the huge amounts
of data that IoT will bring to the table will have to be managed, the implementa-
tion of Big Data solutions can help to collect the right data from all data-generating
devices and to make them accessible to stakeholders [20]. The analysis of big data
allows the identification of patterns and probabilities of construction risks for
performance optimisation in real-time or on future projects [21].
The harnessing of all this data to a central source of analysis is where the iContract
technology can excel. By having an endless supply of sophisticated data along with

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the ability to analyse at computational speed, an iContract could address the current
problems with communication, accuracy of data and speed of action, rife within the
construction sector due to the reliance on paper contracts administered manually.

3. The current digital construction landscape

3.1 Current and emerging technologies—new kids on the blockchain

The blockchain concept was brought to prominence in 2008 when Satoshi

Nakamoto published the white paper ‘Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash
System’ which based the Bitcoin crypto currency concept on blockchain technol-
ogy. A blockchain is a ledger, or a database of transactions recorded by a network
of computers’ [22]. Often referred to as distributed ledger technology, transac-
tions are grouped in blocks and the chain forms the history of these transactions
(the blockchain). It is widely believed to have been created as a way to distribute
crypto-currency in a way that maintains publicly, and by multiple people a record
of the transaction [23]. Trust is built into the technology through its decentralised
nature and basis of consensus representing a paradigm shift from trust to a ‘trust-
less’ system in which third parties become redundant. Blockchain-based Intelligent
Contracts would therefore be more sophisticated, following the stigmergic ideology
first coined by Pierre-Paul Grasse in his research on termites, and qualify as com-
puter software code that is autonomous and independent as it cannot be controlled
by any one entity [24] (Figure 1).
A blockchain is a distributed database (ledger) that maintains a list of records or
transactions [1]. These records are called blocks and each block has a timestamp, a
link to the previous block, and contains the history of every previous block that came
before it. This ‘chains’ the blocks together, hence the name ‘blockchain’. The whole
system is fully encrypted with every transaction given a unique cryptographic sig-
nature (called a hash function) that is easy to verify and nearly impossible to falsify.
This is because the blockchain is hosted by not one single source of truth, but rather

Figure 1.
Centralised network vs. a decentralised network vs. a distributed network (blockchain).

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a network of computers. Each computer is a ‘node’ in the system and each node
monitors every other node on a continuous basis verifying consistency of informa-
tion. Each node checks its local record (block) with every other block in the chain
and if it discovers a discrepancy, it looks for consensus and, if necessary, replaces the
block with the consensus. This means that to alter a record it is necessary to simul-
taneously change the majority of the nodes in the system as oppose to one single
source. It is not impossible but increases in difficulty as the length of the blockchain
grows. The use of the blockchain has moved on from simply being the platform for
crypto-currency, to ideas of cheaper transaction processing, crowdfunding and
smart contracts. Blockchain ‘holds promise for being the latest disruptive technol-
ogy,’ [22]. The heavily transactional nature of any construction project would lend
itself to optimisation through a blockchain process allowing for ‘automated’ trust to
be engrained into the acceptance of the next wave of digital technologies. Figure 2a
shows a typical transactional/relationship map of a construction project and how the
general contractor is often the central point to any operation. The disjointed nature
of the relationships in this traditional process lends itself to inefficiency and error
due to the linear transaction paths. Figure 2 shows how a distributed network with
an unrestricted flow of transactions verified by an immutable blockchain would
remove reliance on any one party to validate or confirm data.
BIM is currently the expression of digital innovation within the construction
sector. If BIM is the main enabler for promoting collaboration, information sharing
and data management, blockchain is a possible solution to eliminating the trust
element related to the vast transactions of data [1]. Although it is generally accepted
that BIM would benefit from integration with blockchain technology, there is a
consensus that the degree of collaboration enabled by Level 2 BIM is insufficient,
and BIM usage must reach Level 3 before this can be realised [23]. Level 2 BIM
is a collaborative way of working, in which 3D models are created by the various
disciplines engaged on a project according to a set of guides, standards and speci-
fications. Level 3 BIM relates to open process and data integration enabled by web
services and also focuses on working within a new contractual framework that pro-
motes consistency, clarity, openness and collaboration. With the expected increase
of more sophisticated data becoming available through emerging IoT technologies
the possibility to realise level 3 BIM may be soon.

Figure 2.
(a) (The contractual relationships and the flow of money) and (b) (blockchain-based construction). Images
from ‘The Potential of Blockchain in Construction’ [25].

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According to a recent report by McKinsey & Company, IoT technology can

offer savings of between $160 billion to $930 billion annually on construction
sites and other related industries such as the resources sector [26]. It has been
reported however, that uptake of the technology within the construction sector
has been slow as within the research on IoT within construction, there are many
articles to promote IoT without a tremendous amount of real world construction
case studies [17].
IoT is described as a combination of sensors such as Radio-frequency identifica-
tion (RFID), other communication devices, cloud applications and business intel-
ligence technology. With billions of low-cost sensors becoming available, Big Data
will flow from previously untapped sources to help improve decision making. The
sensors can be embedded in physical objects, such as vehicles and heavy equipment
or robotics and even building components themselves with the ability to connect to
the Internet and communicate data [5]. These sensors can then send performance
data to any other source to be analysed.
In the asset management phase of a project’s lifecycle the technology would help
the Asset Manager to reduce reactive maintenance practices in favour of predictive
maintenance by allowing maintenance managers to repair the components and
equipment before damage occurs from the information flowing automatically from
sensors imbedded in building components, thereby reducing costs [17].
The obvious evolution to iContracts in maturing the level of automation is
already well documented to be heavily linked with the development of blockchain
technology and cryptocurrencies [8]. This weighs heavily on the Code is Law
concept [27] that has become popular following the widespread deployment of the
internet and society’s dependence on digital technologies [28].
Smart contracts and blockchain are technologies that have been made a signifi-
cant contribution in various industries such as the healthcare and finance sectors
[29, 30]. The construction industry requires a disruptive influence in order to force
it down the route of digitalisation and adoption of cutting edge of technologies
seen in other sectors. The BIM platform has set the foundation for iContracts to
launch from and provide a completely digital construction process solution, but the
technology faces many barriers to achieve implementation. A popular, and valid,
view is that construction contracts would be too complex and difficult to code and
that they would not cope with legal wriggle-room words such as reasonable and
satisfactory often relied on in the sector. This is where further investigation into a
semi-automated approach, where the verification of tasks is still carried out by a
human interface yet executed via the iContract, is needed to mitigate the discomfort
of users handing over control to an untried technology.
As BIM and data management technology drive these new approaches in the
construction industry, there will be a need not only to consider the contractual
regime, but also to challenge the traditional competitive procurement and tender-
ing processes with more collaborative structures and approaches [31]. By using
Blockchain and BIM in tandem, along with other quickly advancing technologies,
there is an opportunity to create leaner procurement methods which pushes the col-
laborative agenda. This will result in cost reductions by removing the multitude of
intermediaries currently embroiled in the traditional process and will give a client
greater control and transparency of cost, time and scope [32].

3.2 From paper to smart to intelligent contracts

Law and management were traditionally separate disciplines in the construction

sector until realisation that law and management could co-exist which has driven
the contractual developments in the last few decades championed in part by the

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Latham and Egan agendas of the 1990s. The next breakthrough in the field is likely
to involve the connection of law, management and technology.
Traditional contracts which are formed through a prolonged period of negotia-
tion between parties, have elaborate drafting phases and require the contribution of
lawyers in order to establish the contracting party’s obligations. The manual nature
of the traditional process is rife with inconsistent and ambiguous drafting practices
that are the source of the majority of dispute in the industry. Poor contract admin-
istration continues to be the number one cause of construction dispute with errors
and translation of contracts being within the top three causes [33]. Unfortunately,
the onerous nature of contract administration leads to many human errors which
have a detrimental impact on construction projects due to the inefficient nature of
manual contracts.
Smart contracts are considered a key influential development that will support
Britain’s achievement to becoming a digital economy as set out in the government
report—Digital Built Britain [34]. Smart contracts have the potential to remove the
need for a trusted third party to administer a contract in a truly autonomous state
by integrating Building Information Modelling and the IoT, to inform the smart
contract of actual progress and performance. The concept of smart contracts, con-
ceived in 1994 by Nick Szabo, is a computerised transaction protocol that executes
the terms of a coded contract [35]. The general objectives of smart contract design
are to satisfy common contractual conditions, minimise exceptions both malicious
and accidental, and minimise the need for trusted intermediaries [40]. Related
economic goals include lowering fraud loss, arbitration and enforcement costs, and
other transaction costs. The effect of such contracts on contract law and economics,
and their opportunities were said by their originator to be ‘vast but little explored’.
Szabo had a broader expectation for the smart contract concept that through
specification of clear logic, and verification or enforcement through cryptographic
protocols and other digital security mechanisms, smart contracts might offer an
improvement over traditional contract law for efficiency in initiating contractual
clauses that could be brought under the dominion of computer protocols.
Smart contracts have also been defined as ‘Contracts that are fully executable
without human intervention’ [36], or ‘Self-enforcing, monitoring external inputs from
trusted sources in order to settle according to the contracts stipulations’. The key charac-
teristics of smart contracts were described by the Norton-Rose-Fulbright report [37]:

• Digital form: it is in code form

• Embedded: contractual clauses (or equivalent functional outcomes) are

embedded as code in hardware or software

• Performance mediated by technological means: the release of payments and

other actions are enabled by technology and rules-based operations

• Irrevocable: once initiated, the outcomes for which a smart contract is encoded
to perform cannot typically be stopped (unless an outcome depends on an
unmet condition). It performs automatically.

Smart contracts translate the legal terms and processes into software code;
therefore any contractual response is the outcome of the programmed code. Once
initiated, it typically cannot be stopped or reversed once commenced without built in
protocols allowing for alterations. Artificial Intelligence (AI) also has the opportunity
to be included in smart contracts to assist with decision making as the technology
develops [38]. There are several levels of smart contract models, ranging from a fully

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autonomous contract where the conditions are entirely in code, to a semi-automated

natural language contract where only the payment mechanisms are encoded.
The application of smart contracts in the financial sector would appear easier
to establish given the relative straight forward nature of the instruments involved
as oppose to the construction sector where every construction project is different,
with a specific design and scope of works, this type of contract drafting is complex,
and trying to account for all contingencies is not possible. The general rule of thumb
is that the longer the contract, the less straightforward its automation.
iContract is the term used when a contracts purpose is to manage itself [23]. An
iContract will set out the requirements and decision inputs (hold points) in order to
start a series of if/then that will execute the terms of the contract between the client
and different members of the project team; main contractor, sub-contractors and
any consultants or specialists involved. The iContract clauses are executed when the
coded contractual conditions are met allowing digital transaction information such
as performance criteria, physical existence of materials on site and works complete
to verify a payment amount to be embedded and automatically transfer among the
contracted parties once the agreed parameters are met [8].
The ‘black and white’ or ‘1 or 0’ execution of an iContract is a huge obstacle
to overcome in adopting the potential technology due to the complexities of the
construction process requiring judgement and discretion which would normally be
handled through subtlety and refinement in the language of traditional contracts.
These challenges along with the potential benefits of the concept are explained
further in the next section.

4. iContracts—an outlook

4.1 Benefits and applications

4.1.1 Optimised contract formulation and negotiation

As clients rush to proceed with the construction of projects, the industry’s

complex contract formation and protracted negotiation process remains very time
consuming and expensive. The current practice requires a great deal of resources for
the negotiation of contracts and seemingly self-defeating nature of amendments.
The benefits of standardisation in terms of ensuring minimum quality standards
and the potential to reduce disputes through un-ambiguous contract drafting is
apparent but presently where standard forms are used, they are often modified to
the point where they are no longer standard negating the advantage of their pur-
pose. The potential to optimise the drafting of contracts in a logical format that will
avoid individuals interpreting contract clauses differently due to the way they are
written would be a major advantage of iContracts.
An evolution towards the automation of the contract formation and negotiation
process could not only reduce the expenditure of resources, but it would also allevi-
ate the ambiguous nature of current contract drafting as the iContract would be
more logical in nature. The possibility for a digital database of clauses and terms to
be automatically recommended by the technology, based on criteria set by the user,
would offer the opportunity to greatly reduce the drafting and negotiation period.

4.1.2 Contract admin efficiency

Poor contract administration continues to be the number one cause of con-

struction dispute with errors and translation of contracts running as a theme

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within the top 5 causes [33]. The construction sector has a reputation for being
adversarial and lacking in collaborative and efficient practices. The largest con-
tributing factors to this problem are the behavioural and adversarial attitudes to
the administration of what are generally convoluted and inconsistent contracts
whilst the heavily onerous nature of contract administration detracts construction
managers from the actual delivery of a construction project [39]. A reduction in
human error can be achieved through the automation of tasks, using IoT sensors,
artificial intelligence and smart contracts. Certification and verification of tasks
through blockchain protected interfaces feeding an iContract would provide
increased quality assurance for construction projects. Many contract admin tasks
could be automated changing how organisations operate which would benefit the
industry by speeding up the payment of funds linked to, or possibly embedded via
crypto-currency with, an iContract.
The potential for the redeployment of people and resources to other tasks due
to the efficiencies an iContract solution could offer would offer any project a huge
benefit. iContracts would increase the collaboration, transparency and improv-
ing accountability and project control as workflows supported with an automated
iContract would allow the waiting time for ‘sign-off ’ to be eliminated as input for
completed tasks links through an automatic forward in the communications pro-
tocol. This would bring efficiency to the project schedule by removing disruptive
contract bottlenecks allowing continuance of work [1].
Whilst workflow and process control has already emerged through communica-
tion and document control systems such as Aconex and Teambinder, the execution
of those workflows are still managed manually based on what is interpreted from
the construction contract. An iContract could easily link to these systems and
extract the necessary data thus populating the relevant workflows automatically
and accurately. Any resultant transactions or tasks would then flow through an
iContract giving it a contractual checks and balance function to every transaction
on a project.
An iContract solution would alleviate the onerous contract administrative tasks
currently handled manually allowing greater speed and accuracy of the process
whilst diverting the effort of management to project delivery.

4.1.3 Improved communication, collaboration and trust

The developments and trends studied in the last decade have centred on partner-
ing arrangements and the promotion of more collaborative working relationships.
The barrier preventing these initiatives from gaining traction has been the propen-
sity of the sector towards the distrustful and adversarial approach inherent in the
industry. The mere term ‘business ethics’ has been deemed an oxymoron [23].
Lack of trust and limited collaboration between parties has been one of the most
frequent cited issues within the construction sector with digital technologies being
heralded as the ultimate solution to finally address these downfalls. As digitalisation
takes hold the need to become more transparent, improve communication, and
increase collaboration and trust is promoted between parties through necessity of
adopting digital technologies [40].
Through automation, processes are clearer and more transparent by their nature
allowing the trust between the contracting parties to improve. The idea that col-
laboration is part and parcel of the automated process and that, far from being a
casualty, is part of the DNA of a potential iContract is something that could finally
demand what has been sought for decades. The construction industry may well
have exhausted its ability to collaborate through traditional mechanisms due to the
human based factor allowing for digitalisation to disrupt.

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4.1.4 Supply chain efficiency

Proof of source of materials can be achieved through digital technology with

the potential to provide better record keeping across the entire supply chain for a
project through a traceable, immutable digital capture of actions and transactions.
This would give the ability to immediately pinpoint where problems exist should
they arise as people are held more accountable for their actions through increased
transparency.
Tracking of goods and services throughout the supply chain offering near
real-time data as well as live data about components in the construction to the BIM
model providing updates on the ‘as is’ state of the building can be achieved by a
complete digital ledger solution. Performance and reputation ratings implemented
through a digital supply chain would also be possible promoting strategic partner-
ships as trust would be auditable and earned, much like the driver ratings system
found in Uber. The digital integration of real time analysis along with efficiency of
the process through the digital procurement process that an iContract would drive
could achieve an optimisation of the supply chain in an industry that is seen to be
heavily fragmented. The possibility of actually removing intermediaries from the
construction project supply chain has also been proposed by some commentators
[41] as the structure of the British construction industry is shown to be dominated
by main contractors who are essentially intermediaries between the owner and the
lower supply chain relying solely on cash flow for profit.

4.1.5 Real time scenario analysis

Quick response rates are a crucial element for any construction project due to the
ad-hoc nature of construction activities. A construction contract provides a mecha-
nism for setting the original timescale as well as the direction to vary the relevant
parameters upon the occurrence said events. Unfortunately, applying these mecha-
nisms are incredibly onerous, time consuming and offer opportunity for inaccuracy
due to the manual nature. The processing power computers could not only accom-
plish this task but also apply added analysis through prediction and remodelling of a
schedule as eventualities occur.
An iContract could run scenarios for any scenario, be it legislative changes in
requirements impacting on construction methodology or materials, to any number
of events that arise on a construction site daily. By having an intuitive and sophis-
ticated digital contract engine, a user could run a scenario, either as a simulated
possibility or based on a real event with the iContract informing the user what the
contract consequence will be. The iContract can then, acting in either an advisory
or automatic fashion, execute the appropriate contractual workflow to remedy the
situation. As the flow of data from external sources such as BIM models, schedules
and cost control software becomes more reliable, the iContract can begin to run
autonomously and begin to incorporate artificial intelligence in contract clash
detection and forecasting dispute avoidance as trends are recognised. Optimising
change management through the speed and accuracy of a digital solution would be
extremely benefitable to the decision-making process in any construction manage-
ment team.

4.1.6 Performance analysis and forecasting

Imagine we wanted to record the temperature on site an extreme climate loca-

tion, every 5 min whilst pouring concrete for quality control purposes. This would
be very labour intensive, error prone and tedious. IoT technologies have made

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measuring the physical world and submitting measurement data much easier and
safer. Much like the pivotal role iContracts could play in real-time contract scenario
analysis, the opportunity to analyse contract performance from real world data sets
would allow the verification of real time performance against that of the contract
requirement. The capture and analysis of performance data could capture upward
or downward trends in contract performance immediately, or even before, the fact
allowing the project team to address the situation.

4.1.7 Increased traceability and accountability

Current practice in the construction industry demands a need for account-

ability and for liability to assign to those who err with blame being attributed to
the culpable party. The notion of moving away from this blame culture has been
recognised as a step towards a more collaborative environment with the potential to
encourage this using a central ‘project insurance’. Having a central project insurance
policy in place of the multiple policies normally encountered on a construction
project forces all parties to work together through problems encountered due to the
shared policy held by all. The iContract concept would complement this prospect
and contribute a concise ‘central truth’ to any claims made to the project insurance
from the data the iContract would hold, all in an easily searchable, digital format.
Traceability of every contractual transaction would be far more accurate and
easily found due to the digital nature of the iContract. Not only would data of any
project be searchable, the prospect of missing or incomplete data due to manual
input would be minimised due to the automated nature of the administration
process. Through blockchain technology, an iContract could create an immutable
record adding more transparency to every transaction of a construction project.

4.1.8 Stability of payment process

Payments in construction contracts have long represented one of the biggest

challenges for the industry [42] and iContracts have the potential to offer a solution to
this fundamental problem. The alleviation of this through a transparent and reliable
payment process would be welcomed and is one of the major benefits of the iContract
adoption. A contract with a self-executing function making automatic payments upon
completion of defined obligations, thereby speeding up payments for contractors
removes the human element of wrong-doing so prevalent in the sector [43]. Combined
with cryptocurrencies, the potential for guaranteed payments increases significantly.
An iContract could be comprised of not one but multiple mini-contracts, all
self-executing, transferring data as they execute whilst generating the relevant pay-
ment once relevant parameters such as performance achievement have been met.
An iContract could act as a ‘trustworthy contract administrator by introducing an
error-free process’.
Recent advances in cryptocurrency, big data sensors and project bank accounts
could lead, at the very least, to a semi-automation solution to the payment func-
tion with completion of the work being verified either by a human or external data
technology.
Through a central iContract system payment could automatically flow, not only
to the head contractor, but also to subcontractors, consultants and suppliers, where
cashflow is critical to the survival of construction businesses. An iContract would
dictate when, where and how a party is being paid and what for based on a more
accurate digital process. The services rendered by the contractor must obviously be
made clear and the coordination of BIM, program schedule and cost model may be
needed to triangulate the parameters for which the money is released. The capability

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for the iContract to be central to automated payments is something that will be a

huge benefit to the industry as the capability for ‘pay for work’ becomes an instant
process resulting in ‘inch-stone’ payments as oppose to the traditional longer mile-
stone payment terms that are extremely onerous to many players in the industry [7].

4.1.9 Reduced dispute

Adversarial behaviour is common place within the industry with contracting

practices being the main cause of dispute costing the industry hundreds of billions
of dollars every year globally, with the average dispute costing US$42.8 million
globally with the average length of disputes taking 14 months to resolve [33]. The
potential to significantly reduce dispute is a major part of the business case for the
adoption of iContracts as they have the potential to radically reduce the scope, type
and size of contract dispute. The immutable nature of an iContract system would
present a contract environment where facts are harder to dispute due to the opti-
mised and efficient data management leading to less disputes. The onerous nature
of human administration in any construction contract dispute is something that
could be potentially alleviated through automation of the process.

4.2 Challenges and barriers and possible solutions

4.2.1 Innovation adoption in the industry

The construction industry is seen to be typically slow at adopting new technolo-

gies and historically resistant to change. Some commentators offer the opinion
the sector is not yet ready for the level of collaboration and information exchange
required for a digital automated contract to be successful [39]. Some believe that
due to the technological state of the industry being insufficient, implementation of
blockchain and other digital solutions is likely to be costly [40]. Generally, digital
technologies are presumed to increase productivity, but this is not always the case
as, if it is not combined with efficient and streamlined processes or when organisa-
tions lack a collaborative environment, it can struggle to make an impact.
The key to evolving construction will be having a robust enough central
management system that will allow digitalisation and automation to flourish. The
construction contract between the stakeholders of any construction project is the
central point that all data must flow in order to be analysed and actioned. The con-
struction contract must therefore have a greater capability in operating in a digital
world, where the abundance of data to be considered will only continue to increase.
The industry must overcome the institutional inertia that is ingrained its culture to
present the appropriate digital environment for the iContract to flourish.

4.2.2 Handing decision making to an automated process

When contemplating the prospect of an iContract process the question of

whether a party has the right to challenge any decision made by the automated
process and what protocols would be required to retain a user’s right to question
a decision without negating the purpose of the automation in the first place.
Commentators on iContracts have discussed the need for the ability to regain con-
trol of any automated system in the event of an unpalatable outcome to be perhaps
agreed by all parties. Acceptance of the iContract certainly leans towards a semi-
automated version of the iContract where the majority of the groundwork is carried
out by the software with a human supervisor. This may offer an element of comfort
as the concept evolves towards a more ingrained autonomous role in the future.

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An element of surrender to an automated system has been identified as a limita-

tion to the industry [39]. Traditional construction contracts require judgement
and discretion which is extremely different to code. The benefits of iContracts are
diluted by the logical ‘1 or 0’ process it must rely on. The alternative is that comput-
ers are a tool and can perform a good deal of the repeatable aspects of construction
whilst allowing for human input on the more sophisticated tasks or act as a hold
point for any critical decision. This is the semi-automated position advocated as
likely to be the work around in the short to medium term.
A phased based approach, much like the BIM levels, appears to be the likely
roadmap with a semi-automated process being developed using existing contractual
procedures. Identification of the processes that would achieve the greatest cost/
quality/time saving, whilst achieving confidence in the process by giving an element
of human control, should make the concept more appetising for the industry.

4.2.3 Technological and data requirements

BIM’s establishment in recent years has laid the foundation for iContracts to
operate. The counter-argument that iContracts would not need to align so closely
with the BIM agenda due to basing themselves as not one multi-party contract but a
collective of possibly thousands of contracts is also something to be considered.
Given the embryonic stage of the iContract concept and the lifecycle of new
technology in general, it is expected that many of the challenges highlighted will
be solved as existing technologies evolve. Through cloud computing it is possible to
access and combine data from various emerging construction software applications
through data virtualisation and an Application Programming Interface (API) that
allows data from one application be used by another.
The appropriate regulatory and technological infrastructure must exist in order
for the iContract to thrive long-term. Facilitating its adoption and integration with
other established technologies such as BIM, scheduling software, communication
and document control software and other Project Management tools will be critical
to the success of any iContract platform. Figure 3 shows the possible relationships
between the physical world, the construction information environment and an
iContract based on a blockchain platform.

4.2.4 Perceived legal inflexibility of a digital contract

The adoption of an iContract faces many challenges from a legal perspective

as the irrevocable nature of a coded document poses problems in terms of satisfying
the contracted parties that the coding is operating within the same parameters of a
traditional manual contract. The element of trust required in the system is some-
thing that is not required within the traditional model.
Manual construction contracts deal with uncertainty by containing wording
allowing a flexible approach to be taken when situations arise. One of the main
perceptions of automated contracts is that they will be incapable of dealing with the
‘wriggle room’ that exist in traditional contracts. A computer programme is made
up of algorithms which are essentially ‘if x = y then z’ and the ability for iContracts
to deal with change and uncertainty will be a major barrier preventing their adop-
tion. The difficulty in replacing subjective ‘loose’ wording with computer code is
a huge challenge in order to cover the multitude of variables encountered on any
construction project but this is again where a semi-automated human-interaction
hybrid model may ease sceptics of the technology.
The recurring theme in most commentary on the automated contract subject
is that construction projects are unique, and the size and complexity of projects

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Figure 3.
Integration of BIM, IoT, iContract and Blockchain with the physical data from a construction project [41].

will be a substantial obstacle for the iContract to overcome. The degree to which
they are truly unique is certainly open to debate as the industry evolves to a more
manufacturing-based model and fact that all construction projects involve elements
of repeatable processes that can be automated lends itself to automation.

5. Conclusion

Technological innovation is occurring at a growing pace as society has entered

the digital age, and the construction industry is in a race to catch up with the digital
capabilities of other sectors. Unfortunately, the construction industry has a histori-
cally short-sighted view on innovation with investment relying on immediate value.
Knowing the antecedents of usefulness for any technology gives organisations
the tools to present the case for adoption more effectively and convincingly. The
iContract must present value to its users through the identification of the repeat-
able processes that it could be applied to. By the careful targeting of the technology
to address the ‘low-hanging fruit’ problems of current contractual practices, the
iContract can gain acceptance and begin to push the boundaries of digital automa-
tion into the contract process.
The notion that iContracts will be autonomously controlling construction
projects based on data from advanced sensors acting as a certifying authority will
not be achieved overnight. The advances in BIM, in multi-party contracts, in project
insurance can all be seen as a pre-cursor for the type of paradigm shift required to

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achieve autonomous construction. Ultimately, addressing the current technological

barriers is a waiting game for the iContract concept to reach the stage of maturity
where it is indisputable from a legal perspective.
The iContract concept would bring enough disruption to reform contract prac-
tices within the construction industry and support its advancement into the digital
revolution. This would allow the industry to better manage resources, reduce costs,
reduce project durations and reduce dispute. As the iContract concept evolves,
many of the challenges identified would be addressed and further opportunities
will become apparent as trust in digitalisation increases.

Author details

Alan McNamara
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

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[39] Mason J, Escott H, editors. Smart

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editors. Blockchain in the Built
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Chapter 8

5D BIM Applications in Quantity

Surveying: Dynamo and 3D
Printing Technologies
Anqi Shi, Sara Shirowzhan, Samad M.E. Sepasgozar
and Alireza Kaboli

Abstract

Digital construction is increasingly introduced to the architecture, engineering,

and construction (AEC) industry. The fifth dimension of Building Information
Modeling (5D BIM) has a significant contribution to the AEC industry, such as
managing time and costs and resources management. However, 5D BIM has not
fulfilled its promise completely. The major challenge of implementing the 5D BIM
technology and applications is the interoperability between technologies and the
low accuracy of measurement estimations. Dynamo is adopted in this chapter for
detailed quantity measurement. Three-dimensional printing (3DP) is one of the
additive manufacturing technologies which is recommended to be used in con-
struction. 3DP is aiming to create complex and customized geometries. This chapter
demonstrates how to apply the Dynamo scripts of detailed quantity take-off for
estimating the volume of elements created by 3DP. Dynamo as a quantity take-off
Add-in in Revit is always used for detailed quantity take-off or precise model
created. After the detailed quantity take-off from Revit, the data can be exported
into Excel extension, which allows the quantity surveyors to insert the price per unit
to the file and to generate a Bill of Quantity (BOQ). This chapter will offer a
procedure for applying Dynamo through two selected case studies.

Keywords: 5D BIM, quantity surveyor, dynamo, Revit, decision-making,

quantity extraction, 3DP, data-driven procedure

1. Introduction

Building Information Modeling (BIM) has been adopted in the AEC industry for
a long time, especially in the offsite (prefabrication) construction [1, 2]. 5D BIM is
Building Information Modeling that includes a 3D model plus scheduling (4D) and
cost management (5D) [3]. 5D BIM is an advanced technology in the AEC industry,
which can be used for managing time, cost, and resources; it can even handle the
logistical site plan. 5D BIM can help quantity surveyors review alternative designs
during the early stage of the project as a decision-making tool [4], since the 5D BIM
can quickly extract approximated quantity from different 3D BIM models and then
add the 4D schedule to finalise the 5D cost budget. However, the development of 5D
BIM is hampered [3], by many reasons, such as the high initial implementation
costs [5] but low accuracy [3]. Moreover, the current 5D BIM software and

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applications cannot fulfil the subcontractors’ requirements which are focused on

detailed works, such as external cladding. They are appropriate for the rough cost
estimation of a large scope, which is satisfied with the requirements from project
planners and head contractors. The quantity take-off of current major 5D BIM
applications or software is approximate quantity instead of exact quantity due to
the Level of Development (LOD) limitation. Dynamo is more appropriate for the
detailed quantity take-off, such as three-dimensional printing (3DP) elements.
3DP is used to print precise and complex elements [6].
Hall and Tewdwr-Jones [7] demonstrated that the lack of cooperation and diffi-
culty of information sharing are the major reasons for the communication issue
during the entire project life cycle. However, the BIM cannot always guarantee the
communication to be effective [5]. The chapter will investigate how Dynamo Revit
can be used for detailed quantity take-off and how to analyse the combination of
5D BIM quantity take-off appliances (Dynamo) with 3DP. A face-to-face semi-
structured interview with regard to the case study will be conducted. Scopus data-
base was the main source used for literature review in this chapter, since it has a
relatively wide range of data [8], especially for BIM and the 3DP.
Figure 1 visualizes the geographical locations of the 5D BIM papers published in
different countries or territories. The nodes present the number of papers that
contributed to each country or territory. These nodes are grouped into two groups
with different colors by running the Modularity program. The Modularity program
implements a community detection algorithm, called the Louvain method [9].

2. Aims and objectives

The aim of this chapter is to present the current status of 5D BIM and the
prospect of the integration of 3DP with 5D BIM in the AEC industry. The key
objectives of these investigations are as follows:

Objective 1: To identify the advantages and challenges of the 5D BIM

implementation in the AEC industry.
Objective 2: To evaluate the implementation of 3DP in the AEC industry.
Objective 3: To develop a 5D BIM-3DP integrated workflow for the project’s
cost analysis.

Figure 1.
Geographical locations of articles contribution.

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3. Literature review

3.1 BIM

‘A BIM is a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a

reliable basis for decisions during its life cycle; defined as existing from earliest
conception to demolition’ [10]. Regarding BIM, 4D BIM is about scheduling, 5D
BIM is used for the cost analysis, 6D BIM is for sustainability analysis, and 7D is
about the facility management [11]. BIM generates a comprehensive environment
for a project and also assigns personnel responsibilities [12]. The AEC industry is
always low in productivity and lacks cooperation and innovation. BIM has the
potential to solve these challenges [13, 14].

3.2 5D BIM implementation advantages

As a useful information platform, 5D BIM is not only utilized during the project
construction process but also during the entire life cycle. For example, BIM can
share and update the drawings and specifications easily in the cloud database, and
then 5D BIM can generate more consistent and accurate cost estimation. BIM
platform provides a smooth flow of information sharing among stakeholders to
transfer the information quicker and easier among multidisciplines [15] to reduce
errors or unnecessary works. Additionally, 5D BIM can show a clear budget and
construction progresses to participants [3]. Moreover, 5D BIM is time efficient for
alternative design analysis and decisions at the early stage. 5D BIM often conducted
the cost management and cost analysis in other software or application. 5D BIM can
better monitor the project costs not only in the short term but also in the long term
by including related information and resources during [16].

3.3 5D BIM implementation challenges

The challenges of 5D BIM adoption are, for instance, software securing, training
investment, and low time efficiency, lacking standards of software compatibility
[16]. Sattineni and Macdonald [3] reported that 5D BIM always has high initial
installation costs and requires new expertise, such as computer experts, compared
to traditional construction. Thus, the company is unwilling to change [3]. The other
limitation of 5D BIM is the low LOD, which cannot extract the detailed data from
the 3D model for cost estimation. Aibinu and Venkatesh [5] stated there are several
difficulties of 5D BIM used by the quantity surveying organization, such as the low
LOD of a model. This statement is based on 40 responses received from their 180
QS web survey, and two in-depth interviews are conducted. Therefore, due to the
lack of detailed information, the team always spent longer time to make sure the
quantity take-off is accurate [3, 5].
BIM-based clash detection is a quantity take-off method, which was introduced
by Khosakitchalert et al. [4] to enhance the level of the quantity take-off accuracy of
the layered structure. BIM-based clash detection approach extracts quantity infor-
mation by geometry data of the model, such as the area and the name of the target
objects [4]. Dynamo-extension is one Add-in of the Revit, and it calculates the
quantity for the components by script [4]. Khosakitchalert et al. [4] stated that the
LOD of the layered structures is low, such as walls, which causes low accuracy of
the quantity take-off [4]. Different layers of the components have different dimen-
sions due to the overlapped connection requirements [4]. Revit supports two dif-
ferent quantity take-offs, one is the material take-off and the other one is the

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quantity take-off [4]. The quantity take-off is based on elements, and the material
take-off is based on material information [4]. The data or 3D model can be
processed by creating an algorithm in Dynamo [4]. Dynamo cannot conduct quan-
tity take-off for one element when various materials are used in this element [4].
Besides, there is rare software available for higher-level BIM functions at the same
time [4]. The common 5D BIM or BIM software is not suitable for the detailed
quantity take-off, for instance, cladding tasks. Since architectures and designers
always add many details into the drawings instead of models, most of the subcon-
tractor companies used BIM only for the 3D model visualization. Some subcontrac-
tors do not share the information with the crew members timely, and the designers
might not be willing to share the models with the construction team. It is easy to
case unneeded work due to inefficient communication and inconsistent drawings.
In addition, the design drawings and specifications may conflict, which is caused by
the errors or data missing and ultimately leads to inaccurate cost estimation [17, 18].
Furthermore, the model’s errors may be not revised timely, which will affect the
accuracy of the quantity take-off [3]. Mayouf et al. [17] also stated that the 5D BIM
implementation requires a comprehensive workflow and information. One of the
difficulties of quantity surveyors’ work is the poor quality of design documentation.
Multidisciplinary and collaborative approaches play an essential role in improving
the efficiency of communication and the quality of the documentations [17].
The BIM models are not designed for the quantity take-off or the cost estima-
tion, so some details will not be shown in the models. It is a significant issue for the
quantity surveying companies [5]. Thus, it is tough to extract the detailed quantity
from elements for quantity estimation. 5D BIM provides timely communication but
cannot guarantee the quality of the communication. At the end of 2016, Software
Advice (UK) analysed and reported that 50% of the investigated small and medium
enterprises still conduct the cost estimation manually [16]. There are many limita-
tions of CUBIT adoption in New Zealand and Australia, such as low accuracy of
quantity take-off or detailed quantity missing [16, 19]. CUBIT Buildsoft is devel-
oped by MiTek (an Australian company) and used in Australia, New Zealand, the
United Kingdom, and Ireland [16].
There are other challenges of 5D BIM applied in a project, such as the standard-
ization [20] and high training costs that some organizations may not able to
afford [20].
Different from academia, the industry believes BIM needs a process change
approach than information—drive approach [17]. Table 1 shows the academic
paper reviewing the possibility of integrating Dynamo with other tools. These
papers were selected from the Scopus database since they focus on the Dynamo
Revit. The Dynamo is the essential step for the 5D BIM-3DP integrated workflow.
Table 2 presents those papers which focused on sustainability applications. In both
tables, green color means the article is related to Dynamo and Revit for the quantity
take-off; blue color means partially related.

3.4 3D printing

Contour crafting (CC) was developed by researchers at Loughborough Univer-

sity, UK [38, 39]. The conventional construction methods damage the environment
[40] with lower efficiency, and it is hard to achieve a project on time and within
budget without compromising the quality [41, 42]. 3DP can reduce the cost, shorten
construction duration, and minimize waste. At the same time, 3DP is efficient and
sustainable and can achieve customization [43]. Additionally, Tay et al. [44]
reviewed 115 relevant articles in the Web of Science and Science Direct and stated

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Aims and objectives Method and case Limitations or Findings or

studies suggestions for future contribution

To develop a BIM-based System (Autodesk Limited to an overview Dynamo can import the
impact of change order Revit, Dynamo, of system architecture data to Revit and then
evaluation systems [21] Microsoft Excel, and and each component of export it to other parts
VBA) quantifies three the system of the system. Besides,
impacts of change in use Dynamo to store the
projects, which are cost and schedule of the
physical conditions, 3D model
schedule, and budget

To utilize the Case study: Shenyang Not mentioned Through Dynamo,

development of BIM Wuai Overpass is design heteromorphic
technology in bridge selected ramp parameters with
engineering [22] high accuracy

To analyze and evaluate Case study: Jewel Potential of reporting Dynamo (Python -
the BIM statement in a Tower, UK, is selected and forecasting algorithm) used to
heritage building and complex models should portray the spatial
further development [23] be examined distribution of moisture
with RGB
parametrization

To utilize more tools for Case studies from two Not mentioned Using the “Dynamo
integrated digital companies: Danish Masterplanning Tool”
simulation [24] architecture firm BIG for different
and international mechanical, electrical,
engineers BuroHappold and public health based
on building form
parameters. Also, it can
be used to update the
floor area and the
external wall area

Capture facility Case study: Two-storey The framework needs Dynamo workflow used
information to deliver educational building in customization for each to fulfill the parameters
integrated handover Rocky Mountain project based on the of the ‘Master Format
deliverables [25] Region, USA owner and end-user Division’ with the
needs appropriate value in the
Building Handover
Information Model
(BHIM) framework

To utilize Case studies such as Not mentioned Grasshopper for Rhino

interdisciplinary and structural BIM models or Dynamo for Revit
overall digital design for the ‘HENN can visualize and assess
methods [26] Architekten’, a the designs and
competition, Shenzhen, generate many
China, 2013 alternative designs in a
short time

Through Dynamo, The resulted workflow The problem of walls Bird collisions on
visual programming allows designers to start and windows as they building facades are
language, based on the building a model in cross over the two zones important and should
parameters, combined Revit using custom in Dynamo can be through Dynamo/Revit
the bird threat families, which contain solved by Dynamo, but (VPL/BIM) be revised
assessment of facade the factors and then run difficult and released, to present
material, analysis the Dynamo a standard way to assess
building geometry compliance with LEED
relative to the materials, Pilot Credit 55
and evaluate the users’
input to the building
operation [27]

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Aims and objectives Method and case Limitations or Findings or

studies suggestions for future contribution

To develop a new mesh- Case study: St-Pierre-le- Not mentioned Dynamo can provide
to-HBIM modeling Jeune Church, the interactive interface
workflow and connect Strasbourg, France in the study, and users
the elements of HBIM can browse the
and historical semantic information
knowledge through reserved in the ontology
integrating BIM database and the 3D
management system [28] model in BIM at the
same time

To present a workflow Case study: A hospital In the future, the Dynamo can create any
that incorporates with designed by Flad workflow could involve of the panels of the case
Revit of an architectural Architects which the subcontractors early study of an
precast concrete expands the University for the advice and architectural precast
manufacturer [29] of Florida Health decision-makings. It concrete manufacturer
Shands complex, could be called as that the Revit model
Gainesville, Florida ‘Design-Assist’ could

To reduce labour An antique monument, Dynamo can be used to Dynamo can develop a
involvement during the Petit château du create a building semiautomated
modeling process by Meisenbach, and a modeling based on the function to reduce the
shaping the mesh church of the Abbey of ‘family’ of objects human process.
geometry [30] Niedermunster Dynamo can adjust the
element parameters by
parameter name and
value

To have the BIM model Case study: Building Not mentioned Dynamo is used for
as a control system of facade design parametric Adaptive
building energy Skin System (PASS),
performance service [31] which consists of
kinetic facade
components

To extract and process There are no ready Dynamo can develop

the BIM data through modes for all functions external applications
Revit, the Dynamo can of the Revit API that provide extensive
help for data processing opportunities for
and analyzing [32] expansion of
applications,
convenience, speed,
and, as a consequence,
productivity in Revit

Table 1.
Summary of papers examines in dynamo and Revit applications.

3DP could achieve higher productivity with lower investment cost and waste. Tay
et al. [44] also indicated that the 3DP is appropriate for flexible component cus-
tomization. Sakin and Kiroglu [45] stated the 3DP might be developed along with
the traditional construction method.
However, the 3DP is also not fulfilled its promise completely [46]. Although the
3DP can reduce the labour to save the costs, the more equipment is required in the
construction site, and the depreciation costs also need to be considered. Therefore,
it is hard to state if the 3DP is saving money or not. The material technology is a
significant challenge for 3DP development. Gosselin et al. [47] are against to the
idea that the 3DP can achieve the feasibility ‘free-form’ structures. For instance, if
3DP material is clay, then the suspended parts cannot stand immediately after the
printing without any support (see Figure 2). Figure 2 shows the sagging section

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Aims and objectives Method and case Limitations or Findings or

studies suggestions for future contribution

Develop an integration Case study: The The complexity of the Obtain environmental
interface of scientific approach for programming; it is performance for
manufacturer-based decision-making, with difficult to import and decision-making in the
LCA data in BIM by models. Single-family extract the data from initial design stages in
combining Revit, social housing unit different construction an automated way of
Dynamo, and Excel [33] model, municipality of subsystems information insertion/
Acailandia, state of extraction to or from
Maranhao, Brazil the model

To encourage the BIM Case study: Residential Not mentioned Dynamo exports input
for the design unit in College Station, variables to a
uncertainties affecting Texas, USA spreadsheet-based
building energy energy analysis tool for
performance [34] uncertainty and
sensitivity analyses

To investigate the Case study The slower interaction Dynamo and Revit API
feasibility of connecting time in Dynamo Revit are interfaces of case
environmental sensors than Grasshopper studies, the software
such as light, humidity, Rhino linking the
or CO2 receptors to a environment sensor
BIM [35] with BIM, such as
linking the Revit and
the Arduino board.
Dynamo also can help
to adjust the object’s
parameters

To create a smarter and Case study: Facade Verify the level of Dynamo is the major
more flexible BIM by component customization and concept in the case of a
programming and flexibility with basic solar-activated kinetic
scripting [36] programming façade component
knowledge through creating
programming

To extend Dynamo by Case studies used for Lack of consistent Dynamo can use with
using a building energy Energy Analysis of nomenclature between other software
simulation package, Dynamo linking Revit and Dynamo programs, although
controlled by a virtual photoresistor value to about families and currently it is not
model’s response 3D model and produce parameters; less widely implemented in
through light level dynamic solar shades stability and missing practice. Test
sensors [37] nodes and features interactively updating
shading components
for a building facade
based on solar angles

Table 2.
Summary of papers focusing on sustainability issues by implementing dynamo and Revit applications.

(red square) of a clay 3DP model. The 3DP challenges are summarized into
(1) material development, (2) reinforcement implementation, and (3) process
parameter optimization, such as the flow rate of material and print speed [44].
Since the materials are the major challenge of 3DP development, the 5D BIM-3DP
integrated workflow in this chapter focuses on the material quantity take-off.

3.5 BIM-3DP integration

There are many projects adopted by BIM technologies to combinate with offsite
construction. Offsite construction is also named prefabrication construction, which
is a method to produce the standardized components under the controlled

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

Figure 2.
Column models in laboratory scale with 30 degrees.

environment to ensure the project’s quality and efficiency [48]. 3DP is very similar
to offsite construction. Although 3DP lacks the corresponding regulations and stan-
dards, and the data exchange efficiency might be improved after combinating with
the BIM, 3DP is time efficient and sustainable and can achieve customization [43]
than the offsite construction. Thus, BIM and also 5D BIM can integrate with 3DP
instead of offsite construction. BIM can automate the 3DP since it can store the
equipment and manufacturing information, such as printer control data [44]. The
integration of the multi-nozzle with a hybrid 3DP system is useful for concrete
structures with various materials and elements, such as rebar. The combination of
3DP with BIM can monitor the variables in the construction site [49, 50]. Also, this
5D BIM-3DP integrated workflow can achieve a simple customized building struc-
ture [44] in a laboratory scale and be brought to the construction site or meeting for
communication quality improvement.

4. Methodology

The methods in this section are two case studies. Case study 1 is aiming to apply
the 5D BIM quantity take-off to the multilayer wall to get all the layers’ quantity
information at the same time. The second case study is to apply 5D BIM to the 3DP
elements. The builder and stakeholders cannot get all the layers’ quantity informa-
tion at the same time by using the conventional 5D BIM applications or software.
This chapter adopts the Dynamo script principle that is mentioned in
Khosakitchalert et al. [4], to design a script for all the layers’ quantity take-off from
one multilayer wall at the same time, to detect the meticulous differences among
the layers. Furthermore, this script can be used to extract the detailed quantities
from the 3DP elements.
Figure 3 is only a simple script to show the area quantity extracted from the
existing models. Also, Dynamo can be used to create a precise 3D model by node
(units in Dynamo script) (see Figure 4). Later, the 3D model’s dimensions can be
revised or changed precisely through the nodes in the core category of the Dynamo
library. Each node is a function or order of the executed commands [4].
The floor is just an example to show the basic concept for the entire programming.

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Figure 3.
Dynamo-extension in the Revit for detailed quantity take-off.

Figure 4.
Dynamo and fusion quantity take-off.

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Smart Cities and Construction Technologies

The Dynamo for element quantity take-off programming consists of six stages:

1. Select the ‘Select Model Elements’ node from the Dynamo library, and select
the target element in the 3D model.

2. Select the ‘Watch’ node to list the detail code of each item.

3. Connect the ‘Watch’ node to the ‘Element. Get Parameter Value By Name’
node. The results listed below are the area (parameter name) of each visible
element.

4. In this scenario, the value or the outcome of the parameter name is area.

5. Select the ‘Math Sum’ node to calculate the total area of the 3D model.

6. This programming is also suitable for the users to gain other material
information, such as the type of material.

5. Case studies

Two case studies are contained in this section. One is applied this detailed
quantity take-off to one target multilayer wall in the facade case study; the other
one is regarding the combination of 5D BIM-3DP integrated workflow.

5.1 Case study 1: multilayer wall quantity take-off

In the facade installation project, there is an external wall consisting of different

layers such as cladding, sub-framing, waterproofing membrane, stud-framing,
insulation, and plasterboard. However, the area quantity (m2) of these layers can-
not be the same, especially when it connects with other walls. The accuracy of the
element’s quantity take-off in this project may decrease by the LOD issue [4]. For
instance, the quantity take-off could be accurate for doors, windows, or structural
framing, but not the external cladding, or internal plasterboard, where there are
many details. Figure 5 shows different wall types at two different levels.
The highlighted area is wall type 8.25, and according to the wall type schedule
document, it consists of external cladding, sub-framing, waterproofing membrane,
stud wall, insulation, and plasterboard. The Dynamo script can help to extract the
element quantity. For example, if quantity surveyors allow that the area of wall
type 8.25 is 500, all the other layers of this wall should be 500 m2 as well
(Figure 5a). However, wall type 9.03a (Figure 5b) on the right side of wall type
8.25 is a concrete wall. It has the plasterboard inside. However, wall type 8.16
(Figure 5b) is behind wall type 9.03a (and perpendicular to it), which reduced the
quantity of plasterboard on wall type 9.03a compared to the other layers. The
conventional 5D BIM estimating software, such as Cubit, cannot detect these detail
differences. Thus, the quantity information of some walls’ layers might be slightly
inaccurate if we use conventional 5D BIM software to get the quantities. Although
it is helpful to use BIM for estimating as it reduces time and human mistakes, it is
essential to consider its limitation for some specific works. The Dynamo in this
case study can detect a small difference between the wall layers. The quantity
take-off for each layer would be more accurate than the conventional 5D BIM
estimating software.
Figure 6 is shown how to use the Dynamo script to extract the detailed quantity
of a multilayer wall. Users can add extra nodes from the Dynamo library for other
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Figure 5.
Detail plan and section drawings. (a) Planning drawing levels 02, 04, and 06. (b) Planning drawing levels 03
and 05.

Figure 6.
The quantity take-off for multiple layers of the wall through dynamo.

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purposes. This Dynamo script was developed based on the script in Figure 3.
The updated Dynamo script can list all the target layers’ information of multiple
walls at the same time, including the name, width, and area of each layer. The rest
of the script is the same with Figure 3. Figure 6 shows that the area of each layer’s
quantity is slightly different: the gypsum wallboard is 14.89 m2, but the other two
are 15.74 m2. It states the Dynamo script can be accurate on two decimal places for
the quantity estimation. For instance, in this case study, the differences between
14.89 m2 and 15.74 m2 are 0.85 m2. Figure 6 is only shown one multilayer wall’s
Dynamo script. The users can create as many as groups they want to check the
entire project walls’ layer information at the same time. The quantity data can be
exported into an Excel extension, which allows the quantity surveyors to insert the
price per unit to the file and to generate a Bill of Quantity (BOQ).

5.2 Case study 2: 5D BIM-3DP workflow

Research designed a workflow that combines the 5D BIM with 3DP by Dynamo.
As mentioned above, the 3DP might be applied to tradition construction [45].
The 3DP technologies are advance on small-size components, which requires an
accurate quantity take-off. This 5D BIM-3DP integrated workflow can be used to
estimate the 3DP elements’ quantities, to improve the accuracy of the cost estima-
tion. In addition, the 3DP can print scaled-down models of some special parts to
improve communication efficiency. The Dynamo script for the quantity take-off is
based on the script in Figures 3 and 6. Sometimes, the LOD of the Revit architec-
ture model is not enough to create the 3D model. The users also can use the Dynamo
script to create a model (see Figure 4) and then measure it.
Figure 4 demonstrated the integration of the 5D BIM (Dynamo for quantity
take-off) with the 3DP.
The 5D BIM-3DP integrated workflow consists of eight stages:

1. Create a 3DP model using Dynamo (see Figure 4) or Fusion 360 (Step 4).
Fusion 360 is more suitable in the manufacturing industry, which is
appropriate for accurate quantity take-off [51]. The Dynamo script in Figure 4
is a process for model creation since the quantity take-off script is the same as
in Figures 3 and 6. The model should be imported into Navisworks by ‘.rvt’ or
‘.rfa’ field extension.

2. Conduct the clash detection in Navisworks; 4D schedule information in the

Navisworks is added into BOQ [52]. Then, the users can revise the model in
Revit based on the clash detection results. The 3D model should be saved as ‘.
stl’ extension in Revit (by installing a plugin—STL Exporter [53]) and
Fusion 360.

3. Input the 3D model into Simply3D.STL extension, and the model would be
sliced into the 2D printable layers; the G-coding will be generated
automatically.

4. The models also can be created by Fusion 360 as mentioned above, and then
repeat step 3 and make sure the models are ready to be printed. The quantity
information of the models also can be found in Fusion 360. However, this
software is more suitable for manufacturing industry’s models.

5. Import the G-coding into the 3D printer by USB, and the final models can be
printed.

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6. The schedule, and other cost information, such as the density of the ink
materials, is collected.

7. Generate and finalize a BOQ of 3DP samples based on the quantity take-off
results from the Dynamo (the same steps as in Figures 3 and 6) and other cost
information.

8. Final physical models in the desired scale are printed.

6. Findings

1. Conventional 5D BIM software and applications cannot extract the small

element’s quantities accurately at the same time. 5D BIM-3DP integrated
workflow has been introduced based on the nature of 5D BIM and 3DP. The
users can use the Dynamo to extract accurate quantities from small and precise
elements at the same time. For instance, in case study 1—Multilayer wall
quantity take-off—the Dynamo script can list the precise quantity of each
layer of the multilayer wall at the same time. It is easier for the quantity
surveyors, builders, and contractors to understand and check the construction
details and then improve the accuracy of the cost estimation and project
quality. Also, case study 2—5D BIM-3DP workflow—demonstrated this
workflow also can be applied to the 3DP components.

2. Also, the Dynamo can help the users grab the other information quickly, such
as the type of material. It helps the BOQ preparation and decision-making at
the early stage of the project.

3. In the AEC industry, communication misunderstanding is a significant issue. It

is because everyone is thinking in different ways. This 5D BIM-3DP integrated
workflow can also be used to print and estimate the scaled-down or laboratory
scale models for the complicated or specific components as the communication
tool in the construction site or meeting to enhance the communication
efficiency.

7. Conclusion

This chapter summarized the advantages and challenges of 5D BIM in the AEC
industry. Also, the current conventional 5D BIM applications and software are not
suitable for the detailed quantity take-off. The Dynamo, which is one of the Revit
Add-ins, can help the users to extract the accurate quantity take-off. For instance,
the Dynamo script in case study 1 lists the precise quantities of each layer of the
multilayer wall at the same time. In addition, the status of the 3DP in the AEC
industry had been evaluated. Since the 3DP has the potential to develop with the
traditional construction industry, and 3DP in advance on the small and precise
elements printing, the accuracy quantity take-off is very essential. The Dynamo also
can be used to create and estimate the 3DP elements and components. The 5D BIM-
3DP integrated workflow introduced in this chapter can help the quantity surveyors
to get more accuracy quantity take-off for the 3DP. Moreover, the 5D BIM-3DP
integrated workflow has the potential to reduce errors and misunderstanding dur-
ing the communication. Besides, the highly accurate estimation of a 3D model at the
early stage of the project would help the users to choose the best alternative design.

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The 3DP scaled-down samples can be used to deliver and exchange the participant’s
idea during the meeting or in the construction site, which can improve communi-
cation efficiency. This 5D BIM-3DP integrated workflow is mainly focused on
material quantity. Although the 5D BIM-3DP integration can reduce the labour to
save the costs, more equipment is required in the construction site and the depreci-
ation costs also need to be considered. Thus, the cost pattern may be changed. Thus,
the other costs, such as equipment and labour salary, should be considered and
investigated in the future as well.

Author details

Anqi Shi1*, Sara Shirowzhan1, Samad M.E. Sepasgozar1 and Alireza Kaboli2

1 Faculty of Built Environment, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

2 Australian Cladding Specialists, Sydney, Australia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
–NC
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

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Chapter 9

An Investigation of Virtual Reality

Technology Adoption in the
Construction Industry
Mohsen Ghobadi and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar

Abstract

While Virtual Reality (VR) technology has experienced a recent growth in

interest and offers immense potential in a number of domains, there is still insuffi-
cient information on the acceptance and adoption of this technology among indi-
vidual users. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the acceptance and
adaptation of people using VR technology in the construction industry and to
identify factors that prevent VR technology from being adopted more widely in the
construction industry. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to approach this
research problem among 15 students and academic staff members at two universi-
ties. The results of this research indicate that VR technology is acceptable to people
who work in the construction industry. However, there are barriers to further
adoption of VR technology, namely high VR hardware and software requirements,
low affordability, and low accessibility. This research also proposes several resolu-
tions to these barriers, including preparing facilities by construction industries and
universities, providing software and hardware requirements for VR technologies,
and decreasing the price of VR devices. The results of this research are of immense
value to suppliers and companies affiliated with this technology. Further research is
required to demonstrate the functionality of VR technology in the construction
industry.

Keywords: Virtual Reality, adoption, barriers, construction management,

construction industry

1. Introduction

Virtual Reality (VR) technology allows users to interact with different objects in a
virtual environment [1]. Shen et al. [2] found that virtual simulation, through VR
technology, creates significant advantages including cost savings, time-savings,
and improvements in training efficiency and safety in areas such as healthcare,
construction, and manufacturing. Sherman and Craig [3] define VR technology as
a medium composed of computer simulations that sense the user’s actions and posi-
tions and change or augment the feedback to the user’s senses, creating the feeling of
being present in the simulation, in other words, being mentally immersed. Some VR
applications aim to combine virtual displays with the physical world to create more
meaningful virtual presentations by providing the ability to interact with real-life

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Figure 1.
Reality-Virtuality continuum that indicates the stages between real and virtual environment. (a): real
environment (RE); (b) using mobile application to create Augmented Reality (AR) in real environment;
(c) Augmented Virtuality (AV): virtual environment created from a real environment; (d): virtual
environment (VE); Mixed Reality (MR): the combination of AR and AV.

stimuli and VR simulations. This is referred to as Augmented Reality (AR) and Mixed
Reality (MR). AR allows the user to perceive the real world with overlaying virtual
elements. MR presents the best qualities of AR scenario in an immersive interface to
overlay upon reality [4]. Figure 1 offers an illustration of the differences between VR,
AR, and MR scenarios in the form of a Reality-Virtuality continuum.
The use of VR technologies has expanded in various industries in recent
years [5–9]. One of these is the construction industry, although the adoption of VR
technologies in construction has been limited. Some construction companies use AR
to identify hazards and falling of their workers in their workplace [10, 11]. Based on
the research of [10–13], there is significant potential for the wider adoption of VR
and AR devices in the construction industry. VR may be helpful for training con-
struction workers at low cost, with fewer safety risks, and faster methods in a
virtual environment [12]. VR may also be a beneficial tool for architectures when
building maquettes in the virtual environment, and may allow more creativity and
time-savings [13]. Section 2.4 offers a detailed discussion of the application of VR
and AR technology in the construction industries.

1.1 Outline of the chapter

This chapter provides information on the context of VR and AR technologies in

the construction industry. This chapter aims to provide an in-depth understanding
of the current and future opportunities of VR and AR technologies generally, and

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to examine the actual uses of VR technologies at present. The chapter is organized

as follows:

• Problem statement, research goals, and research objectives will be discussed

in detail.

• A review of the literature on VR technologies is presented, providing a

summary of VR technology concepts as well as a review of the existing
literature about the adoption of VR. The current potential barriers that affect
the adoption of VR are also discussed.

• The research methodology is presented, involving semi-structured interview

questions and a participant survey.

1.2 Problem statement

VR has existed for decades; however, only recently has VR technology attracted
substantial and sustained interest in a number of domains. VR technology offers
immense potential for various industries, such as manufacturing, construction,
healthcare, education, and media [5–9]. Based on the research [14], only 7% of
businesses currently use VR in their sector, but 23% of companies have a plan to use
VR in the next 3 years due to an increase in consumer purchase intention and
product value. Figure 2, taken from Google Trends, illustrates the recent trend of
VR, AR, and MR technology interest in Australia. As Figure 2 illustrates, the
interest in VR, AR, and MR technology has been fluctuated in the past decade. In
some years, visible in red, interest in these technologies has increased steeply.
Interest in VR, AR, and MR technologies significantly increased in five different
years, 2010, 2013, 2015, 2016, and 2017 [15, 16]. The reasons for some of these
fluctuations are presented in Figure 3. For example, in 2010, AR technology was
used for advertising purposes in the print media for the first time. This has

Figure 2.
VR/AR/MR interest trend since 2009 in Australia based on Google Trends. Note: the numbers one through five
represent the years 2010, 2013, 2015, 2016, and 2017 with the growing interest of VR, AR, and MR.

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dramatically increased the number of people who are familiar with VR technology
[16]. In 2017, the first MR technology-related smartphone was introduced and
released to the global market, the effect of that can be seen in the MR graph in
Figure 2 [4]. In addition, information obtained from CCS Insight about global
shipments of VR and AR is displayed in Figure 4. As is illustrated in Figure 4, the
global shipment of standalone VR and AR devices is on the rise. It is worth noting
that the VR technology shift is higher than AR technology.
As is suggested by the figures above, awareness and engagement with VR tech-
nology are increasing, but this upward trend is not constant and is oscillatory. The
reasons for the variegating interest in VR are unclear. Despite significant invest-
ments in the VR technology advancement, there still appears to be a reduced desire
to use VR technologies across several domains [1]. While, various research projects
[1, 17–19] have investigated the barriers to the adoption of VR technology in dif-
ferent industries separately, there are few resources to address the acceptability and
adaptation of VR technology in the construction industry. Identifying the barriers
and factors encouraging the adoption and acceptance of VR technologies in the
construction industry is thus a vital issue for VR technology suppliers as well as
potential VR user groups and VR-related businesses.

Figure 3.
Reasons for the growing interest of VR/AR/MR in five marked years illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 4.
Global shipments of VR/AR devices, data obtained from CCS Insight.

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1.3 Research aims and objectives

There is no doubt that the interest in VR technologies is growing and VR

technologies are being implemented in new ways across myriad domains. VR tech-
nologies are still in the early adopter stage and diverse applications for significant
adoption are uncertain. Although VR technology can be a very applicable technol-
ogy in the construction industry and there has been a lot of investment in this
technology so far, VR technologies continue to be under-utilized in the industry.
Some articles do identify some of the factors and barriers that affect VR adoption
[1]. However, there are inadequate data to investigate VR adoption in the construc-
tion industry. Eliminating the barriers that hinder the growth of VR technology
and developing the drivers for wider adoption are essential for wider application
of VR technology in the construction industry. This chapter aims to examine the
essential drivers and barriers to the adoption of VR technology in the construction
industry.
The specific goals of this chapter are listed below:

• Indicate the current status of adoption and acceptance of VR and identify the
opportunities of these technologies in the construction industry.

• Identify the barriers to the adoption of VR technologies.

• Identify the factors and drivers of adoption of VR technologies.

• Present solutions for eliminating VR adoption barriers.

2. Literature review

This section provides an overview of the literature discussing VR and AR tech-

nology, their applications in different areas, specifically in the construction indus-
try. Figure 5 illustrates the different VR platforms that we will discuss in the
sections specified.

2.1 VR/AR technologies

The key terms and definitions related to VR technologies are presented in

Table 1.

Figure 5.
Virtual Reality technology platforms. Note: HMDs: head-mounted displays; HBPD: head-based projector
display; CAVE: the CAVE system.

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Terms Definitions

Virtual Being or effect that is almost real, but not physically [20]

Virtual environment A computer-generated environment within a simulation [21]

(VE)

Reality The state or quality of being real [3]

Immersion The sensation of being present in an environment [21]

Virtual Reality (VR) A computer-generated simulation of a realistic experience [22], where users
interact practically and physically with the environment [23]. Also, a technology
that produces the simulation via applying immersion theories into a virtual
environment [24]

Augmented Reality A similar concept to VR, where computer-generated content is added onto or
(AR) embedded into the real-world experience so that both can be experienced
simultaneously [22], a medium in which real-time interactive digital
information is overlaid on the physical world that is in both spatial and temporal
registration with the physical world [3]

Mixed Reality (MR) Incorporation of virtual computer graphics objects into a real-world three-
or (XR) dimensional scene, or the inclusion of real-world elements into a virtual
environment [25]

Artificial Reality Perceives a participant’s action in terms of the body’s relationship to a graphic
world and makes responses that keep the illusion that his or her actions are
happening within that world [3]

Mediated Reality The concept of filtering reality, typically using a head-mounted video mixing
display [26]

Cyberspace A virtual network that exists to facilitate communication between users [27]

Telepresence The ability to directly interact with a physical reality [27]

Table 1.
Key terms and definitions related to Virtual Reality.

Virtual Reality (VR) simulations are designed to create immersive worlds from
which users have unique insights into how the real world works [27]. The critical
elements in experiencing VR are participants, creators, the virtual scene, interac-
tivity, and immersion [3]. First, participants are the most crucial foundation for
experiencing this technology. The entire virtual scene happens in the minds of the
participants and the experience in the virtual arena is tailored according to the
participant’s needs. The second most important element is the person who designs
and implements VR technology as a creator. Third, immersion involves a feeling of
being mentally or physically present in an environment. Mental immersion is the
primary purpose of major media designers, while physical immersion is one of the
characteristics of VR. Finally, interactivity is the response to a user action, which is
essential for successful VR experiences [21].
Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, Cyberspace, and Telepresence are the forms
of computer-mediated interfaces of virtual and real worlds. Virtual Reality,
Telepresence, and Augmented Reality are three classes of immersive media in a
physical manner. Cyberspace, on the other hand, indicates mental immersion with
other individuals. Augmented Reality (AR) mixes computer-generated information
with the physical world. Mixed Reality (MR) is defined as an immersive technology
that merges VR and AR [27]. Telepresence is defined as the ability to interact with a
physical world without limitations on the size or position of the device utilized to
transfer the user’s command [27].

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2.1.1 VR technology platforms

VR technology is a virtual scene that is generated by software in which the

operator can feel and experience a virtual scene that reflects the real world. A head-
mounted display (HMD) is a wearable device, which permits the user to explore the
virtual area by moving one’s head. The user can interact with individual controllers
with the environment in many cases. Users can display video-recorded or
computer-generated content with 360-degree cameras in VR. VR also can be cate-
gorized into three different groups based on their technology platforms: head-
based, stationary, and hand-based [3]. Below, each of these platforms is described
in detail.

2.1.1.1 Head-based

A head-based group such as helmet, HMDs, or HBPD does not allow users to see
the outside view of the world. Users stand in front of the position tracking sensor
and see the virtual world that is created by the computer system. The position
tracking sensor recognizes where the user is looking and transfers that into the
computer. Instead of wearing a headset, users can wear a projection system on their
head and see the virtual world on the surfaces ahead of them. This is called a head-
based projector display.

2.1.1.2 Stationary

A stationary group such as projectors and CAVE creates a location in space for
users to feel the virtual environment without carrying any hardware. One of the
most commonly used platforms is the CAVE system. CAVE system provides a
space, such as a room that displays computer-generated imagery around it. Users
are in the middle of this place and find themselves in a seemingly real environment.

2.1.1.3 Hand-based

Hand-based groups such as smartphones and tablets require users to hold and
look at something like a mobile phone, monitor, or tablet in order to experience a
virtual environment [3]. In some cases, headsets in the head-based group are capa-
ble of being mobile-connected. However, this type of technology restricts the user
to using a mobile or tablet for being in a virtual environment.

2.2 Development of VR and AR

This section discusses the development of VR technology to highlight the crucial

stages in creating the current generation of VR technology. Figure 6 presents a
continuum of the development and predicted future direction of VR technology
[3, 15, 16, 28, 29].
As is illustrated in Figure 6, interest in and development of VR technologies has
ebbed and flowed since initial experiments with reality-augmentation in the late
1950s. In the 1990s, when 3D gaming became more accessible and popular, there
was a similar boom in interest in Virtual Reality. Gaming companies presented 3D
videogames; movies similarly depicted virtual worlds and computer-generated
environments. However, this technology is rudimentary and limited, with mediocre
graphics, low computing power, time lags, and high prices. These products eventu-
ally failed because consumers were unhappy with these technologies and interest

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Figure 6.
Timeline of Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality technologies and the predictable future of them
[3, 15, 16, 28, 29].

significantly diminished [30]. Since the 1990s surge in VR interest, new technolo-
gies have encouraged renewed interest and investment in VR platforms. Computers
are powerful enough to make virtual worlds realistic, and mobile technologies have
made higher quality VR simulations more available and accessible. New companies
have become interested in this progress, and have invested significantly in new VR
technologies [30]. For example, in 2014, Facebook made an investment of US$2
billion to buy the Oculus Rift, a VR headset from a technology-based company that
combines a headphone with a microphone to help users feel more immersed in the
virtual environment [31]. Since 2018, more than 225 VC investments in VR/AR
have been made, raising $3.5bn inequity [30]. Flavián et al. [21] predicted that VR,
AR, and MR sales in 2020 would grow to approximately US$ 61.3 billion, 21 times
higher than VR, AR, and MR sales in 2016.

2.3 Potential sectors for VR/AR

There are various areas in which VR/AR technologies may deliver new potential
to markets. VR technologies have sold well in the domain of personal entertain-
ment, and statistics suggest that most investments have been made in these markets
so far [30]. However, VR and AR technologies may offer further benefits in the
architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industries. Table 2 indicates the
application of VR/AR technology in different sectors.

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Sector Application

Entertainment Jung and tom Dieck [32] proposed a framework for visitors to use VR, AR, and 3D
printing at a cultural heritage site to prepare a better experience for visitors. Mobile
AR applications were used for tour guides. VR applications were used for simulating
the inaccessible places. 3D printing was used for selling a small 3D souvenir. This
offers cultural heritage sites new ways to attract visitors, encourage positive publicity,
and enhance visitors’ positive experiences, thereby encouraging future visits

Live events Kim and Ko [5] conducted a case study to use VR as a media for spectators to see the
sports match and make users feel like they are physically present at the event. By
utilizing VR instead of 2D screen, the visitor’s satisfaction increased. VR can increase
the visitor’s good experience by preparing more vitality, telepresence, and
interactivity compared to the traditional method

Retail Poushneh and Vasquez-Parraga [33] used an AR application for evaluating retail user
experience by showing a different view of their designs to customers. AR can provide
a new experience for customers to assist decision-making. This can affect customer
satisfaction and their willingness to buy positively

Real estate Ozacar et al. [34] created a VR real-estate application that delivers a computer-
generated 3D simulation of realistic interior design of the on-sale unbuilt property.
This VR application can satisfy the expectation of the property buyers or investors
compared to 2D plans or renders

Healthcare Hall et al. [6] evaluated the usability and acceptability of a 3D Virtual Reality
technology to give health-related information to people with intellectual disabilities.
This technology was used for a new way of healthcare-related learning. By utilizing a
VR environment, people with intellectual disabilities could remember some features
of that environment

Education Chang et al. [7] indicated the use of AR in different fields of education such as
chemistry, mathematics, spatial ability training, physics, geography, and surgical
training in order to increase the level of quality and progress. AR technology can be
useful by superimposing computer-generated virtual 3D objects over real
environments

Engineering Nee and Ong [8] found that AR has potential in different manufacturing activities
such as robotics, product design, maintenance, CNC machining simulation, and
facility layout planning. This technology offers high accuracy, desirable alignment
with industrial standards, and fast response in the above-mentioned domains

Sport Stinson and Bowman [35] utilized a VR system to present a virtual 3D scene for
athletes training to feel a high-pressure training situation that can be helpful for
athletes to become ready for a real job. This system could increase the anxiety in
athletes’ feeling compared to baseline condition and help them to be in a high-pressure
situation like a real world

Architecture VR can be useful in building and exploring 3D maquette models for architectures. It
can help them in early design and ideation stages. Architects can create maquettes in a
virtual environment by utilizing VR headsets. This can help designers to work more
effectively, and at a faster pace compared to current CAD software [13]

Table 2.
Potential sectors for using VR and AR.

2.4 VR in the construction industry

VR and the development of virtual environments can shape the understanding

of construction project stakeholders and their success in completing their projects.
VR technologies can help improving the effectiveness and efficiency of detailed
design, preparation and planning, and construction completion of a project.
Increasing the understanding of the design intent, decreasing disruptions, and
improving the constructability of the project can be achieved by reviewing and
rehearsing the construction of the facility in a 3D immersive and interactive

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environment before the start of construction. Table 3 indicates the application of

VR technology in the construction industry.

2.5 Theoretical research framework

Several models have emerged that aim to explore the adoption and acceptance
of new technologies. In Table 4 these models are explained, and below, discussed
in depth.
The theoretical framework used in this research considers the adoption of new
technologies and employs the UTAUT model. This model assumes that performance
expectancy, effort expectancy, social factors, facilitating conditions, and trust are
the primary constructs in the adoption and acceptance of new technology among
users. Performance expectancy is the most critical factor in utilizing modern tech-
nology. There are significant expectations for new technologies and uncovering the
perceptions of users regarding the usefulness of VR technology is essential for
meeting the demands of future users of VR technology. Effort expectancy considers
the required effort in implementing and learning how to use new technologies.
This construct can represent the ease of use in technology. Social factors consider

Section Application

House building Building a Virtual Reality system that allows architects to be immersed in a
virtual environment for planning and building cities [36], investigating the
use of VR technology for the simulation of on-site tasks in architectural
practices [37], and utilizing VR for pre-sale housing system to decrease the
project costs, quality risks, and delivery time. This system allows the user to
experience the design of the unbuilt house [38]

Construction safety Creating a Virtual Reality simulator of heavy mobile crane operations that can
and training be employed for user training by doing the lifting process in the virtual world
before the real project [12]; developing a framework to create training
simulators of heavy construction machinery to improve productivity, safety,
and quality perspective [9]; developing VR and MR learning and education
program to evaluate the power of VR and MR to facilitate the knowledge
acquisition [39]; developing a VR safety training program that is related to
electrical hazards in the US construction environment [40]; and utilizing VR
system to experiment the user’s social behavior in the hazardous situation [41]

Project planning Using a VR application in the construction job site for site layout planning,
evaluation of construction site logistics planning, and collision detection [42],
and utilizing VR and AR as a prototype tool to do the site planning, support
construction layout, and rationalization of the logistics for increasing the
productivity and decreasing the operating cost [43]

Augmented VR Using a mobile AR to support monitoring and documentation of construction

site improvement to visualize progress information [44]. Utilizing AR in the
case of problem saving, design alternatives and decision-making through a
design review activity [45]. Utilizing augmented 360-degree panoramas help
users increase their hazard identification in the construction job sites [10].
Utilizing AR to deliver design layout to the electrical construction
practitioners in a faster way with less mental and physical demand
requirements [46], and utilizing the AR glasses for the users who are working
in an assembly construction line [47]

Analyzing tool Developing a framework to increase the efficiency of maintaining and

developing gas and oil facilities by utilizing AR [48]

Table 3.
Using VR in the construction industry.

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Model Explanation

Technology Acceptance Model The TAM is mostly used in the field of Information
(TAM) Technology. The model assumes perceived ease of use and
perceived usefulness are the most critical constructs
influencing people’s attitudes toward using new technology
[49]

Unified Theory of Acceptance and The UTAUT model is one of the most widely used models for
Use of Technology (UTAUT) adopting new technologies. The model evaluates four primary
constructs: (i) performance expectancy, (ii) social influence,
(iii) effort expectancy, and (iv) facilitating conditions [50]

Real Estate Stakeholders Technology The RESTAM is employed in the real estate online platform,
Acceptance Model (RESTAM) considering 11 constructs: (i) information quality, (ii) service
quality, (iii) system quality, (iv) playfulness and usability, (v)
perceived enjoyment, (vi) perceived usefulness, (vii) self-
efficacy, (viii) user satisfaction, (ix) perceived ease of use, (x)
actual use, and (xi) behavioral intention to use [51]

Table 4.
The adoption of new technology.

Figure 7.
Important constructs to the adoption of new technologies.

people’s thoughts about adopting new technologies in other companies in the same
industries. Facilitating conditions considers the functions of modern technology to
simplify the existing conditions rather than complicate them. Trust involves identi-
fying security and privacy risks and hazards of new technologies. The effects of
these sub-constructs are evaluated during this research.
Figure 7 illustrates the relationships between the identified construct to the
adoption of new technologies alongside other factors including age, gender, educa-
tion, and experience. This figure is adapted from the UTAUT model [50].

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2.6 Barriers to the adoption of VR technology

In this part, the obstacles to VR-based technologies are explained in light of the
existing literature. Fernandes et al. [52] investigated the aspects that affect the
adoption of VR among top UK construction firms in the public sector. The authors
found the factors that affect VR by researching other resources; then, they orga-
nized these factors into various categories. The authors collected data from 33 top
UK construction firms by distributing questionnaires. The results of this study
indicate that the senior management support, champions of the technology within a
company, degree of business competition, internal needs, the participation of users,
and organizational resources are the most critical factors affecting the adoption of
VR in the UK construction sector. Laurell et al. [1] identified the barriers to the
adoption of Virtual Reality through social media. The author chose HTC Vive and
Oculus Rift as empirical cases. The data were collected through all published user-
generated posts in Swedish social media channels such as Facebook, Instagram,
various blogs, and Twitter. The result of this study suggests that network, technol-
ogy, price, and trialability are the most critical barriers to the adoption of Virtual
Reality respectively. Glegg et al. [17], Paulo et al. [18], and tom Dieck and Jung [19]
evaluated the effects of VR and AR adoption on the healthcare, tourism, and
national parks sectors respectively. Stockinger [53] considered the current and
future state of the VR and AR technology; however, the only participants of this
study were VR experts. This sample may not be representative of the wider popu-
lation, of industry actors and investors, with regard to knowledge of VR technology
and its capabilities. Likewise, Whyte [54] only used experts as its participants to
investigate users’ contributions to the VR as new technology. Therefore, to fill the
existing gap in the current research mentioned before, this research considers the
perspectives of participants who have varying levels of expertise in VR technology.

3. Method

In the following section, the approach and reasoning for the selected method is
outlined in more detail. The process of choosing contributors, collecting and
analyzing data is also discussed.

3.1 Qualitative research

A qualitative method was selected for this research involving semi-structured

interviews. In the qualitative method, information is collected, interpreted, and
suggestions are made at the same time. Because individuals answer the questions,
the themes that can arise may be dissimilar than expected. Qualitative approaches
provide significant freedom for the examiner to highlight the outcomes of the study
and the legitimacy of the gained data [55]. In order to realize and explore a broader
phenomenon, qualitative methods are utilized by asking questions that allow par-
ticipants to provide detailed and open responses. Developing and adopting new
technology is one of the areas that needs qualitative research to gain better data
from a broad selection of participants [55]. Ethics approval was sought and obtained
from the Built Environment Faculty of the University of New South Wales.
Participants were asked to conduct the VR program, which was followed by a
face-to-face interview. Participants used a VR program that was provided for the
purposes of this study. The program was a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) simulator
that allows users to see and interact with various locations and parts of the TBM.
A laptop, an HTC Vive headset, and two handheld controllers were used to perform

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this simulation. Users can view the machine in real time through a headset, as well
as being able to navigate through different parts of this machine via controllers. All
the relevant information that the users needed to know to use the technology on
their own was provided. Figure 8 illustrates the HTC Vive headset that was used in
this research. Figure 9 shows a participant while taking part in the simulation
exercise.

3.2 Case studies

Case studies were utilized in this study. This approach involved examining
subjects and evaluating this new technology based on the identified construct such
as performance expectancy, effort expectancy, facilitating conditions, trust, and
social factors. The goal of the case studies-based approach is to examine a situation
or an event from the perspective of the individual [56]. The case study approach
aims to obtain different categories and themes, not to test hypotheses or prove
relationships. In this sense, case studies involve an interpretive approach. Case
study data were collected by doing interviews with participants [56].

3.3 Semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were selected in order to provide subjects with more

freedom when answering questions and allow participants to provide information
relevant to a number of VR applications and experiences. Completely structured
interviews for this study could not be a useful approach because, as mentioned in

Figure 8.
Different components and parts of HTC Vive headset and controllers that are used in this research.

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Figure 9.
Research participant experiencing Virtual Reality.

the literature review, there are many areas in which VR technology plays a role and
the ways users experience and interact with VR technology are often difficult to
predict.

3.4 Sampling

Interviewees for conducting this research chosen from academic staff and stu-
dents at the University of New South Wales and the University of Wollongong from
the built environment and construction faculty. Some interviewees used VR in their
daily work, while others were relatively new to the technology.

3.4.1 Sample size

The size of the participant pool was determined by other similar research pro-
jects. Studies such as [54, 57], which are closely related to the subject of this
research, used 11 and 10 participants, respectively. So, it can be inferred that this
is the usual and ordinary number of participants used in such analyses. In this
study, 15 participants were assessed. Out of the 15 participants, 4 were from the
University of New South Wales and 10 were from the University of
Wollongong, the academic staff member participant was from the University
of New South Wales. The participants had work experience and education
in construction.

3.5 Data collection

All participants engaged in this study with informed consent. Students who were
interested in participating in the study filled out the consent form from the Built
Environment Faculty of the University of New South Wales. To perform this
research with academic staff, researchers emailed with the information about the
research. Additional information and the consent form were sent to academic staff
members on how to conduct the interview process, and the necessary coordination
made to provide the appropriate time for doing the interview. All 15 face-to-face

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interviews were conducted among participants who were students and academic
staff (14 students and 1 academic staff). Participants had varying levels of experi-
ence with VR technology. Interviews lasted about 20–30 min.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted as follows. Initially, participants
were given basic information about the purpose and subject of this research. Sec-
ond, participants shared their experience of using VR technology. The participants
were then asked questions related to the adoption of VR technology. During the
face-to-face interviews, the participants’ voices were recorded as well as some notes
taken. After each interview, all the participants’ comments and ideas were written
and saved as a Word document. All the audio recordings for this research and their
transcripts were saved. After conducting all the interviews, these files were easily
accessible for the analysis part. In the following section, choosing the appropriate
software for qualitative research will be discussed.

Figure 10.
The purpose of interview questions.

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Figure 10 illustrates the purpose of interview questions that fit the needs of the
survey to adopt new technology.

3.6 Data analysis

After all the interviews were completed, Word files provided after each inter-
view were transferred to NVivo software. To perform the analyses, transcribed
participant interviews were coded using the NVivo software. Thematic coding used
in this research was based on the participants’ responses. The final coding structure
is available to see in Table 5.

ID Factors Codes

1 Application development More effective

2 Difficulties Depends on application

Feel uncomfortable

New technology confusing

No difficulties

No spatial awareness

3 Most difficulties New technology

No difficulties

Setting up hardware and software

Using headset and controller

Working with some applications

4 Benefits Be in a virtual place

Ease of learning

Involve different area

Safety

Time and cost saving

5 Problems Application and program

Feel uncomfortable

Limited area of moving

Setup correctly

Using headset and controllers

No problem

6 Usage area Building construction

Education

Mining

Site planning

training

7 Barriers Affordability

Emotional and mental issue

Hardware

Not accessible

Software

No barriers

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ID Factors Codes

8 Keep headset Depends on the application

Less than 30 min

More than 30 min

9 Overcome barriers Improve hardware

Improve software

Mix with traditional

Reducing price

University or industry facility

10 Drivers Be in virtual space

Different usage area

Ease of learning

New technology

Not falling behind technology improvement

Reliable

Time and cost saving

11 Privacy Depends on the application

Privacy risk

Same as other technologies

No privacy issue

12 Socially Communicate with others

Depends on the application

Flexible working conditions

Share knowledge and information

No benefits

13 Compared to traditional More difficult

More helpful

More interactive and real

Same

14 Experience Better understand in learning

Enjoyable

High performance in future

Interesting

New experience

15 Productivity Ease of learning

Time and cost saving

Table 5.
Final coding structure.

4. Findings

After completing data collection and analysis, the results were divided into
different categories according to the factors discussed in the research framework.

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This section will explain participants’ responses related to each factor as well as the
barriers that prevent VR technology from being accepted by the participants.

4.1 Performance expectancy

This factor examines the usefulness of VR technology in the construction

industry. To illustrate the value of this technology, participants answered four
different questions including the effects of VR on productivity, benefits of using
VR, different uses of VR, and drivers that encourage the use of VR. In
the following section, participants’ conversations regarding each question are
reviewed.

4.1.1 Productivity

When participants were asked to comment on the effect of VR technology on

productivity, all participants had a favorable view, saying that VR technology could
significantly increase productivity, especially in the context of construction train-
ing. It is no longer necessary that actors, such as engineers, go to the original
construction site to familiarize themselves with devices and machines. Below, one
of these responses is provided:

“Education is where I think it does. Education and training. I think to try conveying
the same thing through as I was saying, books, and lectures; you just cannot do it as
quickly as you can with your hands-on things. The example is if Michael Jordan was
doing a seminar on basketball, where no one played basketball” (participant
number 4).

Also, other participants felt that VR technology could impact productivity by

time- and cost saving.

“In terms of productivity, I should mention that, for example, there is no need to be
in the site because of course, it will be more cost extensive, and you can just use it in a
room and you will see the Industrial site and whatever and it will save more time,
cost and of course it will lead to higher productivity” (participant number 14).

So generally, they thought that VR technology could have an impact on

reducing costs and time as well as enhancing the ease of learning for construction
engineers.

4.1.2 Benefits of using VR

When participants were asked to comment about the benefits that they were
getting while using VR, most of them mentioned that it was an excellent opportu-
nity for them to be in a virtual world, which offered opportunities related to time
and cost savings and safety. Below, one participant’s response regarding this
question is provided:

“Well, of course, you can be somewhere in a virtual world which can be difficult to
be there in reality or dangerous or even impossible because of restrictions. And that
you can be anywhere you need to be with no matter of cost and time” (participant
number 15).

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Participants also postulated that VR could help them to have a better under-
standing of a different area of knowledge.

“Well, I think VR technology involves many other technologies in different disci-

plines like computer science and or, construction management or other knowledge,
so it has encouraged me to learn more knowledge in terms of other disciplines. So, I
think this is a benefit I am getting” (participant number 3).

4.1.3 Different usage areas of VR

Once participants were asked to think about an area of the construction

industry in which VR can be helpful, all identified construction training and
education as the first area. Below, we look at one participant’s response regarding
this question.

“One of the main ones that as a mining or civil engineer working in underground, or
excavation like mining or tunnelling, which is not easy to get there by engineers. It
means you cannot even get there. So, it helps engineers. Engineers in this field or
technicians to get a better understanding of what is happening underground.
Because We have a lot of problems when we go underground and when we want to
start working there, so we must just do a lot of introduction, a lot of inductions to
engineers for the first time. So, it gives us gave them a chance just prepared for the
dangers” (participant number 10).

Some participants also named other areas of the construction industry such as
site planning, mining, building construction could be affected by VR technology.

“Sometimes, for example, for some construction site [s] that still on the progress on
their construction that they are not ready but we want to present it for the clients for
the stakeholders it would be interesting and also attractive, it will make them
satisfied to you know, have a look at the future construction port construction site,
how we will be the shape how are the features and these things that are the most part
used” (participant number 14).

4.1.4 Drivers encouraging the use of VR

When participants were asked to provide ideas about the drivers that
would encourage them to use VR technology, most participants mentioned that
being immersed in a virtual space where they cannot be in reality is the key
driver for VR adoption. Some participants thought that VR is a new technology
and they like to use that and if they do not use that they lag behind technology
advances:

“I think in the last few years, it is the same as that. If you do not get into VR, you are
going to fall behind businesses and the research and other areas like that. When you
need big emotional things like emotional experiences or complex learning and
teaching kind of situations where movement is important to you, I think then it is
good. But I do see that in a lot of cases, AR will probably be more useful” (partic-
ipant number 4).

Furthermore, some participants mentioned another time that VR eased learning,

that VR technology has different usage areas, and it offers time and cost saving and

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reliability. Hence, these are the essential drivers that encourage the use of VR in the
construction industry.

4.2 Effort expectancy

This factor examines the level of ease of using this technology in the
construction industry. Participants answered five different questions including
identifying the difficulties of learning to use VR, time spent on learning,
problems arising during use, and the amount of time that they can hold the
headset. In the following section, participants’ conversations about each question
reviewed.

4.2.1 Difficulties of learning to use VR

Once participants were asked to share their ideas about the number of
difficulties that they encountered to learn to use VR technology, almost half men-
tioned that there were no difficulties to learn how to use VR technologies. One
answer regarding this statement is as follows:

“I think for people who know about basic thing about VR they can do it and no need
to be deep and I think it is easy to learn” (participant number 11).

Some participants thought that learning to use VR is relatively easy, but depends
on the sort of applications.

“Not difficult at all. It was fundamental; it depends on the application itself. But
for example, from what I saw, it had like few only like, buttons and few others like,
stuff to do. It was straightforward. It was like; you just must try and error. You can
learn a lot about to know how to use the whole application. So, it depends on the
application” (participant number 13).

Other participants felt confused because VR technology is a new technology that

they had not used. Other participants felt uncomfortable because they have diffi-
culties with spatial awareness. Participant number 4, who is a member of academic
staff, offered some insight into this difficulty:

“There is a flat statistic of about 10% of the population who just will never feel
comfortable. It is something to do with the physical. Functionality arises or some-
thing like that. So that flat statistic already says 10% is going just never to get a no
matter how long put it on.”

We can conclude that some people had difficulties with using this technology
that could be solved over time, while others will continue to feel uncomfortable.

4.2.2 Most important difficulties with learning to use VR

Participants were asked to give their opinion on the most crucial difficulty that
they experienced when using VR technology. Some participants had problems
with handling the controllers. Others felt that headset was heavy to use, because
of the kind of headset that was used in this research. Again, some participants felt
that VR is a new technology. Below, two participants’ responses regarding this
question are provided:

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“Because VR is like a new technology for us as both students like our generation like
most of the time that we are using VR so might be like having different feelings about
the headset also the controller because I have never used the controller before. It is
like our real life is still take some time to learn it was quite simple like I can actually
learn in five minutes and pretty straightforward” (participant number 2).

“Well, I think the most difficult things might be I think it might be people. Some
people might be reluctant to learn new technology in they do not want to try new
things. Because they feel unsafe or hard to learn new technology. So, I think this
might be one of the difficulties for learning VR” (participant number 3).

So generally, some difficulties in using VR were observed, but it is worth

pointing out that these issues were considered to be easily overcome with further
training and exposure to VR technology.

4.2.3 Time spent learning

Participants were asked to indicate how long it took to learn to use VR technol-
ogy alone. Almost all participants acknowledged that it only took a few minutes to
get to know everything. One answer from participants is as follows:

“It is a couple of seconds it depends on how you adapt yourself and how fast you are”
(participant number 12).

4.2.4 Problems arising during use

Some participants mentioned that problems using VR depend on the

application that they need to use, because, if it is complex, using controllers will be
difficult. Correctly setting up the system may be another issue checked before
starting the application. One aspect that some participants mentioned about using
VR was the limited area of moving. We can see one participant’s response to this
question.

“For me, as you saw, I have a problem that I cannot control my body. When I am
using a headset, and I need to be restricted to an area just to prevent any kind of hurt
because I might hurt myself and I am going to be using VR. I have no idea where I
am. So, I start moving around” (participant number 10).

Other participants mentioned that they did not encounter any problems while
using this technology. Essentially, some problems that participants faced when
using VR technologies require further research.

4.2.5 The amount of time the headset holds

Interviews found that almost half of participants were willing to keep the head-
set on for an extended period, but others believed it was difficult for them or the
type of program they were using should be so attractive that it makes them eager to
keep that. One sample answer is provided below:

“The one that I tried with you brought is for us, that was pretty and good the headset
was comfortable but from the point that we are human, I think for me, maybe 25 to
30 minutes. I am going to need to feel safe, I mean, the real reward but I think that
can gradually increase the thing but if the headset we put them be so much

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uncomfortable. That is going to be annoying or make you headache or earache”

(participant number 6).

4.3 Social factors

This factor examines the participants’ thinking about adopting VR technology in

other companies in the construction industry. Participants were asked about their
ideas regarding the issues that make VR useful and valuable to them socially. Most
participants thought that other businesses in the construction industries could also
use this technology and be at the same virtual place, it would be important and
valuable for them to have communication with each other during experiencing a
scenario. Participants also thought that it would be useful for sharing and transfer-
ring their knowledge and ideas in a flexible working condition. Two sample answers
are provided below:

“One of the most important things is that how can we contact other people if we can
make a connection, contact with other peoples around the world. So, it is going to
make it so reliable and easier to get a lot of information and getting knowledge from
all around the world, for example about one specific part. So, it is going to make it
more enjoyable and more reliable. If we have other people involved in one field of
interest” (participant number 9).

“It can be beneficial because I am sure that it can improve efficiency. But if we do
not know the user, I am not sure how it can use if you want to know the idea of
different people. It is complex or risky. You are not sure who they are. It depends on
the goals and what you want to do I am sure that some people use that for online
gaming maybe it can be good” (participant number 7).

4.4 Facilitating conditions

This factor examines whether VR technology facilitates the existing methods

such as those used in education and training. To illustrate this situation, participants
were asked to share their ideas about comparing VR technology with traditional
methods and developing VR applications and devices.

4.4.1 Comparing VR technology with the traditional method

Once participants were asked to talk about their ideas about comparing VR
technology with the traditional method, most compared using the headset and
controllers with using the mouse and keyboard. However, some participants com-
pared VR technology with lectures and books in educational and training purposes.
One sample answer is provided below:

“Honestly, I do not think there is a huge difference, where it comes in is the kind of
spatial awareness thing. So, having a 360 view on a computer and YouTube, for
example, is pretty much the same thing as a headset. However, the level of immer-
sion goes up when you have everything down, and it is right up against your face.
But I would say it is still similar that there is not that much difference at the moment
between the situations where it is probably good to have a mention that I think is in
training things, for example, I think that is when it helps me. It is hard to translate
tacit knowledge. And I think VR is a good way of allowing you to have the experi-
ence, without that, you cannot read a book and learn a lot of things. Yeah, that is
the kind of fills that gap” (participant number 4).

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Some other participants felt that using VR headset and controllers can be more
useful. One participant’s response is provided below:

“I think when you use the VR technology, you feel better that you feel that you are
literally in that situation or in that place. So, it helps you to understand the
environment. Like you are there. But when you use the keyboard, and you just
follow it on screen, yeah, it does not give the same feeling and it helps you
to remember what you see in a better way because you feel it” (participant
number 8).

All participants thought that using VR technology could be more effective than
previous methods.

4.4.2 Development of VR applications and devices

All the participants agreed that developing VR applications and tools can
improve the adoption and acceptability of VR technology because this can help
VR to promote requirements more than before. One sample response is
provided below:

“I think it is a part of our future, you need to accept it. I think within the next five or
ten years, it is going to be mandatory for each engineer to know how to use this If
they want to find a proper job. It is much less money and time-consuming to train
people in this way, rather than to take them to real facilities. And it is no
experience-wise it is. It is much more useful. It is much more fun to be in a three-
dimension environment rather than just sitting at a desk and using keyboards and
mouse they need to look if you want to encourage someone to use it. The first thing
you need to do is to make them use it for five minutes. Because once they experience it
for the first time, they realize that, there is a significant difference between, sitting at
a desk and using desktop and keyboards and using a VR. And because we are visual
people, the whole visual experience is fundamentally different and better when
you are using VR. So, there is a huge room for improvements” (participant
number 5).

4.5 Trust

This factor examines the security and privacy hazards of new technology. For
analyzing this factor of VR technology, participants were asked to talk about the
privacy and security of VR. Almost half of the participants mentioned that the
protection and confidentiality of VR are the same as other technologies. One sample
answer is provided below:

“I think this technology is just like the rest of the software that depends on the
internet and doesn’t make much difference so overall I think it’s a safe technology”
(participant number 15).

Some other participants thought that this technology could be problematic

regarding safety and privacy, but it depends on the applications. One sample
answer is as follows:

“I think when you are playing VR, they are somewhere to stand near you because
you cannot see the surroundings, and you might have some safety issues. For our
privacy issue depends on the software developer” (participant number 1).

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4.6 Experience, gender, age, and education

There are several sub-factors such as experience, gender, age, and education that
need consideration to give a precise and accurate view of the adoption of VR
technology. After the interviews, it appears that the gender and education factor did
not affect any of the above situations, but the age and experience factors may be
relevant.
Regarding the age factor, it is worth noting that participants believed that some
people, especially older people, were not willing to learn new technologies and
certainly learning new technologies can be harder for them. One sample answer is as
follows:

“Elderly people are going to have many more problems with using that. It is going to
be a total difference, you know, experience with them. To be honest, I cannot suggest
anything, when you are dealing with older adults. One way or another they need to
cope with it. It is a part of living in 2020” (participant number 5).

Regarding the experience factor, participants who did not have previous VR
experience found this technology to be a new, interesting, and enjoyable experi-
ence. Still, those who had more experience had a closer look at this technology and
thought that this technology is a better way of learning and this will be used more in
the future. Two sample answers are as follows:

“It was very interesting because I never used VR in that way. We use it for games,
but I never used it with work industry related stuff. So, it was very interesting, and I
thought like, you could not use it a lot in this field. But now I think there is a lot of
things that you can learn from that” (participant number 13).

“It was good. I was somehow familiar with the whole concept of using VR. But the
thing was that it was my first time to use it for the specific purpose that if you are
using it, it was interesting because I never had any kind of experience of being in
that specific situation. And I enjoyed it. It did not last too much. It was something
like 10 minutes” (participant number 5).

4.7 Barriers to the adoption of VR

Participants were asked to express their views on barriers that impede the
adoption of VR technology in the construction industries.
Several participants identified a lack of access to this technology as one of the
critical barriers. They believed that this technology was not available and accessible
to everyone, because of the high cost of the device and because this technology
relies on a high-powered computer system that may not be widely available. One
sample answer is as follows:

“Might be the equipment because like this kind of equipment is not common. You
know for your own house. Also, like the computer that we need. Like it might be the
computer with a better processor. Like we should not run just the big applications.
You need a more powerful computer which is not accessible for some of the students”
(participant number 2).

Some other participants thought that the emotional and mental issues of some
people who cannot use headset are the main barriers to the adoption of this tech-
nology. One sample response is as follows:

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“Some of the population feel uncomfortable while wearing VR headset. It is related

to the emotional and mental issues of them which is not about the duration of using
that” (participant number 4).

4.8 Overcoming current barriers to adoption of VR technology

One of the goals of this research was to recommend solutions to overcome the
barriers to adopt VR technology. To accomplish this goal, participants were asked to
suggest a way of removing and overcoming the barriers that they mentioned in the
previous section. All suggestions made by these participants will be explained in this
section.

4.8.1 Improve hardware

One of the factors that were considered by the participants as a barrier to the
adoption of VR technology is the hardware used in this technology. It may be worth
mentioning here that we did not use the latest headset and controller models in the
market; instead, we used the available models, which had high power. It was
concluded that over time the hardware available for this technology would improve
and this can help a lot in adopting VR technology in the construction industry.

4.8.2 Improve software

Another factor in preventing the adoption of VR technology is the high-powered

software needed to use such technology as computers with powerful resolution and
the frame rate. The computer needs strong graphic processing unit power to be able
to handle the VR applications. Indeed, one of the barriers that seem to be hard to fix
is this factor because such computers are not available to everyone and suppliers of
this technology need to find a solution to this obstacle to make this technology more
acceptable in the construction industries.

4.8.3 Mix with traditional

One of the barriers raised in the previous section was the mental and emotional
issues that some people have regarding new technologies. One solution that can help
people use this technology is to mix VR technology with already established sys-
tems. Using the keyboard and mouse instead of using the headset and controllers is
an example of that. This solution may help people to use this technology without
any uncomfortable circumstances and it can also help older people to adopt tech-
nology more efficiently.

4.8.4 Reducing price

A critical issue that prevents the adoption of this technology among different
people is the high costs associated with VR technology. Over time, it seems that
there is a declining trend in the price of this technology. As such, this barrier is
likely to be overcome naturally as VR technologies are produced more cheaply.

4.8.5 University and industry facilities

One of the solutions suggested by the participants of this research can help a lot
in adopting and familiarizing different people with VR technology. This suggestion
is that universities and construction industry centers provide this technology for use

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among their students and engineers respectively. This may solve both the problem
of not having access to technology and the fact that people do not have to pay a lot
of money to buy this technology and the associated software.

4.9 Summary

In this section, the responses from different participants in the context of the
factors of the study were evaluated. Table 6 offers a summary of the findings for
each interview question. Fifteen questions were asked of participants of the study,
and according to the participant’s responses to each question, several codes were
assigned to answers. The percentage column represents the percentage of participants
who responded to the relevant issues by referring to each code. For instance, all
participants agreed on the first question that VR technology can be instrumental
in the construction industry. In answering question 6, 36% of the participants
believed that VR technology could be beneficial and useful in the construction
education section and 28%, 21%, 11%, and 4% of the participants, respectively, have
referred to building construction, training, mining, and site planning as proper
sections for application of this technology. An example column on the far right
of the table provides an example of the participants’ response to each question
and code.

ID Codes Percentage Example

1 More effective 100 “ … It can be more effective in different areas … ”

2 Depends on 16 “ … It depends on the application itself … ”

application

Feel uncomfortable 5 “ … Felt uncomfortable when wearing a headset … ”

New technology 21 “ … Felt confusing because VR technology is the new

confusing technology … ”

No difficulties 53 “ … No need to be deep and I think it is easy to learn … ”

No spatial 5 “ … Felt uncomfortable because I do not have any spatial

awareness awareness … ”

3 New technology 25 “ … Some people might reluctant to learn new technology … ”

No difficulties 12 “ … I can learn in five minutes and straightforward … ”

Setting up hardware 6 “ … Setting up software and hardware is the important part

and software …”

Using headset and 38 “ … Having different feelings about the headset also the
controller controller … ”

Working with some 19 “ … It depends on the sort of application … ”

applications

4 Be in a virtual place 30 “ … Somewhere in a virtual world which can be difficult to be

there in reality … ”

Ease of learning 26 “ … It has encouraged me to learn … ”

Involve different 9 “ … Involves many other technologies in different disciplines

area …”

Safety 13 “ … Somewhere in a virtual world which can be difficult to be

there in reality or dangerous … ”

Time and cost 22 “ … Be anywhere you need to be with no matter of cost and
saving time … ”

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ID Codes Percentage Example

5 Application and 25 “ … It depends on the application that we need to use … ”

program

Feel uncomfortable 20 “ … I have no idea where I am … ”

Limited area of 15 “ … I have a problem that I cannot control my body … ”

moving

Setup correctly 5 “ … Correctly setting up the system can be another issue … ”

Using headset and 30 “ … Using controllers will be difficult … ”

controllers

No problem 5 “ … I did not feel any problem … ”

6 Building 28 “ … For some construction site that still on the progress … ”

construction

Education 36 “ … Engineers in this field or technicians to get a better

understanding … ”

Mining 11 “ … As a mining or civil engineer working in underground … ”

Site planning 4 “ … Construction port construction site … ”

Training 21 “ … It gives us gave them a chance just to prepare for the

dangers … ”

7 Affordability 13 “ … Because of the high cost of the device … ”

Emotional and 9 “ … Some people who cannot use headset … ”

mental issue

Hardware 17 “ … You need a more powerful computer … ”

Not accessible 9 “ … lack of access to this technology … ”

Software 17 “ … Need a better processor … ”

No barriers 35 “ … There are no barriers … ”

8 Depends on the 18 “ … It depends on how you adapt … ”

application

Less than 30 min 29 “ … It is a couple of seconds … ”

More than 30 min 53 “ … I did not feel any inconvenience … ”

9 Improve hardware 12 “ … There is a room for much improvement … ”

Improve software 39 “ … Having computers with powerful processors … ”

Mix with traditional 12 “ … Mix it with its previous versions … ”

Reducing price 12 “ … Seeing a declining trend in the price … ”

University or 25 “ … Universities and construction industry centres provide

industry facility this technology … ”

10 Be in virtual space 31 “ … Be in a place that we cannot be there … ”

Different usage area 17 “ … I do see that in a lot of cases … ”

Ease of learning 9 “ … VR ease the way of learning … ”

New technology 17 “ … Experiencing new technology … ”

Not falling behind 9 “ … You are going to fall behind businesses … ”

the technology
improvement

Reliable 4 “ … It brings reliability … ”

Time and cost 13 “ … It brings time and cost-saving … ”

saving

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ID Codes Percentage Example

11 Depends on the 18 “ … It depends on the software developer … ”

application

Privacy risk 12 “ … You might have some safety issues … ”

Same as other 23 “ … This technology is just like the rest of the software … ”
technologies

No privacy issue 47 “ … I think it’s a safe technology … ”

12 Communicate with 33 “ … Contact with other peoples around the world … ”

others

Depends on the 6 “ … It depends on the goals and what you want to do … ”

application

Flexible working 6 “ … It is going to make it more enjoyable and more reliable … ”

conditions

Share knowledge 11 “ … Make it so reliable and easier to get a lot of information

and information and getting knowledge … ”

No benefits 44 “ … It is complex or risky … ”

13 More difficult 6 “ … It could be more difficult than traditional … ”

More helpful 19 “ … You cannot read a book and learn a lot of things … ”

More interactive 69 “ … You feel that you are literally in that situation or in that
and real place … ”

Same 6 “ … I do not think there is a huge difference … ”

14 Better understand 29 “ … There is a lot of things that you can learn from that … ”
in learning

Enjoyable 12 “ … It was delightful because I never used VR in that way … ”

High performance 4 “ … It will be more useful in the future … ”

in future

Interesting 38 “ … it was interesting because I never had any kind of

experience … ”

New experience 17 “ … learning new technologies can be harder for elderlies … ”

15 Ease of learning 65 “ … As quick as you can with your hands-on things … ”

Time and cost 35 “ … It will save more time, cost and of course it will lead to
saving higher productivity … ”

Table 6.
Summary of the findings.

5. Discussion

The purpose of this research was to demonstrate the acceptance and adaptation
of VR technology in the construction industry. To achieve the research goal, it was
essential to examine VR technology based on different factors provided from the
theoretical research framework. The research identified several barriers that hinder
the adoption of VR technology in this sector. Various factors that drive different
people to adopt and use this technology were also discussed. Finally, this research
proposed various suggestions for removing barriers to further adoption of VR
technologies in the construction industry.
Performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social factors, facilitating condi-
tions, and trust were identified as the factors that determined the acceptability
status of VR technology based on the theoretical research framework. Performance

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expectancy examines the usefulness of VR technology in the construction industry.

By analyzing this factor, the results indicate the usefulness of VR technology in
the construction industry. VR technology offers immense potentials for productiv-
ity. This technology is applicable in different parts of the industry and these fea-
tures encourage people to use VR. Effort expectancy examines the ease of using this
technology in the construction industry. In the effort expectancy factor, the results
illustrate the high level of ease of using VR technology in the construction industry;
there are some barriers to this factor. From the participants’ point of view, it seems
that the degree of difficulty of using this technology is not great, but due to some
factors such as anxieties related to using new and unfamiliar technologies, it can be
concluded that the required effort expectancy factor is not fully met by VR tech-
nology. Social factors include the participants’ opinions about adopting VR tech-
nology in other companies. Based on the participants’ responses, VR technology
worked well on social factors in the construction industry and most of the partici-
pants feel excited that they can have a connection with others in the virtual envi-
ronment. Facilitating conditions consider the ability of VR technology to be adopted
into the construction industry. The results show that a high percent of participants
agreed on the good performance of VR technology in facilitating conditions. Finally,
the trust factor examines the security and privacy hazards of VR technology in the
construction industry. Most of the participants agreed that VR technology could be
like other technologies and there is not any hazard regarding the privacy issue. Still,
there are some obstacles related to this factor to the performance of VR in the
construction industry and some participants mentioned that the level of privacy
hazard is related to the sort of the application.
There are some sub-factors that may also affect the adoption of new technology.
These were age, experience, education, and gender. The results indicate that the
gender and education factors were not affecting the adoption of VR technology in
the construction industry, but age and experience factors can influence the adop-
tion of this technology, because the level of experience makes people more focused
on the technical issues of VR technology, which can affect the adoption of VR
technology. The age factor can influence the learning and using of VR technology. A
clear example of this factor is related to the elderly people. Some are not interested
in using or learning new technologies.
The results of this study indicate that there are some barriers to adopting VR
technology in the construction industry. These barriers include affordability, emo-
tional and mental issues, hardware and software issues, and accessibility. Afford-
ability relates to the high price of this technology. Emotional and mental issues refer
to people’s inability to use VR technology. Hardware issues relate to the computer
requirements for using this technology. Software issues were related to the required
high level of improvement in the VR technology and simulation applications.
Accessibility of this technology suggests that VR technology is not available for all
individuals. Each of the above factors needs to be addressed by VR technology-
related companies and industries.
After identifying factors that prevent people from adopting VR technology, the
participants also made suggestions for overcoming these barriers. These suggestions
are as follows: improving VR hardware and software in construction sector; mixing
VR technology with traditional learning methods to help some people who cannot
shift suddenly from traditional methods to VR technologies; reducing the price of
VR-related devices; and preparing VR technology facilities for engineers and stu-
dents by construction industry companies and universities respectively. By
addressing these issues, the process of adopting VR technology in the construction
industry may accelerate, and VR technologies may become more common in the
construction industry.

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6. Conclusion

Based on the Findings section, the performance expectancy factor was analyzed
based on the participants’ responses for VR technology, which demonstrates the
efficiency and usefulness of this technology in the construction industry. The effort
expectancy factor was analyzed based on the participants’ responses, demonstrating
that the VR technology is relatively easy to use. The social element was analyzed
based on the participants’ responses related to the construction industry, which
indicates the usefulness and effectiveness of this technology. The facilitating condi-
tion factor was analyzed based on participants’ responses, which illustrates the high
efficiency of VR technology in facilitating conditions. Generally, it seems that most
of the participants felt that there is no serious threat to the security and privacy of
VR technology. Based on the results on age, experience, gender, and education
factors, it seems that gender and education factors do not have a significant impact
on people’s intentions of using VR technology. Still, age and experience factors do
have some influence. Affordability, hardware, software, accessibility, and mental
issue are some other factors identified as preventing the wider adoption of VR
technology. However, improvements in hardware and software, reductions in price,
and more availability of university and industry VR facilities may remove the
barriers.

6.1 Limitations

There were some limitations to this study, including the following: first, due to
the limited time available for conducting this study, few interviews were conducted
for this study while many more interviews need to be undertaken to produce
statistically meaningful results. Although other similar studies have had approxi-
mately the same number of participants, the accuracy of the results increases as the
number of participants increases. Secondly, this research was conducted at only two
universities in Sydney, Australia: the University of New South Wales and the
University of Wollongong. This represents a relatively limited and narrow pool of
potential participants, who may have greater exposure to VR technologies due to
their socio-economic status, the wider availability of VR at Australian universities
relative to the rest of the world, and a generally younger and more technologically
savvy cohort. Third, before conducting all interviews, participants used one sample
of VR technology, which indicated that they used only one type of application and
program. The results may be different if participants were using other programs.
Various programs have their target audience. Some programs may be less appealing
than others; participants should be familiar with different types of programs so that
they can give more accurate comments. Finally, the latest version of the VR headset
and controllers was not used in this study, which may affect the results. With the
advancement of VR technology, there have been changes in the applications, head-
sets, and controllers of VR technology since this study was undertaken.

6.2 Recommendation

Given the current state of VR technology and its associated hurdles, there is still
much to be done on how to develop this technology. In the case of specific headsets
currently dominating the market, different types of headsets can have different
effects on research results. Further research is needed to reach more participants
and use the latest version of this VR headset and controllers for future research.
This study also identifies a more general need to examine the functionality of

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Virtual Reality technology in the construction industry and to demonstrate its

capability in this sector. Because so many sectors of the construction industry can be
positively impacted by using VR technology, further research is recommended into
the wider adoptability of VR technologies in the industry.

Author details

Mohsen Ghobadi and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar*

Faculty of Built Environment, The University of New South Wales, Australia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for
–NC
non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

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 Edited by Sara Shirowzhan and Kefeng Zhang

This book includes nine chapters presenting the outcome of research projects relevant
to building, cities, and construction. A description of a smart city and the journey
from conventional to smart cities is discussed at the beginning of the book. Innovative
case studies of underground cities and floating city bridges are presented in this book.
BIM and GIS applications on different projects, and the concept of intelligent contract
and virtual reality are discussed. Two concepts relevant to conventional buildings
including private open spaces and place attachments are also included, and these topics
can be upgraded in the future by smart technologies.

ISBN
ISBN 978-1-83880-398-8
978-1-83880-199-1

Published in London, UK
© 2020 IntechOpen
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